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© anania jafariZe,@2004

ISBN 99940-14-39-0

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c[df bcnjhbekb wyj,bc vb[tldbs vjwbmek sfltjpcfw emflfubfcfmfhsdtkjib&

fhf vfhnj 12 vjwbmeksfufy^ fhfvtl 70 vjwbmeksfufyfw .jabkfycfmfhsdtkjib lf emflfubfs fm& vfufkbsfl^ mfhskbc mhjybrt,bc sfyf[vfl^fctsb .jabkf [hbcj^ hjvtkcfw fk,fytsib ~bv lhjc b,thbbc yfobkb b.j`vjeyfskfdc 19 rfwb&

fvhbufl^ 12 vjwbmeksfufy tmdcc emflfubf cfmfhsdtkjib^ rth’jl%fylhbf gbhdtkojlt,ekc^ cdbvjy rfyfytkc^ vfnfsfc^ ,fhskjvtc^ sjvfc lfsfltjpc& fvfsufy jhbc cfakfdb f[kfw cfmfhsdtkjibf% cdbvjy rfyfytkbcf _f[fk fsjyib lf vfnfsfcb _ ,fsevsfy f[kjc^ ujybjc wb[t-cbvfuhtib&

[jkj cfvjwlffssfufy cfmfhsdtkjib emflfubf [hbcjc&vjwbmeksf vbth lffhct,ekb trktcbf^ cflfw fh eylf .jabkb.j bc^

fdnjrtafkehb b.j& fvbnjvfw cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbfw lffhct,bcsfyfdtsfdbcsfdflbf&

+ gthbjlb +-\+ cc


+ + C F E R E Y T

mhbcnbfyj,f +-++ cc-ib fh bmwf b,thbbc cf[tkvobaj cfhoveyjt,fl^bctdt^ hjujhw hjvbc bvgthbfib^ vfuhfv fv gthbjlib bub sfylfsfy uf’kbthlflf ufybdhwj&

|+++ c-bc o.fhj _ #f,j nabktkbc ofvt,f@ _ othc^ hjv mfhsdtkt,bmhbcnbfyt,b .jabkfy ++-+++ cc-lfy& fvfc fhmtjkjubehb vfcfkfw fvnrbwt,c&vfufkbsfl^ fhmtjkjut,bc vbth vbrdktekbf xdtyib ]th rbltd ovblfybyjvlt mhbcnbfyekb vjcf[ktj,bc fhct,j,bc lfvflfcneht,tkb rdfkb%mhbcnbfyekb cfvfh[yb vw[tsbc c[dflfc[df res[tib lf ++-+++ cc-sfmhbcnbfyekb trktcbf yfcnfrbcib ~tc e’dtktcb mfkfmb mcybc wb[bc ‘bhib.jabkf ufityt,ekb`& ++-+++ cc-sf trktcbbc lf fuhtsdt bvlhjbyltkbmhbcnbfyekb lfrh’fkdbc otcbc fhct,j,f flfcneht,c bv fphc^ hjv hjvcfmfhsdtkjib mhbcnbfyekb cftrktcbj jhufybpfwbf eo.dtnfl fhct,j,lf+-++ cc-lfy ~vjwbmeksf lhjblfy` ovblf ybyjc mflfut,fvlt ~+| c-vlt &̀ eylfdbdfhfeljs^ hjv fv gthbjlbc mfhsekb mhbcnbfyekb stvt,b cfmfhsdtkjibcfrvfj ufdktybsfw cfhut,kj,lyty& fctsb dfhfelbc cfae’dtkc vtat htdvfhfsfkbc htajhvfw udf’ktdc&

cfmfhsdtkj ++-+++ cs-ibw cfvbcbjythj fcgfhtpb .jabkf ~,th’ty lfkfsby bcnjhbrjcsf wyj,t,bs` lf vcjakbj mhbcnbfyekb wtynht,b.ehflqt,fc fh frkt,lyty vfc& thsb wyj,f fctsbf% #b,thbbc bv yfobkvf^hjvtkbw gjynjc pqdfcsfy vlt,fhtj,c lf rjk[blfl bojlt,f^ cf[fht,f]th rbltd bvgthfnjh nhfbfytc lhjc vmflfut,tkb ovblf rkbvtynbcitvotj,bs vbbqj& ovblf rkbvtynb bv v[fhtib b.j uflfcf[kt,ekb@~b& nf,fqef^ cfmfhsdtkj tdhjgbc fhmbdt,cf lf obuycfwfdt,ib^ +^ ud& 171`&

bhbytjcc rb vbfxylf^ hjv mfhsdtkt,vf ~b,tht,vf`^ hjvkt,bwbojlt,bfy rjk[t,fl ~utjuhfabekb flubkbc vb[tldbs ^̀ mhbcnbfyj,f ]thrbltd hjvbc bvgthfnjh nhfbfytvlt ~98-117` vbbqtc& bvfdt wyj,bs^ bvmfhsdtkt,vf^ hjvkt,bw rfcgbbc pqdbcfrty rfdrfcbbc vst,sfy w[jdhj,ty~buekbc[vt,f fqvjcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc vjcf[ktj,f`^ mhbcnbfyekbcfhoveyjt,f eahj udbfy vbbqtc& tc wyj,f cfdct,bs tsfy[vt,f #mfhskbcw[jdht,fc@ ̂hjvkbc vjyfwtvt,bsfw mfhsdtksfufy mhbcnbfyj,f gbhdtkt,vfvbbqtc vtuhtkt,vf ~rjk[t,vf` lf rkfh]t,vf ~cfv[hts-lfcfdktscfmfhsdtkjc vjcf[ktj,fv`&

ovblf becnbyt 150 okbc vf[kj,kfl fvnrbwt,lf^ hjv fh fhct,j,cltlfvbofpt bctsb res[t^ sdbs ,fh,fhjc [fk[sf ijhbcfw rb ̂cflfw [fk[b]dfhwvekb btcjc cf[tkc fh kjwekj,ltcj& fctsbdt fphc ufvjsmdfvcbhbytjcbw ~b& nf,fqef^ cfm& tdhjgbc fhmbdt,cf lf obuycfwfdt,ib̂ +^ ud& 171_172`&

10vbs eahj^ cfvbcbjythj vj’hfj,f udthlc dth femwtdlf b,thbfc^ hjvtkbw +c& 30-bfyb okt,blfy ++ c& 60-bfyb okt,bc xfsdkbs ‘kbthb cf[tkvobaj b.j&+_++ cc-ib cfvb cf[tkvobaj _ hjvb ̂b,thbf lf gfhsbf thsvfytsc twbkt,jlytydhwtk vbot,c fvbthrfdrfcbbc cfv[htsbs& b,thbf bvltyfl b.j uf’kbtht,ekb^hjv vfc itt’kj hjvftksf lf[vfht,bc ufhtit lftvfhw[t,byf gfhsbbccf[tkvobaj& b,thbfv hfvlty]thvt lffvfhw[f rbltw gfhsbbc ]fhb& fvbcufvj hjvc tibyjlf b,thbbc vtnbcvtnb uf’kbtht,bcf& ++ c& 30-50-bfy okt,ibmfhskib vtaj,lf afhcvfy ++^ hjvtkcfw afhcvfy mdtkb tojlf& #afhcvfy ++-bc lhjc mfhskb^ xfyc^ erdt .jdtkudfhb itybq,dbc ufhtit t,h’dbc hjvc lfwlbkj,c vbc ufyltdyfc rjk[tsblfy lf c[df vtpj,tkb flubkt,blfy&fvfcsfyfdt^ bub fv cfmvtib hjlb t’bt,c gfhsbbc v[fhlfzthfc& mfhskbcvvfhsdtkt,b&&& tn.j,f^ sfvfvfl egbhbcgbhlt,bfy hjvcf lf gfhsbfcthslhjekfl@ ~u& vtkbmbidbkb̂ cfm& f[&o& +-+++ cc-ib̂ cfm& bcn& yfhrd& n& +& 1970& ud& 510 &̀

afhcvfyb bct uf’kbthlf^ hjv #sfdb lfvjerblt,kfl tzbhf@&bvgthfnjhb flhbfyt .jdtkv[hbd wlbkj,lf uftev]j,tct,byf ehsbthsj,fmfhsdtksf vtatcsfy^ vfuhfv afhcvfyb fh vblbjlf lfsvj,fpt& afhcvfyvfmtlvfqkehfl smdf efhb bvgthfnjhbc vbodtdfpt lf hjvib fh xfdblf&bvgthfnjhbc ,bjuhfab tkbec cgfhnbfyt othc^ hjv flhbfytv mfhsdtksfvtatc .dtkfpt vtnb^ ehbw[db ‘dbhafcb cfxemfhb ufeupfdyf&

vjvltdyj bvgthfnjhbc - fynjy gbecbc ~133-161` lhjc afhcvfy ++cfmfhsdtkjlfy vteqkbsf lf lblb fvfkbs uftvupfdhf hjvib^ cflfw vfccfptbvj it[dtlhf vjeo.dtc& lbjy rfcbecbc sfyf[vfl^ bvgthfnjhc#ufeafhsjt,bf vbcb cfvakj,tkj@& xfyc^ hjvvf fhf vfhnj cwyj b,thbbcerdt fhct,ekb cfpqdht,b^ fhfvtl lfevfnf rbltw c[df vbot,bifdbpqdbcgbhtscf lf cjv[tsib& cfgfnbj mfhsdtk cnevfhc yt,f lfhstcvc[dthgkb ittobhf rfgbnjkbevib& bvgthfnjhb lfcoht,bf afhcvfybc^ vbcb‘bcf lf c[df mfhsdtkb lblt,ekt,bc cfv[tlhj dfh]bic&

hjvib lfbluf afhcvfybc w[tyjcfyb mfylfrt,f& afhcvfybc xfcdkf hjvibvbqt,ek bmyf hjujhw bvgthfnjhbcflvb gfnbdbcwtvf^ sfyf[vfl fynjybecgbecbc ,bjuhfabc _ bekbec rfgbnjkbybcf&

afhcvfybc dbpbnc bctsb lblb isf,tzlbkt,f vje[ltybf hjvib ̂hjvbub cfmfkfmj mhjybrfc gbhdtk udthlpt fqe,tzlfdc ̂hfcfw vjovj,c ofhothfvfhvfhbkjc abhabnfpt^ hjvtkbw hjvbc ‘dtk yfdcfluehib fqvjxylf&

hjujhw ptvjvj.dfybkblfy xfyc ̂cfmfhsdtkj vjwbmeksf tgjmfib^+-++ cc-ib^ vnrbwt lf ‘kbthb mdt.fyf b.j^ ufafhsjt,ekb cfpqdht,bs^cbvlblhbs^ cf[tkufysmvekb^ trjyjvbrehb w[jdht,bs lfobyfeht,ekb^vfqfkufydbsfht,ekb cfpjufljt,hbdb ehsbthsj,bs& fvbnjvfw ‘ytkbofhvjcflutybf^ vfc vjwbmeksf lf vbcbjythsf .ehflqt,f fh vbtg.hj&

+ gthbjlb +-\+ cc


+ + + CF E R E Y T

cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbf lffhct,ekbf sdbs vjwbmeksf vbth&cf[fht,bc vmflfut,tksf cfvbcbjythj vjqdfotj,f b,thbfib ++-+++ cc-ibwufuh’tkt,ekf& mhbcnbfyekb stvt,bc ufvjxtyfc fm bdfyt ]fdf[bidbkbcojhtl +++ c-bc gbhdtkb yf[tdhbs fsfhbqt,c& nthbnjhbek ufydhwj,fcsfythsfl bphlt,f mhbcnbfyekb stvt,bc ufdktyfw& vtat htd vfhsfkbchtajhvf udf’ktdc cfae’dtkc lfdfcrdyfs ̂hjv fv lhjc mhbcntc vj’qdht,bcufdktyfc erdt cfvtaj rfhfvltw vbeqotdbf& ]th rbltd +++ c-ib mhbcnbfyj,bcfqbfht,bc itcf[t, ufyrfhuekt,f ufvjcwf bvgthfnjhvf ufkbtyvf 261 otkc&vcufdcfldt vjbmwf ufkbtyfvlt sbsmvbc yf[tdfhb cfereybs flht b,thbbcvtat htd vfhsfkb ~ufhl& 213 o`& fv vtatc /mjybf mhbcntc cb.dfhekb lfvjcvtybkb /mjybf cf[fht,f& fvbnjv bc .jabkf vjo.fkt lf itvot .jdtksf^sevwf ofhvfhsfldt lfhxtybkf& hjvib ofhvfhsekb qdsft,bcfsdbccbc[kbfyb vc[dthgkbc itobhdf v[jkjl +++ c-bc bvgthfnjht,vf frh’fktc&cfmfhsdtkjib eahj flht uf[lf itcf’kt,tkb vbcb jabwbfkehfl frh’fkdfcf[tkvobajc vfcinf,t,bs& #’dtkb cfbcnjhbj o.fhj fv rtsbkij,bkehcfmwbtkc htd vfhsfkc vbfothc@ ~u& ujpfkbidbkb̂ mfhskbc vjmwtdbc ghj,ktvf

lf ,frehb^ ud& 38`&

++-+++ cc-ib cfmfhsdtkjib mhbcnbfyekb stvt,bc fhct,j,fcfhmtjkjubehb vfcfkfw flfcneht,c& f& ,j[jxf’t yfcnfrbcbc dtkptmhbcnbfyekb trktcbbc fhct,j,bc itcf[t, othc% #yfcnfrbcbc dtkpt eahj‘kbthb lfcf[kt,fw .jabkf flhtek ief cfereytt,ib^ hfcfw yfmfkfmfhbcnthbnjhbfpt ufs[hbk yfut,j,fsf yfist,b vjovj,c& cfw[jdht,tkbyfut,j,fyb vhfdfkb jsf[bcf lf thsb lblb lfh,fpbcfufy itlut,jlf& fvudfhyfut,j,t,ib thsb jsf[b vwbht trktcbfc ofhvjflutylf _ vrdtshflufvj.dfybkb f,cblbsf lf yfhstmcbs& fv gthbjlib mhbcnbfyj,f ]th rbltdfh fhbc ufvjw[flt,ekb jabwbfkeh cf[tkvobaj cfhoveyjt,fl^fhfktufkeh vlujvfhtj,fibf lf sfditafht,ekb xfyc cfw[jdht,tkyfut,j,t,ib& fv afmnc rb lblb vybidytkj,f fmdc mfhskbc cfvtajibmhbcnbfyekb htkbubbc bcnjhbbc itcfcofdkfl@&

cfbynthtcjf^ hjujhb ghbywbgbs b.j vjo.j,bkb tc trktcbf( w[flbf^mhbcnbfyt,c^ hjvkt,bw ++-+++ cc-ib cfmfhsdtkjib w[jdhj,lyty^cfvqdltkjt,f lfczbhlt,jlf^ hflufy yfskj,bc^ pbfht,bc lf c[dfmhbcnbfyekb otct,bc fqchekt,f cfvqdltkjt,bc ufhtit ite’kt,tkbf&egbhdtktcfl ̂eylf fqbybiyjc^ hjv c[dflfc[df mfkfmib se mfkfmbc e,yt,ibfhct,ekb mhbcnbfyekb stvt,b thsvfytsc fh tmdtvlt,fht,jlyty& thsbfyb^vstkb mdt.ybc vjvwdtkb mhbcnbfyekb trktcbf^ thsb wtynhbsf lf thsbfyb

12vvfhsdtkj,bs fh fhct,j,lf& sevwf^ b.dyty tgbcrjgjct,bw& fmdt fqdybiyfds^hjv vjwbmeksf tgjmfib lf vbc itvlujvfw vqdltkvjmvtlt,fc tgbcrjgjcbfchekt,lf lf vqdltkc tgbcrjgjcc eojlt,lyty&

fvhbufl^ itb’kt,f lfdfcrdyfs ̂hjv xdtyib mhbcnbfyekb trktcbf lfvhtdkb ~mhbcnbfyekb stvt,b ̀eo.dtnfl fhct,j,lf + c-lfy +| c-vlt& cojhtlfv gthbjlib itbmvyf bc yj.bthb ybflfub^ hfvfw ufyfgbhj,f cfmfhsdtkjibovblf ybyjc vbcbbc ofhvfnt,bs lfudbhudbyt,f&

+ | CF E R E Y T

+| c-ib mhbcnbfyj,bc cf[tkvobaj cfhoveyjt,fl ufvjw[flt,f b.jfhf vjekjlytkb^ itvjnfybkb^ fylf sfdcvj[dtekb fmnb^ fhfvtltae’yt,jlf mhbcnbfyj,bc flubkj,hbd cfvcfereyjdfy nhflbwbfc&

ov& ybyjc ufezbhlt,jlf vstkb mfhsdtkb [fk[bc ufmhbcnbfyt,f^ov& vjwbmekt,c itvpflt,ekb hjv fh /.jkjlfs thb mhbcnbfyj,bccf]fhj fqbfht,bcfsdbc& fv sdfkcfphbcvf ov& ybyjc w[jdht,fibw /gjdffcf[df ̂cflfw eafkb ov& ybyjc ew[flt,c ̂hjv cfmfhsdtkjib #cfvrfkb ahbflfhc^ [jkj veifryb vwbht@^ tc bvfc ybiyfdc ̂hjv cfmfhsdtkjib vjwbmeksfvbth lfstcbkb cf[fht,bc vfhwdfkc cfereytsf vfy’bkpt [fk[b cfthsjcf[fk[j vjyfsdkbcfsdbc itevpflt,bf&

e’dtktcb mfhsekb o.fhj^ hjvtkbw mfhskbc vjmwtdbc itcf[t,vjudbs[hj,c^ fhbc #vjmwtdf~ mfhskbcf~@& bub jhb yfobkbcfufy itlut,f&+ yfobkib vjwtvekbf bcnjhbekb mhjybrf^ [jkj ++ yfobkb ov& ybyjcw[jdht,bc cftrktcbj cfrbs[fdc ofhvjflutyc& #vjmwtdbc@ + yfobkb _bcnjhbekb mhjybrt,b c[dflfc[df lhjcff lfothbkb& ov& ybyjc w[jdht,frb^ obyf yfobkbcufy lfvjerblt,kfl^ +| c-ib eylf b.jc lfothbkb& fvhtlfmwbblfy xfyc^ hjv ybyjc yffv,j,b lf,f ,jlib ~,jl,tib` xfeothbfscfkjvt e]fhvtkcf lf gthj;fdhf cbdybtkc& sevwf cfvb lblb bcnjhbrjcb _y&vfhb^ bd& ]fdf[bidbkb^ r& rtrtkb’t fv s[pekt,fc +\ c-bs fsfhbqt,c^ xdtyfhfdbsfhb cf,f,b fhf udfmdc fh lfde]thjs o.fhjc lf fvbnjv bub^ hjujhwztivfhbnb^ bct eylf vbdbqjs& fvfc thsb cfbynthtcj afmnb flfcneht,c%

+| c-bc vtjht yf[tdfhib ,bpfynbfib bv.jat,jlf cfkjvtcf lf htdbc~vbhbfy vtabc ‘bc` idbkbidbkb^ ]th rbltd eakbcoekb ,frehb^ shlfnbc‘t& vfy wyj,bk ,bpfynbtk bcnjhbrjct,c _ utkfcb rtcfhbtkcf lf heabyeccefv,j mfhsdtksf ufmhbcnbfyt,bc bcnjhbf& tc vjyfs[hj,b #ovblf ybyjcw[jdht,bc@ sfdbct,ehb itvjrkt,ekb dfhbfynbf&

utkfcb rtcfhbtkc #cftrktcbj bcnjhbfib@ fqeothbf mfhskbc

+ gthbjlb +-\+ cc


vjmwtdbc fv,fdb& cfvoe[fhjl^ tc s[pekt,f lqtclqtj,bs lfrfhuekflbsdkt,f& vfuhfv wyj,t,b vfcpt vthvbyltk fdnjht,c itvjeyf[fds sfdbfysyfihjvt,ib& vfs ijhbc e’dtktcbf hjvftkb cftrktcbj bcnjhbrjcb _heabyecb ~ufhl& 410 o&`^ vfc esfhuvybf lf sfdbc s[pekt,fib itenfybfutkfcb rtcfhbtkbc wyj,f mfhsdtksf ufmhbcnbfyt,bc itcf[t,& heabyecptlf.hlyj,bs tc bcnjhbf vjs[hj,bkb fmdc | c-bc ,th’ty bcnjhbrjcc _cjrhfntcfw ~lf,& 380 o&` sfdbc #cftrktcbj bcnjhbfib@& fvfdt cfsfehbcyfofhvjt,ib vjudbs[hj,c b,thsf ufmhbcnbfyt,bc fv,fdc | c-bc vtjht,th’tyb bcnjhbrjcb stjljhbnt rdbhtkb ~lfb,& 390 o& &̀ mfhskbc vjmwtdbcfv,fdb uflvjwtvekb fmdc fuhtsdt rbltd ths ,th’ty cftrktcbj bcnjhbrjcc- cjpjvtyc& vfc eiefkjl heabyecbs ecfhut,kbf& | c-bc ,th’tyb bcnjhb-rjcb utkfcb rdbpbrtkbw utkfcb rtcfhbtkbc #bcnjhbbs@ cfhut,kj,lf&

utkfcb rtcfhbtkbc bcnjhbf^ hjvkbsfw cfhut,kj,lyty itvltuib,th’ty-hjvftkb bcnjhbrjct,b^ +| c_bc ,jkjc^ mfhskbc ufmhbcnbfyt,blfycek hfqfw yf[tdfhb cfereybc itvltu lfbothf& efqhtcfl cf.ehflqt,jfutkfcb rtcfhbtkbc wyj,f bvbc sfj,fpt^ hjv vfy mfhsdtksf ufmhbcnbfyt,bcfv,fdb b,thsf cfvtaj cf[kbc ths-thsb ofhvjvflutykbc _ ,frehbcfufyufeubf&

vfifcflfvt^ eylf lfdfcrdyfs^ hjv e’dtktcb mfhsekb o.fhj^hjvtkbw mfhsdtksf ufmhbcnbfyt,bc itcf[t, vjudbs[hj,c^ +| c-ibflfothbkb cfkjvt e]fhvtkbc vbth& cfdfhfeljf^ cojhtl tc xfyfothbufvjb.tyf ,frehvf ,th’ty bcnjhbrjct,sfy cfe,hbcfc&

hjvtk otkc itvjdblf ov& ybyj cfmfhsdtkjib lf uffmhbcnbfyf sefhf vfy vstkb mfhsdtkb [fk[b( tc cfbynthtcj cfrbs[b ‘fkpt lfvf]t-ht,kfl uffhrdbf bcnjhbrjcvf df[nfyu ujbkf’tv& vbcb vc]tkj,bc sfyf[vfl^ov& ybyj cfmfhsdtkjib 303 otkc itvjdblf& 317-318 okt,ib mfhskbccfvtaj rfhvf mhbcnbfyj,f cf[tkvobaj cfhoveyjt,fl fqbfhf ̂[jkj 324otkc [fk[b vfcbehfl vjbyfskf&

‘fkpt vybidytkjdfybf^ hjv df[einb ,fuhfnbjyb mfhskbc vjmwtdfc317 okbs fsfhbqt,lf& fvfdt sdfkcfphbcc bpbfht,lyty l& ,fmhf’t lfbd& udfhfvf’t& mfhskbc vjmwtdbc sfhbqfl 318 otkb vbfxylfs g& bjctkbfyc^u& cf,bybyc lf h& wfvwbtdcfw&

mfhsekb trktcbbc vtsfehbc _ tgbcrjgjc bjfytc [tklfc[vbc sfhb-qfl d& ujbkf’tc 324 o& vbfxybf& bub abmhj,c^ hjv mfhsekb trktcbf fhffynbjmbehb ̂fhfvtl rfgfljrbehb ~gjynjc lbjwtpb ̀ofhvjij,bcf eylf b.jc&

tc vc]tkj,f ‘fkpt lfvf]tht,tkbf& fvbnjvfw eylf fqlutc df[einb,fuhfnbjybc vbth ufvjhrdtekb sfhbqb lf mfhskbc vjmwtdf 317-318okt,bs lfsfhbqltc^ [jkj mfhsekb trktcbbc jhufybpfwbf lf [fk[bcyfsdkf _ 324-26 okt,bs&

14

| CF E R E Y T

| c-bc lfcfo.bcib cfmfhsdtkj erdt cgfhctksf vbth erdt lf[fhrekbmdt.fyf b.j& cgfhctkt,vf^ vfhsfkbf^ dth it’ktc mfhsekb cf[tkvobaj-t,hbj,bc ufemvt,f^ vfuhfv mfhsdtkt,bc fcbvbkfwbfc lfeafhfdfl wlbkj,-lyty& egbhdtktcfl ̂vfs cehlfs^ hjv mfhsdtkt,c cgfhcekb cfhoveyjt,f _wtw[ksf.dfybcvwtvkj,f vbtqjs& bcbyb t,h’jlyty lf rh’fkfdlyty mfhsekthjdyek otc-xdtekt,t,cf lf nhflbwbt,c& mhbcnbfyj,f bv lhjc erdtmfhsek thjdyek cfhoveyjt,fl b.j mwtekb lf fvbnjvfw mfhsdtkt,cmhbcnbfyekb otc-xdtekt,t,b /mjylfs& cgfhctkt,c bvtlb /mjylfs^ hjvvbcb vjikbs mfhsdtkt,c thjdyek cf[tc lferfhufdlyty&

fmdt eylf bsmdfc^ hjv mfhsdtksf vnhj,fib cgfhctkt,c fhw,bpfynbtkt,b elt,lyty njkc& vfs +| c-bc ,jkjc cfmfhsdtkjc cfv[htsbcnthbnjhbt,bc lblb yfobkb offhsdtc lf eiefkjl itbthstc^ [jkj | c-bcgbhdtk yf[tdfhib lfc& cfmfhsdtkjc vybidytkjdfyb yfobkbw vbbnfwtcvlbyfht tuhbco.kblfy dblht wb[t-uj]fvlt&

vbe[tlfdfl fvbcf ̂hflufyfw cfmfhsdtkjc lblb lf evsfdhtcb yfobkbcgfhcsf ufdktybc mdti bv.jat,jlf^ vsfdfhb cfahs[t cojhtlcgfhctkt,bcfufy vjlbjlf& hovtybs df[nfyu ujhufcfkb ,th’yekb^ t&b&vfhskvflblt,kehb jhbtynfwbbcf b.j lf cbrdlbkbc oby fylth’bwlfudbnjdf^ hjv mfhsdtkt,c #,th’tysf cb.dfhekb@ ̂t&b& vfhskvflblt,kj,ffh vbtnjdt,byfs^ sevwf ,bpfynbtkt,c itt,h’jkf rbltw lf cfmfhsdtkjcvfsufy vbnfwt,ekb nthbnjhbt,b lfe,heyf&

fqcfybiyfdbf ̂hjv | c-ib fhct,j,lf jhb ufyc[dfdt,ekb vbvfhsekt,fmhbcnbfyj,fib& ths vbvfhsekt,fc ,bpfynbf vafhdtkj,lf^ [jkj vtjhtc_ cgfhctsb&

cgfhctsbc cfvtaj rfhvf^ hjwf bub vb[dlf^ hjv vfpltfyj,bcufdhwtkt,f fhwse fldbkb b.j lf mhbcnbfyb [fk[t,b sfdbfys cfhoveyjt,fcfh lfsvj,lyty^ cfhoveyjt,hbdb gjkbnbrf itwdfkf& cgfhctsc thxbdyf^ hjvbcbyb bhfyjabkehfl ufyo.j,bkb mhbcnbfyekb trktcbt,bc ufdktybcf lfrjynhjkbc cathjib vjmwtekb.dyty& fctsb b.j fynb,bpfynbehflufyo.j,bkb cbhbekb lf cgfhcekb trktcbt,b&

w[flbf ̂fctsb vlujvfhtj,f sfdbc ptvjmvtlt,fc cgfhctsbc ufdktybccathjib v.ja cfmfhsdtkjc cfpjufljt,fptw vjf[ltylf& cfmfhsdtkjib| c-ib esejl fhct,j,lyty hjujhw ,th’yekb ~tkbyjabkehb`^ fctdtcgfhcjabkehb mhbcnbfyekb cftrktcbj lf]ueat,fyb& cojhtl fvbnjvcfmfhsdtkjc vtat cfufyut,j lf lf’f,ek vlujvfhtj,fib bv.jat,jlf&mfhsdtkb vtatt,b^ #mfhskbc w[jdht,bc@ sfyf[vfl^ fy thslhjekfl jhbdtlfvg.hj,tkc _ cgfhctscf lf cf,th’ytsc t,h’jlyty^ fylf ,h’yekfl

+ gthbjlb +-\+ cc


b.tyt,lyty obyffqvltuj,fc fv cf[tkvobajsf ijhbc lf [fy ,th’yt,ct,h’jlyty cgfhcekb ‘fkbs^ [fy rb cgfhctkt,c _ ,th’tysf ‘fkbs&

wyj,bkbf^ hjvbc bvgthfnjh rjycnfynbytvlt mhbcnbfyj,fcf[tkvobaj htkbubf fh .jabkf& fvbnjvfw ̂itb’kt,f bsmdfc ̂mhbcnbfyekbstvt,b sfdbceakt,bs cfhut,kj,lyty bv sdfkcfphbcbs^ hjv cf[tkvobajfh rfhyf[j,lf mhbcnbfyek trktcbfc^ se hf cf[bc eylf .jabkb.j vbcbflvbybcnhfwbekb cnhemnehf& fvbc ufvj +| c-vlt mhbcnbfyekb stvbvjwbmeksf 34-t rfyjybc sfyf[vfl fv stvbc vsfdfhtgbcrjgjcc eylflfmdtvlt,fht,jlf& stvt,bc vsfdfhtgbcrjgjct,b rb thsvfytsbcfufylfvjerblt,tkyb b.dyty&

vsfdfhtgbcrjgjcc bhxtdlf stvbc ~#yfstcfdbc@` cfvqdltkjt,bc rht,f&fvbnjvfw .jdtkb cftrktcbj stvb lf cftgbcrjgjcj sfdbceafkb lf#fdnjrtafkehb@ b.j&

chekt,bs itbwdfkf vlujvfhtj,f cf[tkvobajc vbth mhbcnbfyj,bcfqbfht,bc^ fye htkbubbc ufcf[tkvobajt,hbj,bc itvltu& fv lhjbcfsdbc~+| c-bc lfcfo.bcib`^ hjujhw wyj,bkbf^ hjvbc bvgthbfib lfotclf#ntnhfh[bf@ _ #js[bc vvfhsdtkj,f@& flvbybcnhfwbekb vvfhsdtkj,bcsdfkcfphbcbs bvgthbf wfkrtek yfobkt,fl lfb.j& vfc vfhsfdlf jhbbvgthfnjhb lf jhb rtbcfhb& bvgthbbc elbltc mfkfmt,ib% hjvib ̂fynbjmbfib^fktmcfylhbfib lf f&i^ v[fhtsf lf ghjdbywbfsf vvfhsdtkt,b bc[lyty& fvvlujvfhtj,fv lbl mfkfmt,ib vc[ljvb tgbcrjgjct,bc uf’kbtht,f^ufvlblht,f^ vfsb fdnjhbntnbcf lf ufdktybc ufphlf ufvjbodbf^ lblbmfkfmt,bc tgbcrjgjct,b mfkfmbc cfthsj cfthj vvfhsdtksfy sfy[vj,bsvjmvtlt,lyty& cfthj vvfhsdtkb lfbynthtct,ekb b.j vbc mfkfmib v]ljvbtgbcrjgjcbc fdnjhbntnbcf lf ufdktybc ufphlbs& fvbc ufvj erdt +| c-bclfcfo.bcblfydt vbvlbyfhtj,c ghjwtcb^ hjvtkcfw itb’kt,f lfdfhmdfsvwbht^ sdbsv.jafl trktcbfsf ufemvt,bcf lf lblb trktcbt,bc ufdktybccathjt,bc ufphlbc ghjwtcb& erdt +| c-ib vjodtekb vcjakbj rht,t,b^vfhsfkbf^ flfcneht,ty gfnfhf trktcbt,bc fdnjrtafkbfc^ vfuhfv fctdtflfcneht,ty vsfdfhb mfkfmt,bc tgbcrjgjct,bc ufdktybc cathjt,bcufafhsjt,fc& tc ghjwtcb vstkb +| c-bc ufyvfdkj,fib uh’tklt,jlf lfcf,jkjjl 451 otkc lfcheklf&

cfthsjl^ | cfereyt b.j sfdbcsfdflb cftgbcrjgjcjt,bc lblcfgfnhbfhmjt,cf lf cfrfsfkbrjcjt,ib ufthsbfyt,bc cfereyt& 451 okbcrht,fv lfffhcf f[fkb cfgfnhbfhmj bthecfkbvbcf^ hjvtkibw gfktcnbybcsfdbcsfdflb cftgbcrjgjcjt,b itdblyty&

cfmfhsdtkjc cfrfsfkbrjcjc xfvj.fkb,t,fw fvfdt lhjc^ | c-ib^vj[lf vcufdcb upbs&

wyj,bkbf^ hjv bm^ cflfw mhbcnbfyj,fv at[b vjbrblf^ sbsjtek

16mfkfmc tgbcrjgjcb ufyfut,lf&

cfmfhsdtkjc cfvtajib cfthbcsfdj fy cfgbnbf[ij lff[kjt,bsbctsbdt flvbybcnhfwbekb thstekb b.j^ hjujhw hjvbc bvgthbfib _ghjdbywbf ~’d& mfhsekb #cfvsfdhj@`& mfhsekb trktcbbc vtsfehcrfsfkbrjcj,bc lfotct,fvlt /mjylf nbnekb #vsfdfhtgbcrjgjcbcf@ lf xfyc^hjv tgbcrjgjcsf sfdfl bsdkt,jlf bv nthbnjhbfpt^ hjvtkbw mfhsdtkbvtabc ufyvut,kj,bc mdti itlbjlf&

bvbc itvltu ̂hfw df[nfyuvf cfmfhsdtkj uffthsbfyf^ itvjethsf vfcepfhvfpfhb nthbnjhbt,b _ rkfh]tsbcf lf pqdbcgbhtsbcf^ vfy cftrktcbjcfmvtsf vjudfht,fw uflfo.dbnf& fv cfmvtib vbcsdbc vfufkbsb b.j hjujhw,bpfynbbc^ fctdt fqvjcfdktsbc trktcbt,b&

,bpfynbfib trktcbf bvfhst,jlf cf[tkvobajc rjynhjkbs& fctdtb.j cgfhctsbc cf[tkvobajibw& cgfhctsib fhct,ekb c[dflfc[df mhbcnb-fyekb trktcbbc vtsfeht,c sdbs if/b ybiyfdlf ~vfu ̂cjv[tsbcfc | c-ib`&

sdbs cftrktcbj rfyjyvlt,tkb jhufyj _ vcjakbj rht,fw rb^,bpfynbbc bvgthbfib bvgthfnjht,bc fmnbehb xfhtdbs bvfhst,jlf&

cfmfhsdtkjib rb trktcbf fhf se tmdtvlt,fht,jlf mfhsdtk[tkvobatc^ fhfvtl mfhsekb trktcbbc vtsfehvf vbmftkvf cfvs[dtdflvbcek vtatc at[bs r,bkb xfevndhbf&

cftrktcbj rfyjyt,pt lf.hlyj,bs lf itmvybkb cfthsfijhbcjvlujvfhtj,bc ufvj.tyt,bs df[nfyuvf evnrbdytekjl vjbijhf vbmftkb bct^hjv fh ufeqbpbfyt,bf mhbcnbfyekb vjcf[ktj,f^ ufycfc]tkfl ufupfdyfrjycnfynbytgjkib& fynbjmbbc gfnhbfhmvf 12 tgbcrjgjcb ufvjfupfdyfmfhskib& xfyc ̂df[nfyuvf itwdfkf ghjcgfhcekb jhbtynfwbbc tgbcrjgjct,blf vfs flubkpt ,th’yekb jhtynfwbbcfyb lfcdf& fctdt^ vfy itwdfkf bctgbcrjgjct,b^ hjvtkybw sfdbfysb cbvlblhbcf lf ufdktybc ufvj vtabc[tkbceakt,fc fh tvjhxbkt,jlyty&

df[nfyu ujhufckbc vbth cfmfhsdtkjc cfrfsfkbrjcjc lffhct,fcsfylfrfdibht,bs eylf lfdfcrdyfs% | c-ib mfhsekb trktcbbc behbclbmwbbcmdti v.jab nthbnjhbt,b ufbpfhlf^ hfw bvbs b.j ufvjodtekb^ hjv df[nfyuujhufckbc lhjc ,bpfynbfv cfmfhsdtkjc vbnfwt,ekb rkfh]tsb ~cfv[htsbcfmfhsdtkj` lf pqdbcgbhtsb ~wb[t-uj]blfy rkbcehfvlt` lfe,heyf&

df[nfyu ujhufcfkvf byt,f^ hjv mfhsekb trktcbf vjo.j,bkb.jhjujhw thsbfyb^ wtynhfkbpt,ekb cfvfvsfdhj trktcbf ̂t&b& ltlfmfkfmbc~vw[tsbc ̀tgbcrjgjcb cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbcfsdbc cf.jdtksfj tgbcrjgjcbfye rfsfkbrjcb ~,th’y& cbn.dblfy _ #rfsjkbrjc@ _ cf.jdtksfj` uf[lf& fvtgjmbc sbsmvbc sfyflhjek cfbcnjhbj mhjybrfib _ #vjmwtdf~ mfhskbcf~@gbhdtk rfsfkbrjc gtnhtc vfvfvsfdfhb tojlt,f^ #fmfbsufy bo.tcrfsfkbrjcsf vfvfvsfdhj,fl& gbhdtkb rfsfkbrjcb b.j gtnht@&

+ gthbjlb +-\+ cc


| + CF E R E Y T

|+ c-bc lfcfo.bcib cgfhctsvf fqv& cfmfhsdtkj lfbg.hj ̂hbc itltuflfwmfhskib vtaj,f ufemvlf& fmdt eylf bsmdfc ̂hjv vtaj,bc ufemvt,bc cfrbs[bmfhsek lf ,th’yek o.fhjt,c c[dflfc[dfudfhfl fmds uflvjwtvekb& thsbmfhsekb e’dtktcb o.fhj vbbxytdc^ hjv |+ c-bc gbhdtk yf[tdfhib vtaj,ffh ufemvt,ekf& fctsbdt vlujvfhtj,ff ,th’yek o.fhjt,ibw& rth’jl^ghjrjab rtcfhbtkbc vb[tldbs 552 otkc cgfhctscf lf ,bpfynbfc ijhbclflt,ekb #cfereyj pfdbc@ itvltu mfhsdtkt,c cfresfhb vtat fqfh /.fdlfs&,bpfynbtkb vtvfnbfytt,b vfkfkf lf stjafyt rb f[ctyt,ty mfhsdtksf vtatc~’fvfyfhpjc ^̀ ltljafkcf lf lblt,ekt,c^ hjvtkybw 553 otkc rjycnfynb-ytgjkib xfcekfy becnbybfyt rtbcfhsfy vjkfgfhfrt,bcfsdbc&

itcf’kt,tkbf^ lfvg.hj,kt,vf ~cgfhctkt,vf` mdt.fyfc itpqelekbfdnjyjvbbc vfudfhb hfqfw cnfnecb vbcwtc^ hjvkbc cfsfdtibw ujhufckbfy-afhyfdfpbfysf ‘dtkb lbyfcnbf .jabkf& fk,fs mfhsdtksf ufhrdtekbgjkbnbrehb ohtt,b vtaj,bc ufemvt,fc fh cwyj,lyty lf lfg.hj,bkb mdt.ybcvtsfehc rdkfd vtatc eojlt,lyty& .jdtk itvs[dtdfib^ elfdjf ̂hjv mdt.fyf|+ c-bc 70-90-bfy okt,fvlt cgfhcsf vbth b.j lfg.hj,bkb lf mfhsekbthjdyekb bycnbnent,b ̂vfs ijhbc^ mfhsekb mfkrtljyehb trktcbf^ lblltdyfc ufybwlblf&

fqvjcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc chekb lfg.hj,bc itvltu cgfhctkt,b,th’tysf ufyltdyfc wlbkj,lyty lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc pqdbcgbhtsblfy&cgfhctscf lf ,bpfynbfc ijhbc kfpbrbcfsdbc jvb lfcheklf 563 okbc pfdbs&kfpbrf ,bpfynbtkt,c lfhxfs& fv pfdbs cfmfhsdtkj thsvfytsib,bpfynbtkt,vf lf cgfhctkt,vf ufb.dtc&

590-bfy okt,ib cgfhctkt,c b,thbbc vybidytkjdfyb yfobkblferfhufds& 591 otkc cgfhctkt,vf lf ,bpfynbtkt,vf thsvfytsc ijhbcufb.dtc fqvjcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjw&

|+ c-ib cgfhctkt,bcfsdbc vbcfqt,b cfhoveyjt,f vjyjabpbnj,f b.j~vbcb fynb,bpfynbehj,bc ufvj`^ fvbnjv bcbyb cjv[eh trktcbfc vafhdt-kj,lyty& hjwf cgfhctsb b’ekt,ekb uf[lf efhb tsmdf vfpltfyj,bcufdhwtkt,fpt fvbthrfdrfcbfib^ cfvfubthjl vjyjabpbnehb cfhoveyjt,bcvafhdtkfl bmwf& vfy cftrktcbj vothkj,fc lffdfkf^ vjyjabpbnehb bltt,blf cgfhctssfy ufye.htkb rfdibhbc fewbkt,kj,f tmflfuf& fv vbpybscgfhctsbc vtabc futynt,vf its[ptc ktutylt,b^ sbsmjc mhbcnbfyj,fcjv[tsc^ mfhskcf lf fk,fytsib thsb gbhbc vbth b.j ufdhwtkt,ekb&sbsmjc mfhsekb ̂cjv[ehb lf fk,fyehb fy,fyt,b fctdt thsb gbhbc vbth b.jufvjujyt,ekb lf hjv tc #ufyvfyfskt,tkyb@ fvfdt lhjc cgfhctssfy b.dytylfrfdibht,ekyb&

18cgfhctsbc fctsvf gjkbnbrfv ufvjbodbf bc ̂hjv cgfhctksf v[hblfy

[fyuh’kbdb lf cfcnbrb ptojkbc^ fctdt^ cjvt[sf vfqfkb cftrktcbjbthfhmt,bc mjyt,bsf lf ufdktybs wseyt,bc itltufl cjv[t,vf |+ c-bciefokt,ib^ ythct rfsfkbrjcbc ~548-567` lhjc .dtc rht,f m& ldbyib lfvbbqtc vjyjabpbnj,f ~[fxtwfhb`&

fvbc itvltu^ cgfhctsbc vbth lfg.hj,bk fvbthrfdrfcbbc mdt.yt,ibtrktcbt,pt ptlfv[tldtkj,f cjv[tsbc trktcbfv vjbgjdf& fvbc yt,f vfccgfhctsvf vbcwf& cjv[eh trktcbfc^ sfdbcb fynbmfkrtljyehb fyefynb,bpfynbehb vbvfhsekt,bc ufvj cgfhctsb |-|+ cc-ib lf fhf,j,f |++-+\ cc-ib f’kbtht,lyty lf rfhufl tg.hj,jlyty& sfdbc v[hbd^ ,bpfynbbcbvgthbfw wlbkj,lf^ sfdbc v[fhtpt uflft.dfyf ‘kbthb cjv[ehb trktcbflfsvj,bsf lf .jdtkudfhb [tkito.j,bs&

fvbc ufvj cjv[ehvf trktcbfv it’kj sfdbcb ufdktybc cathjibvjtmwbf cjv[tsbc eiefkjl vtpj,kfl vlt,fht fhfcjv[ehb ghjdbywbt,b^hjujhw fk,fytsbcf^ fctdt cfmfhsdtkjcb ̂hbc itltuflfw ̂vrdblhb mfhsekbvjcf[ktj,f^ vfu& /thtscf lf ueufhmib^ fye mdtvj mfhskib^ cftrktcbjsdfkcfphbcbs #cjv[ehtyjdfyb@ [lt,jlf^ hflufy bm cjv[ehtyjdfybqvhsbcvcf[eht,f bythut,jlf^ [jkj mfhsek trktcbt,cf lf ovblfobuyt,ib cjv[ehb vbyfotht,b xylt,jlf& se hjujh uf,fnjylf cjv[ehbtrktcbf mfhsek vhtdkpt |+ c-bc mdtvj mfhskib fye ueufhmib^ rfhuflfxdtyt,c |++ c& lfcfo.bcbc fv,t,b&

fb^ thsb nbgehb vfufkbsb% ueufhmib xdtyb lblb rfsfkbrjcb rbhbjybittwflf mdtvj mfhskbc ~ueufhmbc` mfhsekb vjcf[ktj,bcfsdbc rdkfdlft,heyt,byf mfhsektyjdfyb obhdf-kjwdf& tc chekbfl vbeqt,tkb uf[lfcjv[ehb trktcbbcfsdbc lf rbhbjybc cfcnbrfl lfc]f uflfo.dbnf& cgfhcsfvtatv^ [jchjv 614 otkc cftrktcbj rht,f vjbodbf^ hjvtkptw cgfhctsbcbvgthbfib vw[jdht,b mhbcnbfyt,b lffdfklt,ekf #vbtqjs cjv[ehbmhbcnbfyj,f@& fvbc ufvj rbhbjyb b’ekt,ekb uf[lf lfcfdkts cfmfh-sdtkjib uflfcekb.j& vfkt cgfhctsb /thfrkt rtbcfhvf lffvfhw[f lf vfycjv[eh trktcbfcsfy&&& vtuj,hekb rfdibhb _ #eybf@ itrhf^ ueufhmb rb rdkfd#cjv[ehtyjdfyfl@ lfhxf cftrktcbj sdfkcfphbcbs& cojhtl fctsbuf’kbtht,ekb vjyjabpbnehb ghjgfufylbc itltufl tojlf fv v[fhtc#cjv[bsb@& eahj flht rb vfc #mfhsdtksf dtkb@ thmdf& |+ c-bc ief okt,ibcfmfhsdtkjib xfvjlbfy fcehtkb vfvt,b^ bo.t,ty fmnbeh vjqdfotj,fc lfcfmfhsdtkjibdt fqtchekt,bfy |+ c-bc ,jkjc lf |++ c-bc lfcfo.bcib& seitdflfht,s thsvfytsc bv vlujvfhtj,fc^ hjvtkibw bv.jat,jlf mfhsekbtrktcbf fcehtkb vfvt,bc xfvjcdkbcfc^ bv vlujvfhtj,fcsfy^ hjvtkibwbv.jat,jlf vfsb vjqdfotj,bc lfcfchekc^ lfdhoveylt,bs^ hjv bcbybvjyjabpbneh vbvlbyfhtj,fc t,h’jlyty lf ufbvfh]dtc rbltw vfcpt&

+ gthbjlb +-\+ cc


540-bfy okt,ib^ hjltcfw^ mfhsekb vfnbfytt,bc vb[tldbs^xfvjcekfy fcehtkb vfvt,b^ xdtyib vjyjabpbnj,fc vnrbwt gjpbwbt,b/mjylf& cojhtl fv gthbjlc uekbc[vj,c ubjhub vwbht^ hjvtkcfw sfdbcs[pekt,fib ubjhub vsfovbyltkbc cbn.dt,b vj/.fdc% #&&&lf dbsfhwfqdfh’kb hfbvt^ lfstcekb b.eytc mdt.fyfcf xetycf ,jhjnyb bub stckybcjvt[sfyb@& +|-| cc-ib ,th’yekb tyblfy vfhskfl sfhuvybkb ov& obuyt,bvjyjabpbnsf ufdktybs |+-|++ cc-ib cjv[ehblfy [tkf[kf esfhuvybfs^fylf htlfmnbht,f ufertst,bfs&

fcehtkvf vfvt,vf 30 otkboflib ufotekb qdfokbc o.fkj,bsit’ktc fhf vfhnj mfkrtljybpvbc chekb ufvfh]dt,bcsdbc vbtqobfs^fhfvtl^ hfw fhfyfrkt, vybidytkjdfybf^ mfkrtljybpvbc ufvfh]dt,fvstjhbekb cfae’dtkb itmvyf mfhsekb lf cjv[ehb trktcbt,bc ehsbthslf-ijht,bcfsdbc^ cjv[ehb trktcbf rb sfdbcb tybcf lf reknehbc ufdhwtkt,fcwlbkj,lf vstkc bhfyek fvbthrfdrfcbfib& fct hjv^ fcehtkb vfvt,bcvjqdfotj,fv ufyfvnrbwf mfhsekb reknehbc thjdyekb cfae’dtkb lf xdtyc[fk[c thjdyek-reknehekb uflfudfht,bc firfhf cfahs[t ffijhf&

fcehtk vfvfsf thjdyt,bc itcf[t, c[dflfc[df vjcfpht,f fhct,j,c&pjubths vrdktdfhc vbfxybf^ hjv bcbyb mfhsdtkt,b b.dyty& tc cfrbs[bcf,jkjjl fh fhbc uflfo.dtnbkb^ vfuhfv afmnbf^ hjv vfs obyf gkfyptmfhsekb tyf /mjylfs ofvjotekb lf ufycfresht,ek .ehflqt,fc mfhsekflcfe,fhc^ obhdf-kjwdbc mfhsek tyfpt xfnfht,fc fmwtdlyty^ hflufy tc tyfmfkrtljybpvbc tyfl b.j vbxytekb bvbc ufvj ̂hjv mfkrtljybnj,f thjdyekcfhoveyjt,fl erdt |+ c-bc cfmfhsdtkjib mwtekf& #mfhskbc w[jdht,fib@udfmdc vjvtynb^ hjwf vfs vbcfut,t,kfl ufvjcek rfsfkbrjcc fcehtkb vfvt,bmfhsekfl gfce[j,ty&

hjujhw r& rtrtkb’t fqybiyfdc^ fcehtk vfvt,c sfdbfysb vjqdfotj,fvjyfcnht,bc cfiefkt,bs ufye[jhwbtkt,bfs _ #fhfdbsfhb cf,esb bvbcf^hjv xdtyib t&o& fswfvtn vfvfsf vjcdkfvlt vjyfcnht,b ̂fv cbn.dbc yfvldbkbvybidytkj,bs .jabkb.j^ fh fhct,j,c&

gbhdtkfl vjyfcnht,b xdtyib lfffhctc fqybiyekvf vfvt,vf&@~r&

rtrtkb’t^ #’dtkb mfhsekb kbnthfnehbc bcnjhbf@ +& ud& 88`& sevwf #mfhskbcw[jdht,bc@ sfyf[vfl^ eahj flht df[nfyu ujhufcfkc lfefhct,bf vjyfcnthbrkfh]tsib^ fvfdt gthbjlib mfhsdtkt,c erdt /mjylfs vjyfcnht,bbthecfkbvcf lf ovblf vbofpt ̂fm^ bjfyt kfpbc vjyfcnthib fqvjxylf gbhdtkbmfhsekb ofhotht,b&

fvhbufl^ fcehtkb vfvt,bc qdfokbf bc^ hjv vfs mfhsek trktcbfcsfdblfy ffwbktc lblb cfahs[t vjyjabpbnj,bcf^ fye^ hjujhw vfibyeojlt,lyty ̂cjv[ehb cfhoveyjt,bc fqbfht,bcf&

20

| + + CF E R E Y T

|+ c & ev’bvtcb cfereyt b.j mfhsekb trktcbbcf lfcf[tkvobajcfsdbc^ vfuhfv cfufyut,jl eylf fqbybiyjc^ hjv mfhsekbthjdyekb bycnbnent,b fh wyj,lyty cf[tkvobajc ufemvt,fc |+ c-ib& fvcfereybc rfnfcnhjaf lhjt,bs vjdktyfl vbfxylfs^ hjvtkbw vfktufvjcojhlt,jlf& mfhsekb trktcbf sfdbc behbclbmwbfc vstkcfmfhsdtkjpt f[jhwbtkt,lf& |++ c-vlt obhdf-kjwdbc tyf vstkcfmfhsdtkjib mfhsekb b.j& mfhsekb trktcbbc thsbfyj,fc vjovj,cfuhtsdt cftrktcbj yfut,j,fsf thsbfyb cnbkbw lfcfdkts lffqvjcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjib& fqvjcfdkts-lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjcgjkbnbreh vskbfyj,fpt velvbdfl lf lf,t]bst,bs othlf #mfhskbcw[jdht,f@^ #vjmwtdf~ mfhskbcf~@ lf |+++ c-vltkb c[df o.fhjt,b&mdt.ybc gjkbnbrehb thsbfyj,f vbcb [fk[bc tsybreh thsbfyj,fctv.fht,jlf& fqybiyekb o.fhjt,bc sfyf[vfl^ vstk cfmfhsdtkjib^tuhbco.kblfy /thtsbc xfsdkbs^ thsbfyb mfhsdtkb [fk[b w[jdhj,lf&fqvjcfdkts-lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc +|-|++ cc-ib tojlt,jlf #.jdtkbmfhskb@&

|+ c-bc ,jkj lf |++ c-bc lfcfo.bcb b.j tgjmf ujhufckbc-lhjbyltkb mfhsekb cf[tkvobajc fqjh’byt,bcf^ mfhsekb cfpjuf-ljt,hbdb bycnbnent,bc fqlutyf-f.dfdt,bcf^ vfuhfv fv f[kflfqjh’byt,ek mdt.fyfc at[pt lflujvbc cfiefkt,f fh vbcwf /thfrktrtbchbc kfimhj,fv&

630-bfy okt,ib /thfrkt rtbcfhvf vbbnfwf lfcfdktscfmfhsdtkjc pqdbcgbhf nthbnjhbt,b lf vbethsf ,bpfynbfc^ hbcitvltufw lfcfdkts tuhbcib fqbrdtsf mfhsekb tyf lf vbc yfwdkfl fmlfotclf ,th’yekb qvhsbcvcf[eht,f & lffhclf ,th’yekbcftgbcrjgjcjt,b& fvhbufl^ fhf,t,bc itvjctdbc lhjc mfhsekbcf[tkvobaj erdt ufyflueht,ekb b.j /thfrkt rtbchbc vbth^ hfvfwfhf,t,c ufefldbkf lfikbkb mfhskbc lfvjhxbkt,f& afmnj,hbdfl^fhf,t,c #mfhskb@^ hjujhw thsbfyb gjkbnbrehb thstekb fhwlf[dtlhbfs&

/thfrktc fahs[j,lf mfhskbc cf[tkvobajc fqjh’byt,f^hflufy mfhskbc cf[tkvobaj nhflbwbekb vtnjmt b.j rfdrfcbfib]th hjvbc^ itvltu rb hjv-,th’tysf bvgthbbcf^ fvbnjv bub cfcnbrflufecojhlf xdtyc mdt.fyfc& fqvjcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjib /thfrktvtrktcbt,ib lff[jwbyf mhbcnbfyt,b ~#trktcbfsf ibyf vlbyfhtybcbc[ksfyb lbjltc@`^ lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjib rb vybidytkjdfyb

+ gthbjlb +-\+ cc


vbof-o.fkb xfvjfwbkf mfhsek trktcbfc & f[kf erdt mfhsekbtrktcbbc behbclbmwbbc cfpqdfhb ifdb pqdbc yfwdkfl uflbjlfcrfylf-ijhfgybc [fppt _ fhudtsib& sdbs fhudtsbc lblb yfobkbrdkfd mfhskbc cf[tkvobajib lfhxf^ bub fh itcekf ,bpfynbbcbvgthbfib& bcnjhbek tuhbcpt rb rjycnfynbyjgjkvf ufyf[jhwbtkfsfdbcb behbclbmwbf&

ufyc[dfdt,ekbf /thfrktc lfvjrblt,ekt,f cjv[ehbtrktcbbcflvb ~o.fhjt,b vfc cjv[ehb ofhvjij,bcfl vbbxytdty`& |++ c-bccjv[ehb trktcbf sfdbcb vjmybkb gjkbnbrbc o.fkj,bs ,bpfynbbcfsdbcvbcfqt,b lf yt,flfhsekb uf[lf& sdbs cgfhctspt ufvfh]dt,ekvf,bpfynbbc bvgthfnjhvf /thfrktv vfcsfy thsj,bc [tkitrhekt,fwlflj&

/thfrktc kfimhj,bc itvltu cjv[ehb trktcbf bctdmfkrtljybnj,fc lfe,heylf lf ghtntypbf ufyfw[flf mfhsekb lffk,fyehb trktcbt,bc eakt,fvjcbkt,fpt& mfhsekb trktcbbc vtcdteht,bb’ekt,ekyb uf[lyty vbtvfhsfs fynbjmbbc cfgfnhbfhmjcsdbc lf ts[jdfsmfhsekb trktcbbc fdnjrtafkbbc lfcnehb^ hfsf fhw ths vtpj,tktrktcbfc vfcpt eakt,f fh /mjyjlf& [jkj |+ vcjakbj rht,fv lfelubyfmfhsekb trktcbbc vtsfehc gfnhbfhmbc^ vjwbmeksf nf[npt v]ljvbcflf vjwbmeksf vfubthbc ojlt,f&

680-81 okt,ib rjycnfynbytgjkib itluf |+ cftrktcbj rht,f&#mfhskbc w[jdht,bc@ xfyfhsbc vb[tldbs^ tc rht,f vjeodtdbf bvgthfnjhrjycnfynbyt gjqjyfnc&

rht,fv ufyb[bkf mfhsekb trktcbbc chekb lfvjerblt,kj,bccfrbs[b lf fqbfhf vbcb lfvjerblt,kj,f^ mfhsekb trktcbbc vtsfehcvbfybzf eakt,f tnfht,byf gfnhbfhmbc nbnekb& rht,fc ufye[bkfdc fuhtsdtmfhsekb trktcbbc nthbnjhbekb fdnjrtafkbbc cfpqdht,b&

fvfdt rht,fv lfflfcnehf mfhsekb trktcbbc vbth vbhjybc flubkptrehs[tdbc eakt,f&

fvhbufl^ cfmfhsdtkjc thsbfyb cfgfnhbfhmj lffhclf |++ c-ib^hjvtkvfw bfhct,f |+++ c-bc ief okt,fvlt&

22

| + + + C F E R E Y T

|+++ c-bc lfcfo.bcib cfmfhsdtkjc cf[tkvobaj vtnfl v’bvtvlujvfhjt,fib b.j fhf,t,bc itvjctdbc ufvj& fcts gbhj,t,ib mfhsektrktcbfc ‘fkf fh itcotdlf ittcecnt,byf cfmfhsdtkjib fhct,ek ew[jtrktcbfsf ‘kbtht,f& cjv[ehb trktcbf bctd wlbkj,lf mfhsekb trktcbbcsfdbcb ufdktybc cathjib vjmwtdfc& vfuhfv vfc itvltu^ hfw 726 otkcvfyfcrthnbc rht,fpt cjv[ehvf trktcbfv cf,jkjjl lf uflfzhbs sfdbcthsflths cfhoveyjt,fl fqbfhf vjyjabpbnj,f lf efh.j hjujhwvjyjstkbnj,f^ bct mfkrtljybnj,f lf lfuvj rfdibhb ,bpfynbbctrktcbfcsfy^ mfhsekvf trktcbfv^ hjujhw mfkrtljybpvbc thsuekvflfvwdtkvf^ .jdtkudfhb rfdibhb ufo.dbnf cjv[eh trktcbfcsfy&

|+++ cfereyt mfhsekb reknehbc ufsfdbceakt,bc cfereytf& sevwfgjkbnbrehfl cfmfhsdtkj bctd ufcfzbhibf^ vfuhfv thbc cekbthbw[jdht,bcfsdbc bvltyfl vybidytkjdfyb b.j cjv[ehb trktcbbc ufdktybcfufysfdbc lfqotdf^ hjv vfc itltufl vj/.df reknehekb fqjh’byt,f& itvltucfereytt,ib iteath[t,kfl dbsfhlt,f mfhsekb trktcbbc cekbthbcfufy’ehb^ mfhsekb /bvyjuhfabf& fvfdt cfereytt,ib ufvj,ho.bylyty ov&vjofvtyb% f,j s,bktkb ~[c& 7 bfydfhc ^̀ fhudtsbc vsfdht,b v[tb’tt,b _ lfdbslf rjycnfynbyt ~[c& 20 vfhnc`^ hjvkt,bw fofvtc fhf,t,vf&

mfhsekb cfbcnjhbj o.fhjt,bc wyj,bs +|-|++ cc-ib cfmfhsdtkjceojlt,lyty mfhskc ̂hjvtkcfw /mjylf vrfwhfl ufycfpqdhekb cfpqdht,bvtpj,tk cf[tkvobajt,sfy& lfcfdktsbs mfhskbc cfpqdht,ib itlbjlftuhbcb^ fqvjcfdktsib rb /thtsb^ [jkj cfv[htsbs _ wb[t se[fhbcb lfrkfh]tsb&

fvhbufl^ cbn.df #mfhskbc@ mdti^ fv gthbjlib buekbc[vt,jlf vstkbcfmfhsdtkj lf fvbnjvfw mfhskbc cfrfsfkbrjcj sfdbc behbclbmwbfcf[jhwbtkt,lf fhf vfhnj fqvjcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjpt^ fhfvtl lfcfdktscfmfhsdtkjptw cfrfsfkbrjcjc lffhct,bc lhjblfy^ fye +| c-lfy^ [jkjmfhsekb trktcbf sfdbc eakt,fvjcbkt,fc f[jhwbtkt,lf vstkcfmfhsdtkjpt ofhvjmvybc lhjblfydt^ fye + c-lfy&

|+++ c-bc 80-90-bfy okt,ib mfhsekb cfvtaj lfbifkf cfv yfobkfl&ofhvjbmvyf #fa[fptsb@^ #mfhskb@ lf #rf[ts-/thtsb@& se fv lhjvlt#mfhskb@ fqybiyfdlf vstk cfmfhsdtkjc^ fvbc itvltu lfcfdktscfmfhsdtkjc erdt fqfh tojlt,jlf mfhskb^ fhfvtl tojlf fa[fptsb&

fv lhjvlt #fa[fptsb@ thmdf fv;fvbyltkb vl& rtkfcehbc fyerkbcehbc bmbs vlt,fht mdt.fyfc^ hjvtkbw ,bpfynbfc tvjhxbkt,jlf&|+++ c-ib #rkbcehbc bmbsb mdt.fyf@ _ fa[fptsb^ ,th’tysf ,fnjyj,bcfufy

+ gthbjlb +-\+ cc


ufsfdbceaklf& fa[fpsf thbcsfd ktjy +-c ithstc mfhskbc vtat vbhbcmfkbidbkb uehfyle[nb^ hjvtkcfw ‘vf fh /.fdlf^ [jkj ,b’f^ vtat ov&fhxbkb fhf,t,vf fofvtc& lfcfdktsb cfmfhsdtkj ̂dbsfhwf mfhskbc cfvtajcyfobkb uehfyle[nbc cfgfnhjyj mdt.fyf b.j^ hjvtkcfw bub vbcb vteqkbc^ktjy +-bc [tkbs vfhsfdlf^ fvbnjvfw lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc fa[fpsfcfvtaj tojlf vvfhsdtkb lbyfcnbbc cf[tkbs vb[tldbs&

lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjib lfvjerblt,tk #fa[fpsf cfvtajc@lffhct,fc vj/.df fv cf[tkvobajib sfdbcsfdflb trktcbbc lffhct,f^ hfwittcf,fvt,jlf cftrktcbj rfyjyt,c&

fvhbufl^ |+++ c-bc itvltu mfhsek trktcbfib fhct,j,c jhb mfhsekbcfrfsfkbrjcj _ fa[fptsbc lf mfhskbc& fvfsufy vw[tsbc fye mfhskbcrfsfkbrjcb eahjc^ #e[ewtc@ rfsfkbrjcfl vbbxytdf^ [jkj fa[fptsbcf _evwhjc ̂fye #evhotvtc@ rfsfkbrjcfl&

730-bfy okt,ib cfv[hts cfmfhsdtkj uflfodf vehdfy .hev& vbcbofcdkbc itvltu rkfh]tsib fqluf jgbpbc vjyfcnthb& fvhbufl^ cfvjyfcnhjw[jdht,bc fqjh’byt,f cfv[hts cfmfhsdtkjib ]th rbltd uhbujk[fy’stkfvlt lfbo.j& ov& uhbujkvf rb vstkb tgjmf itmvyf nfj-rkfh]tsbccfvjyfcnhj w[jdht,fib ̂uffxfqf afhsj cfvjyfcnhj vityt,kj,f ̂[fy’sfiblf ifn,thlib _ vfvfsf^ [jkj vthtcf lf ueyfsktib ltlfsf vjyfcnht,blffae’yf& ov& uhbujkbc vjofatt,vf vhfdfkb vjyfcnthb lfffhctc& fmtlfyufycfresht,bs fqcfybiyfdbf bi[ybc vjyfcnhbcf lf cftgbcrjgjcjc lffhct,f&cfvjyfcnhj vityt,kj,f lfbo.j ,fhtstksfib^ o.fhjcsfdib^ yt’dib& ov&uhbujkvf lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjib lffae’yf e,bc vjyfcnthb& rkfh]tsibxfcdkblfy lff[kjt,bs 50 okbc itvltu ov& uhbujkb bmfeh vjyfcnthsffhmbvfylhbnfl lfflubytc& vfc sfdbcb vjyfcnht,bcfsdbc bthecfkbvbccf,fovblbc nbgbrjyb feqbf& itelutybf /bvyjuhfabekb rht,ekb -cfotkboflj #bflufhb@&

cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbc bv;fvbyltkb vlujvfhtj,bc erts ofhvj-cfxtyfl ufdb[ctyjs rbltd thsb afmnb% cf,th’ytsbc trktcbbc v.elhjt,fsbsmvbc vstkb cfereybc vfy’bkpt lfhqdtekb b.j [fnv,h’jksf vbth&[fnsf sf.dfybcwtvf ufvjw[fllf rthgvcf[eht,fl lf bltdyt,jlf ,bpfynbbcrtbcht,bcf lf cfvqdltkjt,bc vbth& fhfbidbfsb b.j cfg.hj,bkt lfcbrdlbkbs lfc]fw rb& fv lhjc cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbf sbsmvbc thsflthsbtrktcbf b.j^ hjvtkbw ‘dtk otcc bwfdlf lf [fnsf sf.dfybcwtvfc fhefh.jalf& rjycnfynbyjgjksfy ufo.dbnf rfdibhb uestsvfw& hjujhw,th’yekb o.fhjt,b flfcneht,ty^ uestsbc tgbcrjgjcbc rehs[tdf vj[lfb,thbfib&

24

+ \ -\ CF E R E Y T T , B

+\-\ cc-ib cfmfhsdtkj ‘bhbsflfl ufsfdbceaklf fhf, lf c[dflfvg.hj,sfufy^ hfvfw cfiefkt,f vbcwf mfhsdtk thc ittmvyf sfdbcbcf[tkvobaj thstekt,b _ fa[fptsbc^ nfj-rkfh]tsbcf lf rf[ts-/thtsbccfvtajt,b^ fvfc itltufl vj/.df thbc reknehbc fqjh’byt,f& xylt,bfyvothkt,b^ trktcbbc cfzbhjt,bcfsdbc cfufkj,kt,c mvybfy tgbafytvj’qdfhb _ [fy’stkb ~|+++-+\ cc&`^ vfrfhb keststkb _ [fy’stk-cf,fovbyltkb ~+\ c& ^̀ ,fcbkb [fy’stkb ~+\ c& ^̀ ubjhub vthxekt ~+\-\ cc&`^vbmftk vjlhtrbkb ~\ c&`^ bjdfyt vn,tdfhb ~\ c&`^ tphf ~\ c&`^ bjdfytmjymjpbc ‘t ~\ c&`^ rehlfyfb-rdbhbrt ~\ c&`& fv cfereytt,ib bmvyt,f /bvyj-uhfabekb ‘tukt,b _ rht,ekt,b^ bmvyt,f cfufkj,kt,b^ ‘kbcgbht,b^ fvcfereytt,ib vjqdfotj,ty #ybyjc + /bvyjuhfab@ ~|+++-+\ cc&`^ #ybyjc ++/bvyjuhfab@ ~+\-\ cc&̀ ^ #rjycnfynb rf[bc /bvyjuhfab@ ~+\-\ cc&̀ ^ cfvjtkvufkj,tkb ̂vothfkb bjfyt ,jkytkb ~+\ c&̀ ^ #ybyjc +++ /bvyjuhfab@ ~+\-\ cc& ^̀vc[tvb ptlfpytkb ~\ c& ^̀ lfdbs ufht]tkbc /bvyjuhfat,b ~+\-\ cc&` ̂bjdfytvbyx[b ~\ c&`^ cntafyt z.jylbltkb ~\ c&`^ #f,erehfbc@ vktmcfdb ~+\ c&`^ubjhub cf,fovbltkb-cbytkb^ bjfyt-pjcbvt^ abkbgt ,tsktvtkb ~\ c&`& fvcfereytt,ib gfktcnbyfib bmvyt,f /bvyjuhfabekb rht,ekt,b%#cfotkboflj bflufhb@ lf c[d&

mfhsekb tyf +\-\ cc-ib chekbfl /.dfdbc lf dbsfhlt,f&|+++ c-bc itvltu cfmfhsdtkjib fhct,j,c jhb mfhsekb

cfrfsfkbrjcj& 830 otkc tc afmnb fqbfhf ~wyj ̀vtat ,fuhfn +++ rehfgfkfnvflf ufyfotcf rfsfkbrjcb fa[fptsc& fa[fptsbc cfrfsfkbrjcjc ofhvjij,fvcfzbhj uf[flf ufhrdtekb.j vbhjybc cfrbs[b& fhct,j,lf jhb upf _fa[fptsbc f[fk cfrfsfkbrjcjc fy sdbsdt eylf trehs[t,byf vbhjyb^ fylfvbtqj c[df eptyftcb trktcbbcufy&

tahtv vwbhbc vb[tldbs^ | c-ib 451 okbc mfkrtljybc rht,bc itvltu^.dtkf trktcbfc^ lf vfs ijhbc mfhsekcfw ̂yt,f vbtwf flubkpt trehs[t,byfsvbhjyb& fct hjv^ tahtvbc sfyf[vfl^ | c-lfydt brehs[t,jlf vbhjybcfmfhsdtkjib&

hjujhw ubjhub vthxekt udfeo.t,c #uhbujk [fy’stkbcw[jdht,fib@^ f[kfl lffhct,ek fa[fptsbc cfrfsfkbrjcjc bthecfkbvblfyvj/mjylf vbhjyb ̂itvltu rb^ bthecfkbvbc gfnhbfhmbc ufyotct,bs ̂mfhskbccfrfsfkbrjcjlfy qt,ekj,lf vbhjyc^ dbyfblfy lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkj‘dtksfufydt mfhskbc yfobkfl vbbxytjlf% #hfvtse gbhdtkfl fqvjcfdfkbcf~buekbc[vt,f fa[fptsbcf` rfsfkbrjcsf vb/hjyb bthecfkbvbs vj/.dfylf^[jkj tahtv mhbcntcvbthbsf ,h’fyt,bsf^ vb/hjybc rehs[tdf mfhskc

+ gthbjlb +-\+ cc


ufyfotcf bthecfkbvbc gfnhbfhmbc ufyotct,bsf lf ofvt,bsf cb[fhekbs^fhfvtl mfhskfl ahbflb mdt.fyf fqbhfw[t,bc^ hjvtkcfwf ibyf mfhsekbsftybsf ;fvb itbobhdbc lf kjwdf .jdtkb fqtchekt,bc@ _ xfyc^ fct eylfufb[cyfc e’dtktcb ntmcnbc mfhfuvf&

978 otkc ,fuhfn +++-bc lhjc cfmfhsdtkj ufthsbfylf lf fqlufb,thbbc fye mfhskbc cfvtaj& cfmfhsdtkjc thsbfy cf[tkvobajl fqlutyfufyfgbhj,f mfhsdtkb thbc ibyfufyvf vjyljvt,fv lf thjdyekb sdbsituyt,bcfvfqkt,fv&

\ + CF E R E Y T

#mfhskbc cfvtajc@ fqlutyf-htcnfdhfwbbc cehdbkb bvltyfl ‘kbthbb.j |+-\ cc-ib^ hjv |+++ c-vlt mfhsekb cfpjufljt,hbdb fphb fh wyj,lfthsbfyb #mfhskbc cfvtajc@ lfikfc lf #mfhskb@ rdkfd thsbfy mdt.fyfltcf[t,jlf ifdb pqdblfy ,fhlfdfvlt& |+++ c-bc itvlujv ̂vfhsfkbf^ itbmvyf#fa[fpsf@^ #nfj-rkfh]tsbc@^ #rf[ts-/thtsbc@ cfvtajt,b^ vfuhfvsbsjtekb tc mfhsekb cf[tkvobajt,hbdb thstekb wlbkj,lfuftthsbfyt,byf cfmfhsdtkj lf fqtlubyf b,thbbc ‘dtkb cfvtaj&

lf fb^ 978 otkc vtat ,fuhfn +++-bc lhjc fqluf b,thbbc fye #mfhskbccfvtaj@^ cfmfhsdtkj ufthsbfylf& 1010 otkc ,fuhfn +++-v sfdbc cfvtajcrf[ts-/thtsbw itvjethsf& fvbs htcnfdhbht,ek bmyf afhyfdfp vtabc vbthlffhct,ekb afhyfdfpbfy-[jchjbfysf b,thbbc cf[tkvobaj& cfmfhsdtkjcthsbfy cf[tkvobajl fqlutyf ufyfgbhj,f mfhsdtkb thbc ibyfufyvfvjyljvt,fv ̂ufycfresht,ekfl ufphlbkvf thjdyekvf sdbsituyt,fv&

cfmfhsdtkjc ufthsbfyt,fc^ cftrktcbj rfyjyt,bc sfyf[vfl ̂sfy eylfvj/.jkjlf fa[fptsbcf lf vw[tsbc cfrfsfkbrjcjsf ufthsbfyt,fcfmfhsdtkjc thsbfy trktcbfl& vfhskfw^ fqybiyekb jhb cfrfsfkbrj-cjcufy itbmvyf thsb cfgfnhbfhmj& itmvybcsfyfdt vbc gbhdtk gfnhbfhmcvtkmbctltr +-c #fqvjcfdktsbc gfnhbfhmb@ eojltc vbc behbclbmwbbcmdtifnthbnjhbbc cblblbc ufvj&

vtkmbctltr + b.j ,fuhfn +++-bc yfstcfdb lf vbcbdt ufphlbkb&gfnhbfhmfl lflujvbcsfyfdt vtkmbctltrb uftvupfdhf rjycnfynbyjgjkibcfbvgthfnjhj rfhpt& xfyc ̂bvbcfsdbc^ hjv rjycnfynbyjgjkc twyj mfhsekbtrktcbbc cfgfnhbfhmj qbhct,f&

hjujhw bhrdtdf^ rjycnfynbyjgjkvf wyj cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbccfgfnhbfhmj qbhct,f lf cfgfnhbfhmj wtynhc _ cdtnbw[jdtkc lfcfmfhsdtkjc rfsfkbrjc-gfnhbfhmc vtkmbctltrc cfxemhfl uflfcwf vlblfhb

26vjyfcnthb lf 105 cjatkb& fv afmnc flfcneht,c \+-\+++ cc& bcnjhbekbcf,est,b&

s,bkbcbc fhf,vf fvbhfv _ fkbv vtkmbctltrbc s[jdybs trktcbfuflfcf[flt,bcfufy uffsfdbceakf&

,fuhfn +++-bc ufhlfwdfkt,bc itvltu bo.t,f jvb ,bpfynbbc bvgthbfcflf cfmfhsdtkjc ijhbc& tc b.j fhf tgbpjlehb it,h’jkt,t,b^ fhfvtl lblbjvb^ hjvtkbw fsoktekj,bs ufuh’tklf lf hjvtkibw eiefkjlvjyfobktj,lyty ,bpfynbbc bvgthfnjht,b lf cfmfhsdtkjc vtatt,b& jvblfbo.j ,fcbkb ++-bc lhjc 1021 otkc lf lfvsfdhlf rjycnfynbyt vjyjvfmjcbclhjc 1054 otkc& bv[fyfl cfmfhsdtkjib vtaj,lyty ubjhub + lf ,fuhfn +|&cojhtl ,fuhfn +|-bc lhjc ito.lf ,bpfynbf-cfmfhsdtkjc jvb lf lfbljcfvidblj,j pfdb&

,fcbkb rtbcfhc bvtlb /mjylf ̂hjv vbc itntdfc cfmfhsdtkjc cfvtajdth ufe’kt,lf lf lfbikt,jlf ̂vfuhfv mfhsekb trktcbf udthlib fvjelufcf[tkvobajc& mfhsekb trktcbf ,bpfynbbc vbth lfg.hj,bk res[tt,ibcfsfdtib xfeluf cf[fk[j jvc lfvg.hj,sf obyffqvltu&

bvlhjbyltkb it[tlekt,bs^ ,bpfynbf lf vbcb bvgthfnjht,b b.dyty,eh]yb vcjakbj mhbcnbfyj,bcf& bvgthfnjht,c sf.dfyc cwtvlyty^ hjujhwqdsbc yt,bc fqvchekt,tks& fk,fs fvbs b.j ufvjodtekb bc^ hjv mfhsekbvjcf[ktj,bc thsb yfobkb ,bpfynbbc v[fhtc uflfdblf& mfhsdtkcfvqdltkjt,fc ,bpfynbfcsfy jvib mfhsdtkb #odhbkb thb@ hjv fhufvjta[bpkt,byf ̂vnthb ufvjb.tyt,lf vfs uekohatk mhbcnbfyj,fc sfdbccfcfhut,kjl&

mfhsekb trktcbbc fmnbehvf gjpbwbfv fv jvib ufvjbodbf ,bpfynbbccfvtaj rfhbc hbc[df mfhsekb trktcbbc vbvfhs& mfhsekb trktcbfvodfkt,tksf fhfvfskvflblt,tk trktcbfl ufvjw[fllf& lfbo.j mfhsekbvjyfcnht,bcf lf ,tht,bc ltdyf bvgthbfib& cftzdjl ufvjfw[fltc mfhsekbtrktcbbc sfdblfydt fhct,ekb vhfdfkb eakt,f&

\+ c-ib cjv[ehb trktcbf vodfkt,keh trktcbfl vbbxytjlf,bpfynbfib& mfhsek trktcbfc bv lhjbcfsdbc ]th rbltd tn.j,jlf cjv[ehbtrktcbbc ufdktybc rdfkb& cojhtl tc ufvjb.tytc ,bpfynbtkvf bltjkjut,vfmfhsekb trktcbbc vfhskvflblt,kj,fib tzdbc itcfnfyfl&

cbyfvldbktib fhfdbsfhb #qdfh’kbs@ fh .jabkf it,bkoekbmfhsekb vfhskvflblt,tkb trktcbf& ,th’yt,vf qdfh’kfl vbbxybtcpjubthsb ovblf obuybc sfhuvyf-htlfmnbht,f cjv[ehb tyblfy& fv fphc dthlfdtsfy[vt,bs& ite’kt,tkbf fhfvfhskvflblt,kehfl xfbsdfkjc trktcbfbv vbptpbs^ hjv bc cftrktcbj cfzbhjt,bcfsdbc obuyt,c cjv[ehb tyblfysfhuvyblf fy fhtlfmnbht,lf&

+ gthbjlb +-\+ cc


hjujhw mfhsdtksf^ bct ,th’tysf ijhbc .jabkfy #vf,hfkj,tkyb@lf #vf.dtlht,tkyb@^ hjvkt,bw coeyj,lyty mfhsek sfhuvfyt,c fv v[hbd^hjv bcbyb fh vb/.dt,jlyty bv lhjc ufdhwtkt,ek ,th’yek htlfmwbt,c&#vf,hfkj,tksf@ lf #vf.dtlht,tksf@ ufvhfdkt,f \+ c-bc lfcfo.bcibufvjbodbf #,bpfynbf-cfmfhsdtkjc@ jvvf&

bvbcfsdbc ̂hfsf vjtcgjs ,th’yt,bcfsdbc mfhsdtksf vodfkt,kt,flufvjw[flt,bc cf,f,b^ tmdsbvt lf ubjhub vsfovbltkt,b lf vfsb crjkf ovblfothbkbc vfyfvlt fhct,ek sfhuvfyt,c vfmcbvfkehfl ef[kjt,lyty ,th’yeko.fhjc&

\ c-bc ief okt,blfy ,bpfynbbc ‘kbtht,bc lhjc vfy sfdbc udthlbsdth buef cfmfhsdtkjc ufthsbfyt,ekb cfvtaj&

\+ c-bc vtjht yf[tdfhib chekbfl itbwdfkf ,bpfynbbc hjujhwcfufhtj^ bct cfibyfj vlujvfhtj,f^ sehm-ctk]ert,bc itvjctdt,bc ufvjfv lhjc bvgthbf rhbpbcc ufybwlblf& cojhtl fvbs b.j ufvjodtekb^ hjv\+ c-bc 50-bfy okt,ib ,bpfynbbc bvgthbfv uflfcby]f sfdbcb lfvjrblt,ekt,fcfmfhsdtkjc cf[tkvobajcflvb& f[fk tgjmfib ,bpfynbfc czbhlt,jlfthsuekb^ vfcpt lfvjrblt,ekb^ vbcb ufdktybc mdti v.jab mdt.fyf& fvbnjvcfvokbfyb vjkfgfhfrt,f 1054-1057 okt,ib ,bpfynbfcf lf cfmfhsdtkjcijhbc lfvsfdhlf cfvidblj,j pfdbs&

cfmfhsdtkjc cf[tkvobajc vtsfehsf vbpfyb vjkfgfhfrt,bc lhjc,bpfynbfcf lf cfmfhsdtkjc ijhbc ehsbthsj,bc yjhvfkbpfwbbc ufhlf b.jcfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbc cfgfnhbfhmj eakt,t,bc wyj,f^ hjujhw ,bpfynbbccf[tkvobajc^ fctdt rjycnfynbyjgjkbc cfgfnhbfhmjc vbth&

gbhdtkb ofhvfnt,f^ hfcfw ltktufwbfv vbfqobf^ b.j bc^ hjv ito.lfmfhsdtkb ,tht,bc cfcnbrb ltdyf ,bpfynbbc bvgthbfib ̂rth’jl rb ̂bdthbjyib&

cfmfhsdtkjc ltktufwbf vjkfgfhfrt,bcfc ahbfl ofhvjvflutykj-,bsb b.j& rjycnfynbyjgjkib ,fuhfn vtat lf vfhbfv ltljafkb xf,h’fylytyvsfdht,bcf lf ofhxbyt,ekt,bc sfy[kt,bs& dbyfblfy ltktufwbfc cftrktcbjcfmvtt,bw eylf vjtudfht,byf^ fsjybc vsblfy xfvjdblf ubjhub vsfovbltkb_ bv lhjbc .dtkfpt lblb fdnjhbntnb trktcbbcf _ lf ltkfufwbbcveifj,fib vbbqj vjyfobktj,f&

ubjhub vsfovbltkb rjycnfynbyjgjkblfy uftvupfdhf fynbjmbfcf lfbthecfkbvbc cfgfnhbfhmjt,ib& fynbjmbbc gfnhbfhm gtnht +++-c ubjhubvsfovbltksfy cfufyut,j cfe,ht,b /mjylf #rfyjysfsdbc cftrktcbjsf@ lffuhtsdt #cfhoveyjt,bcsAc vfhskbcf@&

ubjhub vsfovbltkc^ vfc itvltu^ hfw gtnht +++ lfehoveyt,bf^ hjvmfhsekb cfgfnhbfhmjc itmvyf fh tobyffqvltut,jlf #cftrktcbj rfyjyt,c@lf hjv fv f[fkb cfgfnhbfhmjc itmvybs fh lfhqdtekf #vfhsfkbcfhoveyjt,f@^ fynbjmbbc gfnhbfhmb sfdbcsfy bf[kjt,c& gfnhbfhmb

28vj[b,kekf ubjhubc cekbthb cbvfqkbsf lf wjlybs^ fvbnjvfw bc fynbjmbbccfgfnhbfhmjc cfmvtt,bc vjudfht,fcfw rb mfhsdtk ,thc fylj,lf& sfdbc gbhflw[jdht,fcfw vfc epbfht,lf&

gtnht +++-bc lhjc xfnfhlf fynbjmbbc cftrktcbj rht,f^ hjvtkvfwfqbfhf cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbc cfgfnhbfhmj eakt,t,b lf ito.dbnfmfhsekb trktcbbcf lf mfhsdtkb ,tht,bc ltdyf&

vfuhfv fv ltdybc htwblbdt,b 1057 okbcfsdbc vfbyw fhct,j,lf&fynbjmbbc rht,bc itvltu gtnht +++-c lbl[fyc fqfh ewjw[kbf& bub

1057 otkc ufhlfbwdfkf& ubjhub vsfovbltkb it[dlf f[fk gfnhbfhmcstjljcbc ~stjljht`& ,th’tyb ,tht,bcfufy ofmtpt,ekvf gfnhbfhmvf ubjhubvsfovbltkc ufyew[flf% mfhsekb trktcbf fynbjmbbc trktcbfc eylftvjhxbkt,jltcj lf lftvemhf rbltw _ se fct fh bmyt,f^ vfiby vstkc,bpfynbbc bvgthbfib ufuh’tklt,f mfhsekb trktcbbc ltdyfj& fynbjmbbcgfnhbfhmb t.hlyj,jlf #gtynfhmbbc@ its[pek stjhbfc^ hjvkbcvb[tldbsfw fdnjrtafkehb v[jkjl bc trktcbf itb’kt,f b.jc^ cflfwvjwbmekvf bmflfuf& fynbjmbbc trktcbf gtnht vjwbmekbc lffhct,ekflvbbxytjlf ̂[jkj fynbjmtksf fphbs cfmfhsdtkjib fh emflfubf fhw thsvjwbmekc&

ubjhub vsfovbltkvf lfecf,esf stjljcbc^ hjv cfmfhsdtkjctrktcbf fylhbf gbhdtkojlt,ekbc vbthff lffhct,ekb lf cdbvjy rfyfytkbwxdtyc mdt.fyfibf lfrh’fkekb& itvltu rb gfnhbfhmc vbcbdt kjubrblfyufvjvlbyfht gfce[j,c% hfrb cbn.df lfvjhxbkt,fc itt[j^ eahj ]thjdfybbmyt,f^ se smdtyb trktcbf lftvjhxbkt,f xdtyc trktcbfc^ dbyfblfy fylhbfmhbcntc gbhdtkb vjofat b.j lf vfy vjeojlf sfdbc ‘vfc gtnhtcj&

gfnhbfhmb cfdct,bs lfhoveyt,ekbf^ hjv cfmfhsdtkjib vjwmekt,cemflfubfs lf ubjhub vsfovbltkbc gfce[c vfcib rtsbkujybtht,f fqe’hfdc&

fvhbufl ̂1054-1057 okt,ib ,bpfynbehvf cfgfnhbfhmjt,vf fqbfhtcmfhsekb trktcbbc afmnj,hbdfl fhct,ekb fdnjrtafkehj,f lfito.dbntc vbcb erfyjyj ltdyf&

++ gthbjlb \++-\|+++ cc


CFMFHSDTKJC TRKTCBBC BCNJHBBC++ GTHBJLB^ \++-\|+++ CC&

~hebc-eh,ybcbc rht,blfy fdnjrtafkbbc ufemvt,fvlt`

\ + + CF E R E Y T

\++ c-ib cfmfhsdtkjib elbltcb vybidytkj,bc vjdktyt,b vj[lf&1089 otkc ufvtalf 16 okbc lfdbsb ̂itvltu fqvfityt,kfl ojlt,ekb& vfyvtnfl v’bvt vlujvfhtj,fib v.jab cfvtaj vbbqj& sehmsf sfhtibc itltufl^hjvtkbw okt,bc ufyvfdkj,fib uh’tklt,jlf^ cfmfhsdtkj fj[ht,ekbb.j& s,bkbcb erdt 400 okbc ufyvfdkj,fib fhf,sf [tkib b.j& rf[tsblfvjerblt,tk cfvtajl mwtekb.j& mdt.fyfib ibyffikbkj,f ceatdlf^lbludfhjdfy fpyfeht,c qfkfnbcfrty tzbhfs sdfkb lf vtabc [tkbceakt,bcitcecnt,f toflfs& vfqfkb bthfhmyb lbludfhjdfy fpyfehsf ohbcofhvjvflutytkyb b.dyty&

mdt.ybc wtynhfkbpfwbbc vjobyffqvltut ‘fkt,b vtabcvjobyffqvltut lbludfhjdyt,c ezthlyty v[fhc^ pjub vfsufyb trktcbbcvfqfkb atybc ofhvjvflutytkb b.j^ hjvtkbw trktcbfib sfdbcb vfqfkbofhvjij,bcf lf cbvlblhbc o.fkj,bs b.j vj[dtlhbkb& vfs hebc-eh,ybcbcrht,bc ‘tukbcothf #eqbhct,c@ eojlt,c&

lfdbs fqvfityt,tkvf ‘bhbsflb eo.t,fyb ~cfibyfj^ abyfycsf^cfv[tlhj` eiefkjl vtabc dtpbhc _ vobuyj,fhse[ewtcc _ z.jylbltkclfemdtvlt,fhf& vfcdt tmdtvlt,fht,jlf cfvtaj cgfw& bub vtatcsfy thsflo.dtnlf jvbc lfo.t,f-fhlfo.t,bc cfrbs[c lf pju]th jvibw vblbjlf&ubjhub z.jylbltkbc eiefkj [tkv’qdfytkj,bs vj[lf wb[t-mfkfmcfvidbklbc fqt,f 1110 otkc^ hfcfw mdtvj mfhskbc vsfdfh wb[tsfufysfdbceakt,fw vj/.df& cfvidbklbc fqt,fv sehmt,c sfdpfhb lfcwf^ceksfyvf 100 000 rfwbfyb kfimfhb ufvjupfdyf^ vfuhfv lfdbsvf c’kbf lfsehmt,b ufbmwyty& ubjhub z.jylbltkvf vnthc hecsfdbw offhsdf _ tc vj[lf1115 otkc& 1118 otkc .bdxfqt,bc cfmfhsdtkjib xfvjcf[kt,bc cfmvtwlfdbsvf ubjhub z.jylbltksfy thsfl vjfudfhf& .bdxfqt,b mfhsdtk vtatccfpqdht,bc lfcfwfdfl lf ew[jtsib cfkfimhjl tcfzbhjt,jlf& bcbyblfcf[kt,ekb /.fdlf cfpqdht,pt ̂sfyfvtlhjdt cjv[tscf lf fpth,fb]fyib~ibhdfysfy`^ fvbnjvfw .bdxfqt,b mfhsdtkt,c fh itho.vbfy&

lfdbs fqvfityt,kbc .jdtkb ufvfh]dt,f mhbcnbfyj,fcsfy b.jlfrfdibht,ekb^ mhbcnbfyj,bc vnht,bc lfshueydbcfrty vbvfhsekb&]dfhjcfysf jvbc lfo.t,bcfc vtat .jdtkv[hbd t[vfht,jlf vfs&

30lfdbs fqvfityt,tkb^ hjujhw qhvflvjhoveyt mhbcnbfyb ̂eafkc b.j

vbylj,bkb& fct b.j lblujhbc ,h’jkbc lhjcfw^ hjwf itbrhb,f ehbw[dbsehmb ̂dbsfhwf pqdf mdbibcf& 1121 okbc 18 fudbcnjc vjdblyty shbfktsib^vfyukbccf lf lblujhib ̂bct^ hjv at[bc lfcfluvtkb flubkbw fh /.jayblfs^[jkj lfdbs vtatv^ eibivf lf uekbs e’hfdvf oby ufyfo.j sfdbcb cgf&

gbhdtkb it,h’jkt,bcfc erfy lfb[bf vnthvf^ [jkj itvltu ufbmwf^hfvtse lfdbs vtatc vfqfkb qvthsb ittotjlf lf ov& vjofvt ubjhub w[flfllf .dtkfc cf[bkdtkfl oby vbe’qjlf& tc ,h’jkf cek cfvb cffsb ufuh’tklf&sehmt,vf obyffqvltuj,f dtqfh it’ktc mfhsdtkt,bc v[hblfy gbhdtkbdtrdtst,bc itvltu&

vtjht otkc fbqj vtatv s,bkbcb ̂hjvtkbw 400 otkb fhf,sf [tkibb.j ~1122 otkb`&

thsb v[hbd^ bub^ hjujhw vtat lf cf[tkvobaj vjqdfot^ vnrbwtyt,bc.jabs^ ujybthb vjmvtlt,bsf lf cfv[tlhj lf flvbybcnhfwbekbvfhsdbc ybzbs ‘kbth wtynhfkbpt,ek cf[tkvobajc mvyblf lf .dtkfc^thcfw lf ,thcfw vbc cfvcf[ehib f.tyt,lf^ [jkj vtjht v[hbd bc^ hjujhwufyfskt,ekb flfvbfyb^ sf.dfycf cwtvlf vtwybtht,fc^ gfnbjcyt,fcf lfthsuekt,fc^ fvbc eybrfkehb ufycf[btht,f vbcb vj’qdfhb _ fhctyb.fksjtkb b.j^ obuyb rb _ vbcb ufye.htkb vtuj,fhb&

vtat velfv ,tht,bc ohtib nhbfkt,lf^ fvbnjv lfdbsb cfcekbthjobuyt,bc e,flkj vwjlyt b.j lf vfc qhvf cftrktcbj cfqdsbcvtn.dtkjufyfskt,f /mjylf vbqt,ekb&

lfdbs vtatv lffvidblf mdt.fyf^ ffdcj^ fqfityf lfyuhtekb lf .dtkflhjc uflffvtnf vidblj,bs lf cbvlblhbs& vfy cb,h’ybc ltlfl bgjdf ibibqvhsbcf& [jkj cfqvhsj othbkb _ ‘dtkb lf f[fkb itb.dfhf lf itbsdbcf&tc obuyt,b ofhvjflutylf vbcsdbc cekbth cfphljc& velfv sfy f[klfobuyt,bs lfndbhsekb ]jht,b lf fmktvt,b lf w[tyblfy xfvjmdtbslt,jlfse fhf^ gbhdtk .jdkbcf^ obuyt,c vbfhsvtdlyty [jkvt& rbs[ekj,lflfqfvt,fvlt^ rbs[ekj,lf jvbc lhjcfw rb^ sfdbceafk cffst,ib& velfvkjwdf-vfh[dfib b.j& cftivfrj cbvqtht,b^ cf[bj,fyb^ ufyw[hjvf^ qvhsbccf’ekdtkb ubyt,f lf .jdtkb eotcj,f kfimfhibw frh’fkekb b.j&

cbyfc vsfpt ̂cflfw vjctv lf tkbfv b[bktc qvthsb^ vjyfcnthb ffityflf vhfdfkb jmhj ofhupfdyf&

.jdtkbdtc ufcwtvlf fhf vj[tktt,bcufy vbqt,ekc^ fylf cfvtajcfzehzkblfy^ fhfvtl sfdbcb [tkbs vjgjdt,ekc&

fhf vfhnj vjyfcnht,b lf kfdht,b uffsfdbceakf vjdfktsfufy^fhfvtl vbcb cfvtajc [ewt,bw _ ,tufhbcfufy^ hfsf sfdbceakflfqtchekt,byfs cfqvhsj vcf[eht,f&

++ gthbjlb \++-\|+++ cc


qvhsbc vbth bctsb ybzb /mjylf ,j’t,ekb^ hjv fhfdbcb cfmvt lfcbn.df^ rtsbkb se ,jhjnb fh lftvfkt,jlf^ fvbnjvfw dthw lblb lf dthwvwbht jhuekj,fcf lf qfkfnc dth e,tlfdlf& fctdt vqdltkvsfdht,b^vqdlkt,b ̂lbfrdyt,b ̂vjyfpdyt,b lf .jdtkb rfwb cfmvtc otcbthfl frtst,lf^fvbnjvfw b.j otcbtht,f^ rfyjybtht,f ̂gfnbjcyt,f&

ths[tk vtatc cjvt[sf tgbcrjgjct,vf cs[jdtc^ hjv xftnfht,byfrht,f^ cflfw bmyt,jlf cbn.dbcut,f lf h]ekbc ufvj’bt,f^ bv gbhj,bs^ hjvse cjv[t,b lfvfhw[lt,jlyty^ h]ekbc thsj,fc lfsfy[vlt,jlyty lfsfdbfysc itfxdtyt,lyty^ [jkj se ufbvfh]dt,lyty _ vfiby ,h’fyt,f eylfufwtvekb.j^ hfsf fqfh tojlt,byfs vfssdbc vodfkt,kt,b lf fhittxdtyt,byfs&

vtatv vjbodbf mfhskbc rfsfkbrjcb bjfyt^ tgbcrjgjct,b^vtelf,yjtyb lf fhcty b.fksjtkb^ c[df vtwybtht,b lf ,h’tyb rfwt,b&

lfbo.tc rfvfsb wbcrhblfy cfqfvjc w[hf cffsfvlt& vjto.byf vtatc lfes[hf vfs% #smdty^ vfvfyj ̂ufehrdtdtk cbqhvtt,ib it[dfks^ itewyj,tkc[tlfds^ hjujhw abkjcjajct,b lf xdty fh itudb’kbf ufut,f^ hjujhwecofdktkt,cf lf thbcrfwt,c& smdty bwbs^ hjv vt ijhcf dfh cofdkekt,bcflf vtwybtht,bcfufy^ hjujhw cfv[tlhj cfmvtt,ib fqphlbkb^ fvbnjvfwecofdktkb lf vfhnbdb cbn.dt,bs utn.dbs smdty@& tc hjv smdf^ bctsbbufdt,bs ufcwf cjv[t,c gfce[b^ hjv egfce[jl lf ecbn.djl lfnjdf bcbyb^hjujhw jltcqfw ,fcbkb lblvf ofhvfhst,b fstyib& vodfkt,kt,vf cf]fhjlfqbfhtc lfvfhw[t,f&

vtvfnbfyt lfdbsc f[fcbfst,c^ hjujhw #vnht,bcufyfw rb cfofltkclf cfsyjt,bs cf.dfhtkc@&

vtaj,lf 36 otkb lf hjujhw lfdbsvf cjkjvjyb^ vfy sdbsdt lfcdfnf[npt sfdbcb ‘t ltvtnht^ .jdkbsehs vcufdcb vfvbcf lf lffluf sfdptudbhudbyb gfnbjcfyb mdt,bcf ̂itfhn.f otkpt vf[dbkb^ cdbfyfl [vfht,ekblf itvjcf gjhabhbs^ lfekjwf w[jdht,f& fct ufwdfkf mdt.ybehbvjmfkfmtj,f ptwbeh cfceatdtkpt^ cflfw fhbc idt,f lf cb[fhekb ̂cflfwfh fhbc voe[fht,f lf fhbc cbwjw[kt^ hjvtkcfw dth itfvqdhtdc cbrdlbkb&cf[tkjdfyb lf lblt,ekb vtat 1125 o& 24 bfydfhc ufhlfbwdfkf&

lfdbs fqvfityt,kbc itvltu^ sfvfh vtatvlt^ t&b& ltvtnht +-bc^lfdbs |-bc lf ubjhub +++-bc lhjc^ vbe[tlfdfl bvbcf^ hjv tc vtatt,bc[dfj,lyty ehsbthsbcfufy hjujhw pytj,hbd-vjmfkfmtj,hbdb sdbct,t,bs^bct gjkbnbrehb fkqjsb^ cf[tkvobajcf lf trktcbbc ehsbthsj,bccnhemnehfib fhct,bsb wdkbkt,t,b fh vjv[lfhf& bubdtc dth dbn.dbssfvfhbc gthbjlpt^ ufycfresht,bs^ vbcb vtaj,bc gbhdtk okt,pt&fewbkt,tkbf fqbybiyjc hfvltybvt ‘bhbsflb vjvtynb&

32lfdbs fqvfityt,kbc lhjblfy vfqfk sfyfvlt,j,t,pt fhf

isfvjvfdkj,bsb lf udfhjdyek-ojlt,hbdb ybiyt,bs^ fhfvtl gbhflbqbhct,t,bs fobyfeht,lyty& ubjhub +++-cfw evfqktcb #cf[tkjt,b@ qbhcteklf thsuek #eudfhjsfsdbc@ /mjylf vbwtvekb& f[kf^ erdt sfvfhbc lhjc^fqfh bcehdtc lblt,ekt,vf ‘dtk [tkbceafksf [tkmdtbsj,f lf vjbs[jdtc.e,fcfhbcf lf fahbljybcfsdbc sfyfvlt,j,bcf lf mjyt,bc xfvjhsvtdf& sfvfhvflfsvj&

dfrfynehb flubkt,bcfsdbc lblt,eksf ijhbc mbigj,f ufxfqlf&sfvfhvf egbhfntcj,f v[fhuh’tkt,c vbfybzf& ufycfresht,bs ffvfqkfpfmfhbf^ fuhtsdt cfhubc^ bdfyt lf fdfu v[fhuh’tkt,b& vtvfnbfybc sfyf[vfl^bdfyt v[fhuh’tkvf^ hjvtkcfw sfvfhvf vbcb s[jdybc sfyf[vfl fsf,fuj,fe,j’f^ afmnbehfl eqfkfnf cfmfhsdtkjc ifkdf lf bdfyt f[fkwb[tkt,bciehbc ufvj& fctdt fh ufvjbxbytc thsuekt,f lfyfhxtyvf v[fhuh’tkt,vfw&

cfmfhsdtkjc ufthsbfyt,bcfc z.jylbltk-vobuyj,fhse[ewtct,bsfdlflt,ekfl b,h’jlyty thsbfyb mfhsekb cf[tkvobajc itmvybcfsdbc^cfmfhsdtkjc ufthsbfyt,bcfsdbc^ fsf,fuj,bc bycnbnenbc itvjqt,bc itvlturb cfmfhsdtkjc thsbfyb cf[tkvobaj lfvfhw[lf lf lfbifkf& z.jylbltkbclhjbyltkb rjycjkblfwbf fv lhjc iehvf lf qfkfnvf itwdfkf& #js[vfv[fhuh’tkvf@ lf vfsvf isfvjvfdkt,vf z.jylbltkj,f dth ufcobtc&

w[flbf^ cfvtaj rfhpt vjyjabpbnb fvbhcgfcfkfhbc fqptdt,bsvfhskvflblt,tkb trktcbf rvf.jabkb fh bmyt,jlf& fm cfabmht,tkbf bc^hjv hjujhw rfsfkbrjcb^ bct ‘dtkb cfvtajc lblt,ekt,b uh’yj,lyty _f[fkb gjkbnbrbs ~vjyjabpbnt,bc fqptdt,bs` cf[tkvobajc itb’kt,jlflblb gjkbnbrehb vfhw[b ufytwflf& y& ,th’tybidbkbc fphbs^ tc vfhskfwfct vjv[lfhf lf kfif-ubjhub fv vfhw[bc ufvjcojht,fc ittwflf& kfif-ubjhub wtynhfkbcnehb ntyltywbt,bcrty vblhtrbkb vvfhsdtkb b.j& vfyufybijhf v[fhuh’tkt,b& sfvfhbc ‘tc lfdbs fqvfityt,kj,f lf vbcb ef[kjtcbvtvrdblhtt,bc lhjbyltkb v’kfdhb cfvtaj [tkbceakt,bc fqlutyf cehlf&kfif cfcnbrfl lffvfhw[tc fqptdt,ekvf lblt,ekt,vf _ fsf,fuvf lf c[dfv[fhuh’tkt,vf& vtatc cf[tkb ufent[tc lf bub c[df lblt,ekt,bc^ [fk[bcflf vjhoveytt,bc sdfkib eyt,bc.jaj lf fvjhfkeh flfvbfyfl ofhvjfxbytc&kfif f[fkufphlf ufhlfbwdfkf& vfs hecelfyb uffvtatc&

fqcfybiyfdbf^ hjv pfmfhbf v[fhuh’tkb thjdyt,bs mehsb^cfhoveyjt,bs cjvt[b^ gjkbnbrehfl rb mfhsdtkb v[tlfhsvsfdfhb lfvjqdfot b.j&

sfvfhbc vjqdfotj,bc lfcf[fcbfst,kfl vsfdfhbf vbcb cfufhtj lfcfibyfj gjkbnbrehb vbqotdt,b^ lf fctdt vbcb cf[tkvobajc ufcfjwfhb/evfyehj,f^ hjvtkbw sfdbc v[hbd^ cfabmht,tkbf^ lfdbs fqvfityt,kbccekbth vtvrdblhtj,fc tae’yt,jlf&

++ gthbjlb \++-\|+++ cc


lfdbs fqvfityt,kbc fylth’b ~fuhtsdt vbcb #ufkj,fyb cbyfyekbcfyb@`fh b.j lfafhekb vbcb itvlujvb sfj,t,bcfsdbc& eahj vtnbw^ xfyc^ vbcbfqchekt,f mfhsdtk cf[tkvobaj vjqdfott,c sfdbfys vjdfktj,flvbfxylfs^ ufycfresht,bs^ sfvfh vtatc& fvfpt bcbw vbesbst,c^ hjv sfvfhbcbcnjhbrjcb ,fcbkb tpjcvj’qdfhb cojhtl fv fylth’c bqt,c cfpjvfl sfvfhbcvjqdfotj,bc itafct,bcfc&

sfvfh vtatc vf/vflbfysfufy ufysfdbceakt,ekb mdt.yt,b eiefkjlrb fh itvjethst,bf sfdbcb cfvtajcfsdbc ̂fhfvtl bcbyb .vflyfabw mdt.yt,flemwtdbf& fvbs fv mdt.yt,bc cfvtaj #cf[kt,bcfsdbc@ cfvtaj eakt,t,biteyfhxeyt,bf^ eahj vtnbw^ #lfukf[frt,ekb@ vtatt,b ufevlblht,bf&

lfdbs vtatvlt^ obyf cfereytt,ib^ mfhsdtkb thb sdbsjy b.j c[dftht,bc fuhtcbbc j,btmnb* vbcb vskbfyb ‘fkbc[vtdf bv lhjc sfdbceakt,bcvjgjdt,bcf lf ufthsbfyt,bcfrty b.j vbvfhsekb ̂vfuhfv ̂hjujhw rb thsbfyb^rfdrfcbbc vfcinf,bc e’kbthtcb cf[tkvobaj itmvyf^ vfy efhb ufyfw[flfc[dfsf lfg.hj,f-fcbvbkfwbfpt^ ufvjfv;qfdyf elbltcb ibyfufyb cbs,j lfcb.dfhekb^ rfwsvj.dfhtj,f _ tc b.j sfvfhbc cf[tkvobaj gjkbnbrf^hjvtkbw^ hjujhw bsmdf ̂lfdbsbc /evfybpvc tae’yt,jlf&

cojhtl hjv^ cfjwfhbf ief cfereytt,bcfsdbc fvudfhb vjmvtlt,f%[tkvobat^ hjvtkcfw ite’kbf c[dfsf vbot,bc vbsdbct,f ̂efhc fv,j,c fvfpt^fylf byfybt,c #cf[kbc cf[kpt@ ithsdfc&

fv res[bs se uflfd[tlfds ‘dtkb vcjakbjc cf[tkvobajsfgjkbnbrfc^ cek c[df cehfsc lfdbyf[fds& [tkvobatt,b bvbs fvf.j,lyty^hfvltyb mdt.fyf lfbg.htc^ lffyuhbtc^ vjcgtc& fv sdfkcfphbcbs fhf vfhnjfcehtsbc lf ehfhnec [tkvobatt,b^ fhfvtl fhw hjvbcf lf ,bpfynbbcbvgthfnjht,b b.dyty ufvjyfrkbcyb^ sehmek-cgfhcek cf[tkvobajt,pthjv fqfhfathb dsmdfs^ sdbs \+\ c-bc #wbdbkbpt,ekb@ cf[tkvobajvjqdfott,bw fctdt bmwtjlyty& gfdkt wbwbfyjdb hectsbcflvb lfevjhxb-kt,tk ths stvc cothlf% #&&&smdty yfvldbkfl abmhj,s^ hjv vt mfhsdtkbdfh lf ,tlfds fct othfc& vt hectsib lfdb,flt lf ufdbpfhlt& xtvib hecekbcekbf& lfbwflts xtvc vjcdkfvlt lf vfiby vt smdty cf[k-rfhc rb fhlfubodfds^ smdty lfuodfds lf smdtyc wjk-idbkc ibuytekj,fcufvjdqflhfd&&&@

lbf[^ vfhsfkbf gfdkt wbwbfyjdb^ hjwf sfdbc sfdc fhfmfhsdtkgjkbnbreh vjqdfotl vbbxytdc^ hflufyfw mfhsdtkb gjkbnbrjcbcfsdbcvbeqt,tkbf vcufdcb mvtlt,fyb& thsb xdtyb vjqdfot fv,j,lf% #thb sfdbcyfvldbk cf[tc elbltcb cb’kbthbc lhjc fv;qfdyt,c@&

sfvfhbc fv /evfybpvc fhfmfhsdtkvf [fk[t,vf ufcfjwfhb cb.dfhekbsegfce[tc& bub fhf vfhnj mfhsdtk thc^ fhfvtl rfdrfcbbc ~ufycfresht,bsvsbfytsbc^ xhlbkj rfdrfcbbc ̀[fk[t,cfw e.dfhlfs&

34sfvfhbc cf[tkvobajib vrfwhfl b.j lfwekb qfhb,sfsdbc

cf[tkvobaj itvjcfdkbc vtfstlbc ufyfobkt,bc otcb& fqcfybiyfdbf^ hjvmfhsekb cf[tkvobajcfsdbc itvjcfdkbc vtfstlbc uflfwtvf qfhb,sfsdbclfdbs fqvfityt,kfvltw nhflbwbekb b.j& vfuhfv sfvfhb^ bctdt^ hjujhwlfdbs fqvfityt,tkb ̂qfhb,t,c fhf vfhnj cf[tkvobaj mjyt,fc^ fhfvtl gbhflmjyt,fcfw ̂sfdbcb [tkbc ihjvbs it’tybkcfw eyfobkt,lf& cfbynthtcjf ̂hjvbub gbhfl mjyt,fc cfvtaj mjyt,bcufy ufyfhxtdlf^ vfiby^ hjwf xdtekt,hbd^atjlfkeh mdt.yt,ib fctsb ufhxtdf fh bwjlyty&

vtvfnbfybc cbn.dbs^ sfvfhvf cekbthb cbvidblt cfpjufljt,fibwlffvrdblhf& vbc lhjc vfshf[bc wtvbsf lf c[tekbc fcjt,bc vjrdtsbs lfc]ffqrdtsbkb b.j& afmnbehfl vjbcgj cbrdlbkbs lfc]f&

sfvfhbc /evfybpvbc ufycfresht,ek ufvj[fnekt,fl eylf xfbsdfkjcvbcb lfvjrblt,ekt,f c[df htkbubehb fqvcfht,kj,t,bcflvb&

cfvtajc ufafhsjt,fc^ f.dfdt,f-ufaehxmdyfc^ cf[tkcf lf lblt,fcsfvfhbc gbhjdyt,fib cbfvf.t fh fqe’hfdc&

sfvfhbc gjkbnbrf^ w[flbf^ ufyc[dfdlt,jlf lfdbs fqvfityt,kbccf[tkvobajt,hbdb vbvfhsekt,bcfufy^ vfuhfv vjekjlytkb fh .jabkf^hflufy afmnbehfl bc b.j mhbcnbfyek vjhfkpt lfae’yt,ekb gjkbnbrf^lf c[dfsf ijhbc^ vfc stjhbekb cfae’dtkb sdbs lfdbsvf vbcwf^ hjujhwsfdbcb vjqdfotj,bs^ bct wyj,bkb fylth’bsf lf #ufkj,fyb cbyfyekbcfybs@^cflfw bub yfyj,lf^ hjv eahj vtnfl /evfyehb gjkbnbrbc ufy[jhwbtkt,fdth it’kj^ sfvfhvf rb ufyf[jhwbtkf&

lfdbs vtabc cf[tkvobaj vjo.j,bc ptvjs vj.dfybkb it[tlekt,fybmfhsdtk cfpjufljt,fc vbexytdbf^ hjujhw cfghjuhfvj stjhbf^ fylth’b&fvbnjvfw^ xfyc^ sfvfhc ewlbf fqtchekt,byf bc lf vskbfyb cf[tkvobajcbcntvf vbcb ufy[jhwbtkt,bcfsdbc lfemdtvlt,fht,bf&

++ gthbjlb \++-\|+++ cc


\ + + + C F E R E Y T

sfvfhbc lhjbyltkb f.dfdt,ekb mdt.fyf hecelfybc vtaj,bcfcvjyqjkt,vf lfbg.htc& fvfc rb oby ]fkfktlbybc kfimhj,f lf s,bkbcbcbfdfhmvyf ecoht,lf&

1225 otkc [dfhfpvif ]fkfktlbybc itvjctdbcfc hecelfyvfmfhsdtksf kfimfhc v[fhuh’tkb bdfyt fsf,fub ecfhlkf& it,h’jkt,fcfmfhsdtkjc cjatk ufhybcsfy ~cjv[tsib` vj[lf& mfhsdtksf kfimfhblfvfhw[lf lf vfhw[bc vbptpb ehsbthsiehb lf vnhj,f b.j&

fv jvib mfhsdtksf kfimfhib vtobyfdtyb vtc[t,b b.dyty _ ifkdf lfbdfyt f[fkwb[tkt,bc vtsfehj,bs& otcbs^ vsfdfhcfhlfkc lfv[vfht ‘fkfeylf vbtidtkt,byf mfhsdtk obyfv,h’jkt,bcfsdbc^ vfuhfv^ vbe[tlfdflbvbcf^ hjv f[fkwb[tkt,vf vhfdfkupbc itesdfktc^ bdfyt fsf,fuvf ]fhb fhvbfidtkf& bdfyt f[fkwb[tkb fv jvib vjrktc^ [jkj ifkdf n.dtl xfbultc&bub ]fkfktlbyvf vfibydt hjlb vjrkf^ sfdbcsfy lfbnjdf lf lblb gfnbdbstg.hj,jlf& nr,bkb cbn.dbs ittwflf^ hjv ifkdfc c]ekb lftnjdt,byf^vfuhfv dthfahbs ufnt[f& vhfdfkb nfy]dbc itvltu ifkdf f[fkwb[tkbvjofvtj,hbdb cbrdlbkbs fqtchekf lf ovblfybc udbhudbyb [dlf obkfl&

vtvfnbfyt fv,j,c ̂hjv cfmfhsdtkjc lfwtvfcf lf ufyflueht,fc ~]th[dfhfpvtkt,bc^ itvltu rb vjyqjkt,bc vbth` cfae’dtkb cojhtl fv jviblftlj& ufhybcbc jvib mfhsdtksf kfimfhc fhw ejvbf vwbhthbw[jdfybyfobkbc ufhlf^ hjvtkbw f[fkwb[tkt,bc vtsfehj,bs vnhbc epfhvfpfhbkfimhbc obyfit vfhnj fqvjxylf&

v[fhuh’tkb vsfdfhcfhlfkb^ bdfyt fsf,fub erebmwf lf cflqfwxfbrtnf& vfylfnehse[ewtcvf ̂fctdt v[fhuh’tkvf ifyitvfw v[jkjl sfdbcgbhfl cfufvut,kjpt ~fybcpt` bpheyf& vjyqjkt,sfy vfsb vjudfht dfhfvufutkbw lfpfdlf^ [jkj cfmfhsdtkjc c[df res[tt,b cfcnbrfl bh,tjlf&

]fkfktlbybc kfimfhb ufhc itvjfluf s,bkbcc& hecelfyb fb.fhf lfofdblf mesfsbcc& s,bkbcbc vwdtkfl lfnjdf kfimfhb lf ,jwjc ‘tyb _ ,b’byflf ,jwj& s,bkbctkvf cgfhctkt,vf vnthc rfhb qfkfnbs ufeqtc& mfkfmbjvbc fcgfhtpfl bmwf& vnthb eo.fkjl vechfdlf s,bkbctkt,c& ceksfyvfcbjybc uev,fsb vjf[cytdbyf lf ,bkob lfcf]ljvtkb ffityt,byf& cbjybc[fnt,b _ eakbcf lf qvhsbcvij,kbc^ [blbc sfdsfy lfflt,byf lf ,h’fyf^hjv itg.hj,bk mhbcnbfyt,c at[bs uflftdkjs vfspt& dbyw efhc bn.jlf^bmdt rkfdlyty& cfabmht,tkbf ̂hjv vjrkeksf hbw[dvf 100 000-c vbfqobf&sfdbc v[hbd fhw eafkvf vbfnjdf sfdbcb cfvo.cj _ mfhsdtkb thb lf vfc fvufcfzbhib vhfdfkupbc ittobf&

\+++ c-bc lfvltublfy xbyubp [fybc vtsfehj,bs vjyqjksfufthsbfyt,ekvf cf[tkvobajv vcjakbjc vybidytkjdfyb yfobkb fpbfcf lf

36tdhjgfib _ xhl& xbytsb^ ief fpbf^ bhfyb^ fdqfytsb lf c[df mdt.yt,blfbvjhxbkf& xdtyb vtvfnbfyt othc^ hjv vjyqjkt,b kfimhj,lyty #lblcfcf.bdxfqtscf ptlf^ jdctsc^ [fpfhtsc lf hectsc dblht ,ytktsfvlt@&#,ytktsc@ vtvfnbfyt xhlbkjtsbc gjkfhek pjyfc eojlt,c& lfcfdktsblfybcbyb vbef[kjdlyty tdhjgbc wtynht,c _ #dblht ,jqfhslf cth,tsfvlt@&

cfjwfhbf^ vfuhfv afmnbf^ hjv fctsvf e’kbthtcvf cf[tkvobajvcfmfhsdtkjc chekb lfg.hj,f lf mfhsekb cf[tkvobajt,hbj,bc ufemvt,fdth it’kj& buekbc[vt,f^ hjv lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkj vjyqjkt,c fhfcjltclfeg.hbfs^ hbc ufvjw cfmfhsdtkjc cfvtaj wtynhbw fm bmyf uflfnfybkb&vjyqjkt,bc ‘bhbsflb ‘fkt,bc itvjctdbc lhjc cfmfhsdtkjc cf[tkvobajccfsfdtib hecelfy vtat bluf^ hjvtkcfw bdfyt ]fdf[bidbkb ufvjewltkcflf mdt.ybc vtcfztj,bcfsdbc ufvjecfltufh gbhjdyt,fc eojlt,c&

itt’kjs se fhf cfmfhsdtkjc vsfdhj,fcf lf vsfdfhcfhlfkc fhitto.dbnfs ,h’jkf lf vjyqjkt,c ufvrkfdt,jlyty( esejl itt’kjs& fvfptvbesbst,c bcbw^ hjv vjyqjkt,vf^ vbe[tlfdfl lblb vjyljvt,bcf ̂lfcfdktscfmfhsdtkjib itcdkf dthw ths[tk dth it’ktc&

vjyqjkt,vf afmnbehfl e,h’jkdtkfl lfbvjhxbktc fqvjcfdktscfmfhsdtkj& fcts lhjc mfhsekvf trktcbfv cfzbhjl vbbxybf itotjlfcfmfhsdtkjc lfvidblt,bc cfmvtc& z.jylbltkvf tgbcrjgjcvf rbltd ths[tkbyt,f cfmfhsdtkjc itrht,f ths vskbfy mdt.yfl& lff[kjt,bs 1242 otkc#hecelfy vtatv ,fsj .ftysfy djkubcgbhtsib fhcty z.jylbltk-vobuyj,fhse[ewtcb ufupfdyf@& vfy vjyqjkt,sfy pfdc vbfqobf^ hjvkbcsfyf[vflfw vjyqjksf evfqktcb [tkbceakt,f cwyj,lf thsbfy ̂ufye.jatkcfmfhsdtkjc cf[tkvobajc mfhsdtkb vtabc vtsfehj,bs& fqvjcfdktscfmfhsdtkjc ufhrdtekb dfklt,ekt,f eylf trbchf^ [jkj lfcfdktscfmfhsdtkj^ hjujhw lfeg.hj,tkb v[fht^ fv dfklt,ekt,bcfufysfdbceafkb b.j ̂sevwf [fhrbc uflf[lf vstk cfmfhsdtkjc lftrbchf&

1259 otkc vjyqjkt,c s,bkbcib v]ljvb cfmfhsdtkjc jhb vtablfyths-thsb ̂lfdbs yfhbyb _ hecelfybc ‘t fe]fy.lf lf lfc& cfmfhsdtkjib uflfdblf&fvbc itvltu cfmfhsdtkjc tc yfobkb vjyqjksf ,fnjyj,fc ufvjtsbif lf fvv[fhbc vvfhsdtkt,b mfhsek cf[tkvobajt,hbd gjkbnbrfc fuh’tkt,ty&

cfvoe[fhjl ̂vjyqjksf ,fnjyj,bc lhjc ̂gjkbnbrehb vvfhsdtkj-,bc sdfkcfphbcbs cfmfhsdtkj cfv yfobkfl ufb.j% fqvjcfdkts ̂lfcfdktslf cfv[hts #cfmfhsdtkjt,fl@& vfuhfv vfs mfhsekb trktcbf fthsbfyt,lf&cojhtl fvbnjv^ fv lfikbc ;fvcfw ̂mfhsdtkt,c sfdbfysb mdt.ybc cfpqdht,fl‘dtkt,ehfldt ybrjacbf lf lfhe,fylb /mjylfs ofhvjlutybkb& fmdt eylfbsmdfc^ hjv cbyfvldbktib fqvjcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc cfpqdfhb#stsho.fkpt@ ~fye f[cept` uflbjlf^ cfblfyfw lfhe,fylfvlt^ fye rfcgbbcpqdfvlt v[jkjl 60-70 rv-bf& tc vlbyfht mfhsdtksf tsybrehb ufycf[kt,bc

++ gthbjlb \++-\|+++ cc


fqvjcfdkts cfpqdfhc fhf vfhnj vjyqjkt,bc lhjc^ fhfvtl obyfcfereytt,ibw ofhvjflutylf& vfufkbsfl^ hjwf \ c-bc vtjht yf[tdfhibrf[tsb lf /thtsb ufthsbfylf^ tc ufthsbfyt,f dhwtklt,jlf vl& f[cevlt& fvres[tib mfhsdtkt,b^ rth’jl^ /tht,b vzblhjl b.dyty lfcf[kt,ekyb^itvltu^ bvbc ufvj^ hjv fv res[bc vf[kj,kfl vjyqjkt,vf cf’jdht,bufbxbytc^ tc mdt.fyf vjcf[ktj,bcfufy lfbwfkf ̂fy uflfudfhlf&

cfv[hts cfmfhsdtkjc cfpqdfhb uflbjlf vl& fhfmcpt ~hf[cpt`& fybcblf ldbybw ‘dtkt,ehfl rdkfd cfmfhsdtkjc mfkfmt,fl bsdkt,jlf&

nfjw cfmfhsdtkjc tresdyjlf& rj[nfcsfdbc itsmveksf ijhbcnfjtkb vtfv,j[tt,bw vjb[ctybt,bfy&

vtc[tsib ,tmfc vsfdhj,bc lhjc cfmfhsdtkjc cfpqdht,ib zfytsbwrb itlbjlf^ hjvtkbw ,bpfynbfv lfsvj& fmdt fqdybiyfds^ hjv cfvw[bcvsfdfhsf j]f[b lblfl qvhsbcvjibib b.j& lbl gfnbdc cwtvlf cfvqdlt-kjt,fc ̂tgbcrjgjct,c ̂vjyfpdyt,c& ,tmf vjyfcnthsf lf trktcbfsf vityt,tkb^vjyfpjysf lf vjotctsf gfnbdbcvwtvtkb b.j& wbcrhbc^ cfv[hbcf lf voe[hbckjwdfc fhw sdbsjy frklt,jlf lf fhw kfimfhc lffrkt,lf^ hbcsdbcfw vfcqvthsb velfv co.fkj,lf&

lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc cfpqdfhc ifdb pqdf ofhvjflutylf _ybrjacbfvlt&

vjyqjksf v’kfdhj,bc ecfcnbrtc cfereytib mfhsdtkvf [fk[vfitbyfhxeyf sfdbcb thjdyekb cfpqdht,b^ cf[tkvobajt,hbj,f^ tsybrehbthsj,bc uh’yj,f^ vfiby^ hjwf cfmfhsdtkjc vtpj,tk mdt.yt,c vjyqjkt,vftsybrehb cf[tw itewdfktc& cfmvt bc b.j^ hjv vjyqjkt,vf dth it’ktccfmfhsdtkjib xfcf[kt,f ̂vfiby^ hjwf vfs cfmfhsdtkjc vtpj,kfl vlt,fhthfyb^ veqfyb^ ifhdfyb lf fctdt cjv[tsbc nthbnjhbt,b cfpfvshj lfcfpfa[ekj ,fyfrt,fl fmwbtc& xdtyb vtpj,tkb fk,fytkt,b^ hjvtksfwsehm-ctk]ert,bc itvjctdbc itltufl tsybrehb cf[t lfrfhutc^ vjyqjkt,bc,fnjyj,bc ;fvc chekt,bs ufmhyty^ [jkj cjv[tsbc evsfdhtcb mfkfmt,blfyknjkdbkb cjv[t,b cfmfhsdtkjcf lf c[df mdt.yt,c fafht,lyty sfdc&

fqcfybiyfdbf^ hjv vjyqjksf v’kfdhj,fc mfhsdtkvf [fk[vf vfqfkbmhbcnbfyekb vjhfkbs^ ehsbths-cb.dfhekbs^ ehsbthsufnfybs^sfdlflt,bs egfce[f& vhfdfkvf mfhsdtkvf lflj cekb vj.dfcbcf lfcfvij,kjc uflfcfhxtyfl& sfdc lt,lf fhf vfhnj hbubsb mfhsdtkb _ vtabcflf vfvekbcfsdbc^ fhfvtl vtatw _ thbc uflfcfhxtyfl&

itb’kt,f dbyvtv babmhjc^ hjv mfhsdtkt,b sfdc v[jkjlcfhoveyjt,hbdb vjcfpht,bs lt,lyty lf fv sfdlflt,bc cfyfwdkjlmhbcntcufy vjtkjlyty cekbc w[jyt,fc& w[flbf^ fctw b.j ̂jqjyl vjyqjksf,fnjyj,bc lfcfchekc& cfmfhsdtkjib itvjcdkbcfc rb vjyqjkt,bmhbcnbfyt,c fh fdbohjt,lyty ~bcbyb ]th rbltd fh b.dyty vf/vflbfyt,b`&

38fvbnjv cfhoveyjt,bcfsdbc sfdlflt,f itvltu uf[lf cfzbhj& bckfvb v[jkjl.fpfy .ftybc ~1295-1304` lhjc ufvjw[fllf cf[tkvobaj htkbubfl ~vfkt#sfsfhb@ fhf vjyqjkbc^ fhfvtl vf/vflbfybc cbyjybvfl bmwf &̀ cfbynthtcjf^hjv vjyqjkt,c mhbcnbfysf ltdyf cgfhctksf ofmtpt,bs lfeo.bfs&

cf.jdtksfjl wyj,bkbf ltvtnht ++-bc sfdlflt,f thbcfsdbc& vtatvofhvfhs vjyqjksf vcufdcfl cfvb wjkb vjb.dfyf& ,fcbkb vjyfpjyvf vtabceotcj mjhobyt,f fv[bkf^ vfuhfv eitltujl& vfiby vfy vtatc .jdkflovblfqvhsbcvij,kbc ‘fkbs eobyfcofhvtn.dtkf^ hjv serb fh itbcvtylf lfwjldfc fh ufyt.tyt,jlf^ vtaj,f xfvjthsvtjlf^ [jkj vbcb idbkt,bufyb,ytjlyty& thbc ufcfzbhbc ;fvc ltvtnhtc gbhjdyt,fib vfvekbccb.dfhekvf bv’kfdhf lf vfy sfdb lfclj sfdbcb thbcfsdbc& vtat sfdbcb yt,bsofdblf ehljib^ cflfw bub lffgfnbvhtc& cfcbrdlbkj ufyfxtybc vjkjlbyibvfc cfiefkt,f vbtwf ehljlfy ufgfhdbcf& thsuekt,vf ehxbtc^ f/f^ ityb sfdbityc [tkibf^ qfvbs ofb.dfyt vjh,tlb w[tyt,b lf oflb^ ufyijhlb fvfs^hfvtse fh fhct,j,c ityb cekbc yfwdfkbj& vfiby es[hf vtatv% #bcvbytsxtvb ̂hfvtse sfdblfydt dbwjlb ̂hjv cbrdlbkb vtkjlf^ vfuhfv lfdlt sfdbxtvb lf cekb xtvb thbcfsdbc& f[kf se ufdbgfht,b^ e,hfkj thc vjfj[ht,tylf hf cbrtst bmyt,f xtvsdbc .jdtkb cjatkb itdb’byj lf cekb ofhdbo.vblj@&

ltvtnht vtabc lfvc]tkb fhqeyb hfvltybvt okbc itvltu^fdflv.jaj,bs lfe’keht,ekb^ bvfdt lqtc ~12 vfhnc` lf bvfdt cffsptlff[hxtc^ hjvtkptw vtat ltvtnhtc vj/rdtstc sfdb&

cojhtl sfdlflt,bcf lf ehsbthscb.dfhekbc ufvj uflffhxbyf ltlfqvhsbcvij,tkvf mfhsdtksf kfimfhb fkfvesbc ,h’jkt,bc lhjc&wyj,bkbf^ hjv fkfvesbc wb[bc fqt,f vjyqjkt,c ufezbhlfs lf ,h’jkf^hjvtkibw mfhsdtksf ]fhbw vjyfobktj,lf ̂7 otkc ufuh’tklf& fkfvesbcvtgtnhjyt vekblt,b wyj,bkyb b.dyty hjujhw rfwbc vbgfhdbs vrdktkyb&ths[tkfw^ thsvf vekblvf vjyqjksf yjbyb-xbqfnf vjrkf& vjyqjkt,vfvbcb vjrdkf mfhsdtkt,c lff,hfktc lf vfsrty lfb’hyty& mfhsdtksfofhxbyt,ekt,vf itb,hfktc mfhsdtkb vjkfimhtyb^ fvbnjvfw uflfo.dbntcfh it,h’jkt,jlyty esfyfcojhjl vhfdfk vjyqjkt,c& se fhitdt,h’jkt,bs^ vfhnj xdty^ ofhxbyt,ekt,c lfud[jwfdty lf mfhsdtksfevhfdktcj,f fvbs uflfhxt,f^ [jkj se itdt,h’jkt,bs _ .dtkfcfvjud[jwfdtyj& erkt,kbd .dtkf mfhsdtkvf cfv-cfv]th vjblhbrf ve[kblf qvhsbcvij,tkc itdtlhf% #vjo.fkt,bcf rfhb ufyudbqt^ rehs[tekjqvhsbcvij,tkj^ hfsf hjvtkyb tct ity utcfds^ fhf lfdtwyts^ fhfvtlufydthyts obyffqvlujvsf vnthsfufy@& itb,hfkf .jdkflovblfv mfhsdtksfkfimfhb lf vrdktkc lfyfifekb fqbfht,byf&

fctdt lfbafhf qvthsvf jgbpf^ hjvkbc uf’fhwdfw vjyqjkt,vfvjbyljvtc& erdt vjyfcnthsfy vbf[kjt,eks v’kfdhvf odbvfv lf ctn.dfv

++ gthbjlb \++-\|+++ cc


upf fe,ybf lf vjyfcnthbw lfh,tdfc uflfhxf&vtvfnbfyt mfhsdtksf sfdlflt,bc efvhfd itvs[dtdfc fqothc&

vfufkbsfl^ bdfyt f[fkwb[tkbc ‘bc _ lfdbsbcf^ hjvtkbw hecelfy vtabcvbth vjyqjksf .ftysfy ufupfdybk cfmfhsdtkjc fvbhcgfcfkfhc - fdfuc f[klfsfy* vtc[tsbc vsfdhbc cfhubc wb[bc]dfhtkbcf _ cfmfhsdtkjc vtabc _ ekelfdbsbc uflfcfhxtyfl sfdb hjv ufobhf ~1264 &̀ vcufdc sfdlflt,fsf hbw[dcvbtresdyt,f ovblf wjnyt lflbfybc cf[tkjdfyb uvbhj,fw ~1246 o&`&

hjujhw .jdtkbdt ptvjsmvekblfy xfyc^ vjyqjksf itvjcdkbcfc^vfhsfkbf ̂cfmfhsdtkjc vsfdhj,fv ececehj,bc ufvj cthbjpekb obyffqvlt-uj,bc ufotdf dth vjf[th[f^ vfuhfv thvf sfdbcb ibyfufyb vfqfkcekbtht,bscfmfhsdtkjc uflfhxtyf lf vjyqjksf ,fnjyj,bc eqkbc uflfult,fitlfht,bs vjrkt lhjib it’kj& vjyqjkt,b fqvjcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjib100 otkb ,fnjyj,lyty ~hectsib _ 300 otkb` ̂sfyfw lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjlfeg.hj,tkb lfhxfs& hfw vsfdfhbf^ fh vj[lf vjyqjk-mfhsdtksfehsbthsithtdf lf mfhsdtkj,f ew[j [fk[ib fh fcbvbkbhlf^ vfiby^ hjwfc[df tht,c vjyqjkt,vf sfdbfysb tsybrehb cf[t vbcwtc&

thsuekt,f lf cb.dfhekb ‘dtkmfhsekb sdbct,ff^ sevwf^ hjujhwerdt bsmdf^ mfhsdtkt,bcfsdbc fhw thsvfytsbcflvb iehb lf vnhj,f .jabkfew[j^ iehlfs ufycfresht,bs ufvjhxtekb flfvbfyt,bcf& iehb vnhj,fc,flt,lf^ hfw ufvjxtybk mfhsdtkt,c thsvfytsc fijht,lf& mfhsdtksf tcsdbct,f vjyqjkt,cfw itevxytdbfs _ #smdty^ mfhsdtkyb ̂fhf rtsbkc e.jasv[ytl v,h’jksf o.j,fsf ibyf@& fv yfrkc sdbsjy mfhsdtkt,bw rfhufluh’yj,lyty% #xdty ehsbthsc lfevjhxbkt,tk dfhs@&

xfyc^ tc sdbct,fw b.j ths-thsb ‘bhbsflb vbptpb bvbcf^ hjvvjyqjkt,sfy cf,h’jkdtkfl thsbfyb mfhsekb ahjynb dth itbrhf^mfhsdtkb ofhxbyt,ekt,b dth ufthsbfylyty vjyqjkt,bc obyffqvltu^ sevwfwfk-wfkrt ‘fkpt vybidytkjdfy ‘fkfc ofhvjflutylyty&

cfmfhsdtkjc ufyflueht,fc^ ibyffikbkj,bc ufhlf^ [tkb vbcvfutjuhfabekvf vlt,fhtj,fvfw iteo.j& bub thsvfytsbcflvb cfvrdlhj-cfcbwjw[kjl uflfrblt,ek jh ehljc ijhbc ~xhl& lf cfv[h& ehljt,b`fqvjxylf& rfdrfcbjybc uflvjcfcdktkt,b^ lfhbfkbcf lf^ yfobkj,hbd^lfhe,fylbc rfht,b mfhsdtksf [tkib b.j^ fvbnjvfw ehljsf ijhbcfnt[bkb mbigbs gbhdtk hbuib cojhtl mfhsdtkt,b pfhfklt,jlyty&

fcts cfcnbr lhjc mfhsekb cfvqdltkjt,f fhfse cfmfhsdtkjibbwfdlf mhbcnbfyj,fc^ fhfvtl vbc afhukt,c ufhtsfw rb fdhwtkt,lf&mfhsdtkb vbcbjytht,b ovblf cf[fht,fc rfdrfcbbc vsbfytsib _ lfqtcnfyibmflfut,lyty& fctst,b b.dyty gbvty cfkjcb ufht]blfy lf fynjy yfj[ht,tkbc‘t^ vtc[tsblfy&

40

\ + | CF E R E Y T

\+| c-bc lfcfo.bcib ufvtalf ubjhub ,ho.bydfkt& vfy sfdbcb crbgnhbcmdti vstkb lfcfdktsb^ cfv[htsb ~vtc[tsb` lf fqvjcfdktsb cfmfhsdtkjitvjbrhb,f&

gbhdtk hbuib vfy vtc[tsb ~cfvw[t-rkfh]tsb` itvjbvnrbwf~vjyqjksf sfy[vj,bs`& itvltu mdt.ybc cfpqdht,blfy jct,b uff’tdf^hjvtksfw flubk-flubk lf,t,b lf wb[tt,b tzbhfs& fv lhjbcfsdbc^ xfyc^jct,c vjyqjkt,bcfufy pehub bct fqfh /mjylfs ufvfuht,ekb ̂hjujhw obyfvtatt,bc lhjc& vjyqjkb [tkbceafkyb ubjhub vtabcflvb rfhufl b.dytyufyo.j,bkyb& vtatv rfdrfcbbc eqtknt[bkt,bw sdbsjy lfbzbhf lfrfdrfcbfib .jdtkb vjobyffqvltut itvechf& fvbs jct,c mfhskibitvjcfcdktkb upt,b vjtzhfs lf mdt.fyfv vfsufy vjbcdtyf& jct,bc mfhskblfyuf’tdt,f vjyqjksf ,fnjyj,bc uflfult,bc ybifybw b.j& vfkt sdbs vjyqjk[tkbceafksf ijhbc cfcnbrb jvt,b lfbo.j^ vfsb cf[tkvobajc thsj,fvjbcgj lf mdt.fyf sbsmvbc lfbifkf& fvbs cfcohfajl bcfhut,kf vtat ubjhubvlf cfmfhsdtkj vjyqjksf ,fnjyj,bcfufy uffsfdbceakf& tc afmnbcfmfhsdtkjc cf[tkvobajc ‘kbtht,fptw vbesbst,c^ hflufy c[df mdt.yt,ibvjyqjkt,b fvbc itvltufw rdkfd lbl[fyc ,fnjyj,lyty&

vtatv cfmfhsdtkjc fqlutyf ‘dtk cfpqdht,ib _ ybrjacbblfylfhe,fylfvlt byt,f& vfy ]th lfhe,fylbc vbvfhsekt,bs itvjbvnrbwf hfyb^hbc itvltu lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc itvjvnrbwt,f uflfo.dbnf&

vfy lfikbkb cfmfhsdtkj rdkfd uffthsbfyf lf vcufdcfl lfdbsfqvfityt,kbcf ̂fqfdcj bub lf fqfityf ̂lfyuhtekb lf vjj[ht,ekb trktcbt,bufyff[kf lf ufyfyfskf& hfyb^ vjdfrfyb^ ifhdfyb sfdbc vj[fhrtt,fl fmwbf&.dtkf vnthb^ cflfw ev]j,tcb b.j ,h’jkbs lf ‘fkbs ̂[jkj cflfw c]j,lf^cb,h’yt-ujybtht,bsf lf vtwybtht,bs lfbvjhxbkf lf lffvidblf&

ubjhub ,ho.bydfktc e.ehflqt,jl fhw cftrktcbj cfmvtt,blfenjdt,bf& vfy itrhb,f mfhskbcf lf fa[fptsbc rfsfkbrjct,b^tgbcrjgjct,b chekbfl cfmfhsdtkjcb lf itcf,fvbcb lflutybkt,f vbfqt,byf&rht,bc vjyfobktt,vf #ufyff[ktc otcyb&&& lf eotcehyb ufy/rdtstc@& vfycfmfhsdtkjc afhukt,c ufhtsfw ufyfvnrbwf mfhsekb trktcbbc eakt,t,b^rth’jl _ bthecfkbvib&

fv lhjc bthecfkbvbcf lf vf[kj,tkb fqvjcfdktsbc ovblf flubkt,ctudbgnbc ceksyt,b akj,lyty& fhflf^ erdt \++ c-lfy vsfdfhb cfkjwfdbflubkt,b mfhsdtkt,c /mjylfs lfrfdt,ekb& lfdbs fqvfityt,tkvf cbyfcvsbc bc vodthdfkbw lfbrfdf^ cflfw ‘dtkb fqsmvbc sfyf[vfl vjctc qvthsbufvjtw[flf&

++ gthbjlb \++-\|+++ cc


cfmfhsdtkjc gjkbnbrehb ‘kbtht,bc ith.tdbcsfyfdt mfhsdtkt,bcvlujvfhtj,f gfktcnbyfibw itbh.f& bthecfkbvbc ]dhbc vjyfcnhblfy~hjvtkbw ghj[jhtc sfjcyj,bs b.j fut,ekb` mfhsdtkb ,tht,b \+++ c-bc60-70-bfy okt,ib vf/vflbfyt,vf uff’tdtc lf nf’fhb vbpubsfl fmwbtc&hjujhw vrdktdfhyb dfhfelj,ty^ mfhsdtkt,vf1305 okbcfsdbc^ vfhsfkbf^#cfhrbyjpsfufy@ ~vfvkemt,bcfufy ̀]dhbc vjyfcnhbc ufsfdbceakt,f it’ktc^vfuhfv cfpheyfdb ,tdhb hxt,jlf& vfufkbsfl^ mhbcntc #fqlujvbc trktcbf@^#ujkujsf@ lf mhbcntc #cfakfdb@ ~thsb cfvjyfcnhj rjvgktmcbf` rdkfdtudbgntkt,c tg.hfs&

ubjhub vtatc jh]th ufeupfdybf tkxt,b tudbgnbc ceksfysfy 1316lf 1320 okt,ib& lblb ‘qdtybs tf[kf gbgfb ceksfyc ̂ceksfyvf cb[fhekbsvbbqj ‘qdtyb lf #vbcwyf rkbntyb bthecfkbvbcfyb@&

1331-41 okt,ib bthecfkbvib v.jab ew[jtkb vjupfehb fqybiyfdc%mhbcntc cfakfdbc cfkjwfdbc ufcfqt,b mfhsdtkt,bc [tkibf lf rtyzcfwfhfdbc f’ktdty fv cfakfdblfyj&

mhbcntc cfakfdbc ufcfqt,b mfhsdtksf [tkib \| c-bc ief okt,fvlt.jabkf^ cfyfv vfs bub ahfywbcrfytkt,vf fh xfvjfhsdtc&

\+| c-ib vjyfcnht,ib rdkfd ufxfqt,ekbf itvjmvtlt,bsb veifj,f&fv lhjc itbmvyf jhbubyfkehb mfhsekb s[pekt,fyb _ kerf bthecfkb-vtkbcf lf ybrjkjp ldfkbc vfhndbkj,fyb^ itluf rht,ekt,b^ ituhjdbkbmyf [tkyfotht,b&

\+| c-ib mfhsdtkt,c gtnhbojybc vjyfcnthbw vnrbwtl tg.hfs& bvlhjc bm ]th rbltd mfhsektyjdfyb cfcofdkt,tkb _ ctvbyfhbf fhct,j,lf&

ubjhub ,ho.bydfkt bqdojlf^ hfsf rdkfd fqtlubyf cfmfhsdtkjccf[tkvobajc ufdktyf nhfgbpjybc cfrtbchjib lf ofhvfnt,bsfw&

ubjhub ,ho.bydfkt #rtsbkb vtaj,bs vtaj,lf@ 28 otkb& bubs,bkbcib ufhlfbwdfkf 1346 otkc&

stveh-ktyubc itvjctdfvlt cfmfhsdtkj itlfht,bs vidblfl lflfo.yfht,bs w[jdhj,lf& mdt.fyf thsbfyb lf sfdbceafkb b.j& mfhsekbcf[tkvobaj afmnbehfl vstk fvbthrfdrfcbfc vjbwfdlf&

fct b.j fhf vfhnj ubjhub ,ho.bydfktc lhjc^ fhfvtl vbcbvtvrdblhtt,bc^ cfmfhsdtkjc vtatt,bc _ lfdbs +\-bcf ~1346-1360` lf,fuhfn |-bc lhjcfw& cojhtl ,fuhfn |-bc cfvtajc itvjtcbf stveh-ktyub&

stveh-ktyuvf [fyuh’kbdb lfg.hj,bsb jvt,bc itltufl epfhvfpfhbcf[tkvobaj itmvyf^ hjvtkbw fqvjcfdktsbs xbytsbc lbl rtlkfvlt b.juflfzbvekb^ xhlbkjtsbs _ wtynhfkeh hectsfvlt^ lfcfdktsbs[vtksfief pqdfvlt lf tudbgntvlt&

vfhsfkbf^ cfmfhsdtkjc sbsmvbc vstkb rfdrfcbf sfdbcb rjynhjkbcmdti /.fdlf vjmwtekb ̂vfuhfv bc stvehbc cf[tkvobajcsfy itlfht,bs vfbyw

42evybidytkj b.j& vbe[tlfdfl fvbcf^ stveh ktyuc cfmfhsdtkjc obyffqvltu,h’jkf ufezbhlf lf vbcb lfg.hj,f afmnbehfl dthw it’kj^ sevwf rbcfcnbrfl uffyfluehf& cf,jkjjl vhfdfkokbfyb jvb fv jh cf[tkvobajcijhbc pfdbs lfvsfdhlf&

1386-1403 okt,ib stveh-ktyub cfmfhsdtkjc 8-]th itvjtcbf& vbcobyffqvltu mfhsdtkt,b fhf vfhnj sfdlfwdbs jvc fofhvjt,lyty^ fhfvtlpju]th vbc vbth lfg.hj,bk mdt.yt,ibw bzht,jlyty lf stvehbc vnht,clf[vfht,fc eotdlyty ~fkfy]bc wb[bc fqt,f ̂yf[bztdfybc cfyf[t,bc lfh,tdf^bmblfy ufvjmwtekb stvehbc vjcbc[kt eakbcoek nf/thbc lfafhdf`&mfhsdtkt,b stveh-ktyubc vjcbc[kt jmhjc ehljc rfdrfcbbc rfht,ce[cyblyty&

stvehbc kfimhj,bc itvltu cfmfhsdtkjv it’kj sfdbcbcf[tkvobajt,hbdb thsbfyj,f^ mhbcnbfyj,f lf thjdyekb reknehf‘dtkt,ehfl lftwdf^ vfuhfv xhlbkj rfdrfcbehb njvt,b vbcufy erdt fhfv[jkjl vjo.dtnbkyb ̂fhfvtl eahj vtnbw^ lfgbhcgbht,ekyb b.dyty ̂hfvfwvjvltdyj cfereytt,ib cfmfhsdtkjc ‘kbtht,bc lfv[j,fc lblfl iteo.j[tkb& stveh ktyufvltw^ bhfytkb bk[fyt,bc vjyqjkehb cf[tkvobajwvelfv wlbkj,lf sfdbcb rjynhjkbc mdti vjtmwbf rfdrfcbbc uflvjcfcdkt-kt,b lf fvbs sfdbcb egbhdtktcb vnhbc _ jmhjc ehljcsdbc bhfyib lffvbthrfdrfcbfib itvjzhbc itcf’kt,kj,f vjtcgj& sfdbc v[hbd^ pjubthsbmfhsdtkb [tkvobat jmhjc ehljcsfy rfdibhbs bk[fysf vjuthbt,fcwlbkj,lf& jmhjc ehljcsfy lfrfdibht,bs sfdbcb gjkbnbrf cfmfhsdtkjcfhw stveh-ktyubc lhjc itewdkbf& fvbnjvfw^ stvehb^ vcufdcfl ‘dtkbbhfytkb gjkbnbrjct,bcf^ ittwflf rfdrfcbtkb njvt,b vf/vflbfyj,bcufdhwtkt,bs lftvjhxbkt,byf& fvbs^ afmnbehfl erdt \| c-bc lfcfo.bcibdtitbmvyf cfmfhsdtkjc ufhitvj vecekvfyehb ufhtvjwdbc hrfkb^ hfvfwlfchekt,ekb cf[t jcvfksf vbth rjycnfynbyjgjkbc fqt,bc itvltu vbbqj&

stveh-ktyuvf rfhufl bwjlf^ hjv ‘fkf^ hjvtkbw fthsbfyt,lf^bwfdlf lf vnhbc obyffqvltu vtluhfl f,h’jkt,lf cfmfhsdtkjc^mhbcnbfyj,f b.j^ fvbnjvfw bc .jdtkb qjybs wlbkj,lf mhbcnbfyj,bcfqvja[dhfc lf vf/vflbfyj,bc ufdhwtkt,fc^ vfuhfv dthfathc vbfqobf&stveh-ktyuvf vhfdfkb cftrktcbj ufy’b ufpblf cfmfhsdtkjlfy ̂vfs ijhbcevsfdhtcb _ obuyt,b& cflfw rb itt’kj^ trktcbf-vjyfcnht,c .dtkufyfyuhtdlf^ [jkj mhbcnbfy vjcf[ktj,fc fh bylj,lf& vbe[tlfdfl fvbcf^mfhsdtkb mhbcnbfyt,b cfcnbr obyffqvltuj,fc eotdlyty stvehc& vfc ezbhlfmfhsdtksf obyffqvltu jvb& tc vbc bcnjhbrjccfw rb fqeybiyfdc _cfmfhsdtkjib jvb fldbkb fh b.j _ fv mdt.fyfib sdbs fktmcfylhtvfrtljytkvfw cbhw[dbkb zfvf _ stvehvf rb ufvfh]dt,f vjbgjdfj _lferdt[ybf vfc&

++ gthbjlb \++-\|+++ cc


mdfsf[tdbc vjyfcnthib stveh-ktyubc ]fhbcrfwt,vf wjw[kfllfodtc mfhsdtkb mhbcnbfyt,b^ cfvqdltkjt,f^ ,th-vjyfpdyt,b& obyfcofhvfs mhbcnbfyj,bc efh.jaf itcsfdfptc ̂vfuhfv efh.jabsb gfce[bc vbqt,bcitvltu^ cfcnbrfl fofvtc^ itvltu rb [tkat[itrhekyb lfeodfds ovblflblvjofvtyb& fv lhjc bcbyb ufkj,lyty& mdfsf[tdbc qvhsbcvij,kbcvjyfcnhbc rtlkt,cf lf bfnfrc lbl[fyc fxylf lfvodfhb ovblfyt,bc ytinsfrdfkb&

\ | CF E R E Y T

1403 otkc stveh-ktyuvf pfdb lflj cfmfhsdtkjc vtatcsfy& vnthbb’ekt,ekb uf[lf mfhsekb mhbcnbfyekb cf[tkvobajc fhct,j,f twyj&1405 otkc stveh-ktyub ufhlfbwdfkf& vnhbc ehljt,bc ofcdkbcsfyfdtvtat ubjhub |++-v mdt.fyf fhfse ufovbylf vjv[lehsf yfist,bcfufy ̂fhfvtlcfv[tlhj vjmvtlt,f mdt.ybc ufhts uflfbnfyf& bkfimhf yf[bztdfycf lfufy]fib^ fycf lf fhphevib& 1407 otkc ubjhub vtat ,h’jkbc dtkptlfbqegf& nf[npt vbcb ‘vf rjycnfynbyt fdblf^ hjvtkbw fctdt ,h’jkbcdtkpt vjrktc _ ibhdfyib& vbc itvltu vbcb ‘t fktmcfylht ufvtalf^ lblflojlt,ekb&

fktmcfylht vtatc ~1412-1442 oo&` chekbfl cfmfhsdtkjtvjhxbkt,jlf^ sevwf rb stveh-ktyubc itvlujvfl cfmfhsdtkjc vbof-o.fkb itvwbht,ekb b.j& itwdkbkb b.j tsybrehb ufhtvjwdfw&cfmfhsdtkjc vtpj,kfl f[kf erdt sehmt,b^ fylf ufsehmt,ekb vjcf[ktj,fw[jdhj,lf& vjcf[ktj,bc ufsehmt,fc [tkc eo.j,lf bcbw ̂hjv fv lhjbcsdbcsdbs vjyqjksf ufsehmt,bc ghjwtcbw vbvlbyfhtj,lf^ vjyqjkt,b rbmdt.ybc vg.hj,tkt,b b.dyty& fvbc ufvj cfmfhsdtkjc cfvtajc vbof-o.fkbfqvjcfdktsbc vbvfhsekt,bs itvwbhlf& fctsbdt vlujvfhtj,f b.j cfv[hts-fqvjcfdktsbc vbvfhsekt,bsfw^ rth’jl^ cfmfhsdtkjc itvflutykj,fibfhf se fybcb fqfh itlbjlf^ fhfvtl kjhtw rb vf/vflbfysf vbth .jabkfvbnfwt,ekb&

mfhsekb cf[tkvobaj lf ^ w[flbf ^ mfhsekb trktcbf dthitehbult,jlf mfhsekb vjcf[ktj,bc ufvf/vflbfyt,f-ufsehmt,bcghjwtcc^ ufycfresht,bs rb kjhtc vw[jdht,sf^ hjvtkbw s,bkbcsfy _cfmfhsdtkjc wtynhsfy f[kjc vlt,fhtj,lf& mfhsekb trktcbbccfztsvg.hj,tkc^ rfsfkbrjc-gfnhbfhm stjljhtc^ vf/vflbfysf vbthlfg.hj,bkb kjhtc wb[bc obyffqvltu ufkfimht,fib ‘fkpt vybidytkjdfybvjyfobktj,f vbeqbf& ,h’jkbc oby rfsfkbrjcb fv[ytdt,lf lf cekbthfl

44ufyfvnrbwt,lf kfimfhc& #rfsfkbrjp stjljhtc vjmflfutj,fc evjmvtlybflf vbcb xfujyt,bsf lf ufv[ytdt,bs fqahsjdfyt,ekc cfmfhsdtkjc ]fhckjht vnhbcfsdbc ofehsvtdbf lf sdbsjy lfezthbf@ ~bd& ]fdf[bidbkb`& tc1431 otkc vj[lf&

1434-35 okt,ib fktmcfylht vtatc cfmfhsdtkjcsdbc cbdybtsbcv[fht itvjethst,bf 60 000 mhbcnbfyb cekbs&

cfvtajc ‘dtkb ‘kbtht,bc fqlutyfc [tkc lblfl eikblf bc^ hjvvjcf[ktj,bc hbw[db cfmfhsdtkjib cfthsjl^ lf ufycfresht,bsfqvjcfdktsib^ ‘fkpt itvwbhlf& fvbnjv vtat lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjlfyvjcf[ktj,bc yfobkc fqvjcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc its[tkt,ek v[fhtt,ibfcf[kt,lf&

fktmcfylht vtat lblfl pheyfdlf cfmfhsdtkjc ufyflueht,ekbtrktcbf-vjyfcnht,bcf lf wb[tt,bc fqlutybcfsdbc& 1412 okblfy^ufvtat,bcsfyfdt ufeuh’tkt,bf sfdbcb cekrehs[tekb ,t,bf _ hecfclfo.t,ekb cfveifjt,b cdtnbw[jdkbc lblt,ekb nf’hbc fqcflutyfl lflff[kjt,bs 1431 otkc lfevsfdht,bf&

fktmcfylht vtatc epheybf fuhtsdt cf,th’ytsib lf gfktcnbyfibvlt,fht mfhsek trktcbf-vjyfcnht,ptw&

vfibyltk vcjakbjib cfmfhsdtkjc bwyj,lyty^ hjujhw lblmhbcnbfyek mdt.fyfc& wyj,bkbf^ hjv cojhtl fv cfereytib itlufcfthsfijhbcj [fcbfsbc cftrktcbj rht,f _ athfhf-akjhtywbbcf& tc rht,fdbsjvlf cftrktcbj ufthsbfyt,fc bcf[fdlf vbpyfl& vfcpt ̂hjujhw fvfc otcbvjbs[jdlf^ lbgnb[b bmyf lfwekb& c[ljvbc lfh,fpib ths v[fhtcsfyvbvltdhj,bs lfc[tc ]th cfgfnhbfhmj qbhct,bc vmjyt vfhskvflblt,tktrktcbfsf ofhvjvflutykt,b^ vfs itvltu rb vfspt hfyubs lf,kf vlujvyb&cfgfnhbfhmj trktcbt,bc hbuib rjycnfynbyjgjkbc^ fktmcfylhbbc^fynbjmbbc^ bthecfkbvbc gfnhbfhmt,bc ofhvjvflutykt,bc itvltucfmfhsdtkjc cfgfnhbfhmj trktcbbc ~cf,est,ibf _ #cfmfhsdtkjc vtabc@`ofhvjvflutytkbw lfcdtc^ hjvtkbw bv lhjbcsdbc vbnhjgjkbnb cjahjyb.jabkf^ hjvtkvfw fv rht,fpt vnrbwtl lfbwdf vfhskvflblt,kj,f&

tc vbesbst,c bvfpt^ hjv mfhsekb trktcbbc qbhct,bc uh’yj,f bvlhjbcfsdbc bctdt vfqfkbf^ hjujhbw tc \+-\++ cc-ib b.j&

fktmcfylhtc lhjc mdt.fyfib thsbfyj,f lf vidblj,f ceatdlf^ [jkjcfufhtj gjkbnbrfib ‘dtkt,ehfl fqluf cfmfhsdtkjc ufdktyf vbc vtpj,-kt,pt& vtatc sfdbcb cb.dfhekb mhbcntc vbvfhs bvbsfw ufvjev;qfdyt,bf^hjv cbwjw[kbc erfyfcrytk okt,ib vtaj,fpt efhb esmdfvc ̂,thfl itvlufhflf vjyfpdyfl fqrdtwbkf&

fktmcfylhtc cbwjw[ktibdt ufvtalf vbcb ‘t df[nfyu +++ ~1442-1446`^[jkj itvltu vbcb ‘vf _ ubjhub |+++ ~1446-1466`& mdt.fyfib ufesfdt,tkb

++ gthbjlb \++-\|+++ cc


ibyfatjlfkehb ,h’jkt,b lfbo.j ̂hfcfw ̂,eyt,hbdbf^ itltufl cfmfhsdtkjcgjkbnbrehb lfikf vj/.df& 1451 otkc vtc[tsib uffsf,fulf .dfh.dfht^hjvtkbw utuvfpjvbthfl iteluf cfmfhsdtkjcfufy vtc[tsbc xfvjijht,fc^hfibw vtc[tsbc cfvqdltkjt,fw fb.jkbf& ubjhub |+++-c afmnbehfl fqfhtvjhxbkt,jlyty vtc[tsbc ̂cfvtuhtkj-fa[fptsbc ̂uehbbc vsfdht,b&

1453 otkc jcvfkt,vf rjycnfynbyjgjkb fbqtc^ 1461 otkc _nhfgbpjybc cfrtbchj& cfmfhsdtkj vjtmwf vecekvfyeh-sehmek hrfkiblf tdhjgfc vjco.lf& 1459 otkc cfcnbrb iblf jvb lfbo.j& 1462 otkc.dfh.dfhtv vf/vflbfyt,bw rb vjbodbf ~bhfybc v,h’fyt,tkb` vtat ubjhubcobyffqvltu lf lffvfhw[t,byf& vfkt ubjhub |+++-c fe]fy.lf bvthtsbcthbcsfdb ,fuhfnbw lf lffvfhw[f& 1478 otkc mfhsk-bvthtsbc nf[nptfktmcfylht +-bc idbkbidbkb rjycnfynbyt ++ fdblf& vfc^ w[flbf^ fhfrfyj-ybthfl vbfxylf rf[tsbcf lf bvthtsbc cfvtajt,bc^ vtc[tsbcf lf c[dfcfvsfdhjt,bc ofhvjmvyf sfdbcb cf[tkvobajc nthbnjhbfpt& vfuhfv fvcf[tkvobajt,hbdb thstekt,bc ofhvjmvyf erdt afmnb b.j& mdt.fyf ‘fkptlfrybylf&

mfhsdtkb thbc bcnjhbfc dth ufdbfpht,s mfhsekb trktcbbcvjyfobktj,bc ufhtit lf gbhbmbs^ bcnjhbf mfhsekb trktcbbcf fhbcbcnjhbf mfhsdtkb mhbcnbfyb thbcf&

vfhsfkbf^ mfhsdtk [fk[c thjdyekb thsbfyj,bc ituyt,f erdtmhbcnbfyj,fvlt lblb [ybs flht /mjylf^ vfuhfv bvbc itvltu^ hfw .jdtkvfmfhsdtkvf mhbcnbfyekb cfhoveyjt,f vbbqj lf itb.dfhf^ thbc bcnjhbfmfhsekb trktcbbc bcnjhbbc ufhtit ofhvjelutytkbf&

fvbnjvfw ̂cftrktcbj lf.jafc vj/.df fhf vfhnj cfhoveyjt,bc lfwtvf^fhfvtl ufvj.jabk yfobkib thjdyekb uflfudfht,fw&

\| c-bc ,jkjc mfhsdtk vtat-vsfdht,c ijhbc fvn.lfh ibyf jvt,ibvtc[tsbc vsfdfhb ufycfresht,ek ctgfhfnbpvc bxtylf& hjujhw bd& ]fdf-[bidbkb othc^ #.dfh.dfht fsf,fub bvltyfl lf,hvfdt,ekb .jabkf fvvnhj,bs lf ufyrth’tj,bcsdbc ,h’jkbs^ hjv esfy[vjt,f cftrktcbjcathjibw uflfenfybf&&& vtc[tsbc cfrfsfkbrjpj cf.lhbcfufy xfvjijht,flf chekb lfvjerblt,kj,bc vjgjdt,f cehlf@&&&

cfjwfhb bcff^ hjv fynbjmbbcf lf bthecfkbvbc cfgfnhbfhmjt,b[tkito.j,bc yfwdkfl .jdtkyfbhfl wlbkj,lyty lftifkfs thsbfybmfhsekb trktcbf^ hfsf itvltu obkb vfsfw hut,jlfs& .jdtkudfhbcftrktcbj rfyjyt,bc lfhqdtdbs ̂ov& vcjakbj rht,t,pt vbqt,ekb rfyjyt,bcfhfl xfult,bs^ hjvtkybw fvudfh vjmvtlt,fc rh’fkfdlyty^ bcbyb bzht,jlytycfmfhsdtkjc cftrktcbj cftgbcrjgjcjt,ib lf ov& ybyjc qdfokbs cfeakjrdfhspt lfae’yt,ek ov& fylhbfc cfvjwbmekj cf.lfhc fhqdtdlyty&.jdtkbdt fvfy sfdbcb itltub ufvjbqj _ mdt.ybc fv yfobkib ~vtc[tsib`

46mhbcnbfyj,bc fdnjhbntnb lftwf^ fvfy rb kjubrehfl vf/vflbfyj,bc vbvfhsobyffqvltuj,f itfvwbhf&

thbc^ fy vbcb hjvtkbvt yfobkbc cekbth w[jdht,fcf lf abpbrehfhct,j,fc ijhbc qhvf ehsbthsrfdibhbc lfcnehfl fo.ehbccfcofeksvjmvtlb [fnbc bcnjhbf ufdb[ctyjs&

wyj,bkbf^ hjv fylhbf vjwbmekvf cfmfhsdtkjib itvjcdkbcfcqvhsbcvij,kbc [fnb xfvjf,h’fyf& vjwbmekvf ov& [fnb fo.ehib lff,h’fyf^cflfw bub \| c-vlt tcdtyf&

,bpfynbfib [fnvt,h’jkj,bc thtcbc v’dbydfht,bc lhjc cfmfhsdt-kjib [fnsf sf.dfybcwtvf fhf se fh itvwbht,ekf ̂gbhbmbs^ uf’kbtht,ekfrbltw&

fo.ehbc cfcofekvjmvtlb [fnb elbltcb cbovblt b.j lf vfc bctdt^hjujhw qvhsbcvij,kbc c[df [fnt,c cfmfhsdtkjib^ e[dfl fvrj,lyty‘dbhafcb mdt,bs^ sdfkvfhufkbnbs^ [jkj cfmfhsdtkjc vtatyb vlblfhitcfobhfdt,c e’qdyblyty&

1477 otkc cfmfhsdtkjc bhfybc v,h’fyt,tkb itvjtcbf& cfvw[tibitzhbkvf fo.ehbc [fnb ufbnfwf lf^ w[flbf^ uf’fhwdf& vfuhfv bv v[fhtc^cflfw bub vbfcdtytc^ qvhsbc hbc[df lffn.lf sfdc ̂fvbnjvfw [fnb cfvw[tiblff,heytc&

1486 otkc cfvw[tc bfre, .ftyb itvjtcbf& fo.ehbc ovblf lf lblt,ekb[fnb trktcbblfy wb[t-cbvfuhbc #cfzehzktib@ uflffcdtytc vfo.dthtkvftgbcrjgjcvf lf wb[bjyvf& bv gbhj,bs^ hjv vnthb fo.ehbc nf’fhc fhlffhqdtdlf^ wb[t vnthc e,h’jkdtkfl xff,fhtc^ vfuhfv vjv[leht,vfgbhj,f ufnt[tc^ [jkj [fnb .jdkflovblbcf lffn.dtdtc^ uf’fhwdtc lfvb/udfhtc ec]ekj vsfdfhc& vfy wtw[kib xffulj bub^ vfuhfv wtw[kblfbihbnf^ [jkj [fnb edyt,kfl lfhxf& tc hjv b[bkf thsvf mhbcnbfyvf^vfuhfv fhfvfhskvflblt,tkvf _ [fnb sfdbc mdt.fyfib offcdtyf& ufvjtw[flfvfc .jdkflovblf lf es[hf% #ertse fhf ofvb.dfyj mdt.fyfcf xtvcf^ lblb,jhjnb vjdfobj ityptlf@&

[fnb lff,heytc fo.ehib^ vtvfnbfybc uflvjwtvbs ov& [fnvf bfre,.ftyc^ hjvtkbw vfc vf[dbkbs itt[j^ cfibytkb hbc[df lffnt[f^ vstkb vbcbyfstcfj,f lf cf[kj,f fvjo.lf&

1546 otkc fo.ehbc ov& [fnb fo.ehblfy wb[bc]dfhib uflfecdtyt,bfbvthtsbc vtat ,fuhfn +++-c^ [jkj 1553 otkc wb[bc]dfhblfy bvthtsibuflfe,h’fyt,bfs lf bub ,fuhfn +++-bc ‘bc^ ubjhub ++-bc ~bvthtsbc vtabc`[tkib vj[dtlhbkf& #,bkobsf [tkbsf@ vhfdfkupbc uf’fhwekb [fnbubjhubv f[kfl vjfztlbyf&

fo.ehbc qvhsbcvij,kbc vbth vtc[tsbc lfnjdt,bc itvltu cfvw[t-cffsf,fujc vjcf[ktj,f ‘bhbsflfl ufvf/vflbfylf-ufsfshlf lf lftrfhuf

++ gthbjlb \++-\|+++ cc


mfhsdtk thc& ov& [fnb bm mhbcnbfyj,fcf lf mfhsdtkj,fc bwfdlf& bc fv;fvfl[tkjdyt,bc veptevibf lfwekb&

vfiby vtc[tsbc fsf,fut,vf^ vbe[tlfdfl ‘kbthb vjoflbyt,bcf^vtc[tsbc trktcbbc xfvjijht,f cfmfhsdtkjc ltlf trktcbbcfufy dth it’ktc&vfhsfkbf^ mfhsekvf ltlf trktcbfv fv w[fht jvib ufbvfh]df^ vfuhfvcf,jkjj ]fvib mhbcnbfyj,f lfrybylf& fvfpt bcbw vtn.dtkt,c^ hjv lqtcvtc[tsib fo.ehbc jltcqfw wyj,bkb rfstlhfkbc yfyuhtdt,bqf lufc ̂[jkjvbcb ‘dtkb^ .jabkb cfvo.cj ‘bhbsflfl sehmek-sfshek vfcfibffcbvbkbht,ekb lf ufy,ytekb&

\| c-bc 70-bfy okt,ib cfmfhsdtkjib xfvjcekf fynbjmbtk-bthecfkbvtkb gfnhbfhmb vbmftkb^ hjvtkcfw lfeothbf #vwyt,f~cfc]ekj~@ ̂cflfw fv,j,c^ hjv obyfs mfhskbcf lf fa[fptsbc rfsfkbrjcybfynbjmbbc gfnhbfhmbcufy brehs[t,jlyty^ hfw^ hf smvf eylf ̂fh ittcf,fvt,fcbyfvldbktc&

.jdtkbdt tc bvbcsdbc czbhlt,jlf^ hjv sdbsjy trehs[t,byflfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbc f[fkb vtsfehb lf fvbs lfcfdktscfmfhsdtkjc trktcbf thsbfyb ltlf-trktcbbcfsdbc xfvjtijht,byf& sfdbcv[hbd^ lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc cftrktcbj lfvjerblt,kj,f bvthtsbcbvlhjbyltk vtatc ̂,fuhfncfw cehlf&

\| c-bc vboehekcf lf \|+ c-bc lfcfo.bcib .jdkfl ufeujyfhb fv,fdbvj[lf _ mfhsekb trktcbbc obfqib ofhvjbidf ctgfhfnbpvb& cf,tlybthjl^tc fh b.j cfhoveyjt,hbdb ufy[tsmbkt,f& thtcb lf ctmnfynj,f ew[j b.jmfhsdtkb mhbcnbfyt,bcfsdbc& ctgfhfnbpvb bvfib ufvjb[fnf^ hjvcfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbc cfvjwbmekj cf.lhbcufy flvbybcnhfwbekb ufylujvflffgbhf vtc[tsbc trktcbfv^ [jkj lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbcpjubthsvf bthfhmvf^ cfvjwbmekj qbhct,bc^ vw[tsblfy _ sfdbfystgfhmbt,ib uflfnfybc cehdbkb ufvjfv;qfdyf&

trktcbbc lfikbc itvltufw lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjcf lf vtc[tsbctrktcbt,ib obhdf-kjwdf lf .jdtkudfhb cftrktcbj flfsb se xdtdf‘dtkt,ehfldt mfhsekb hxt,jlf& v[jkjl tc b.j^ hjv obhdbcf lf kjwdbclhjc chekbfl cfmfhsdtkjc vtabcf lf rfsfkbrjc-gfnhbfhmbc cf[tkt,cfqfh vjb[ctybt,lyty& fv lbl wjldfib elbltcb odkbkb vtc[tsbc fsf,fut,bceueyeh cfhoveyjt,hbd lf thjdyek gjkbnbrfc vbe’qdjlf&

ctgfhfnbpvbc bltf trktcbbc obfqib fh xfcf[ekf^ tc b.j itltubtrktcbfpt e[tib ptvjmvtlt,bcf cfthj [tkbceafksf vbth& fhw fvlfevjhxbkt,kj,fc vj/.jkbf rfhub itltub& cf,jkjjl vstkb mfhsdtkbthb lfpfhfklf& vfc vtc[t,bc elbltcb yfobkb xfvjijhlf& fm upf uft[cyfew[j htkbubt,cf lf trktcbt,c^ hfcfw itltufl cfv[hts cfmfhsdtkjcvjcf[ktj,bc ufvf/vflbfyt,f ~ufsfsht,f`^ ufrfsjkbrt,f ~ufahfyut,f`^

48ufvjyjabpbnt,f ~ufcjv[t,f` vj/.df ̂[jkj lfhxtybkb vfhskvflblt,kt,brjycnfynbyjgjkbc ,th’yekb cfgfnhbfhmjc [tkib vjtmwyty ̂hfvfw vfsib#,th’yekb@ thjdyekb sdbsituyt,f lf,flf _ bcbyb uf,th’ylyty& dthwlfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbfv it’kj sfdbcb vhtdkbc gfnhjyj,f bct^hjujhw fvfc cfzbhjt,f vjbs[jdlf ̂fvbc ufvj fmfw mhbcnbfysf thsb yfobkbufvf/vflbfylf ~mdtvj uehbf-,fsevb-mj,ektsb^ fzfhbc v[fht ^̀ [jkj vtjhtyfobkb ~fa[fptsb` rb itvj[bpyek vsbtk ofhvfhst,ib ~xthmtp-facef-flbqt` fbhbf& sevwf bcbw eylf bsmdfc^ hjv hectsbc vbth cfmfhsdtkjccf[tkvobajt,hbj,bc ufemvt,fvlt ~1801-1810 oo&` #cjv[t,bc@^ bctdthjujhw #ahfyut,bcf@ lf #,th’yt,bc@ lblb yfobkbc ltlf-tyf rdkfdbylt-,ehfl mfhsekb b.j^ vfuhfv hectsbc [tkbceakt,fv vfsb mfhsdtkj,f fhfqbfhf^ hbc itltuflfw vfsib .jdtkudfhb yfisb mfhsdtkj,bcf cf,jkjjlfqvjba[dhf&

fct hjv^ .jdtkb mfhsdtkb^ hjvtkbw ufyeluf ltlf trktcbfc _ufyijhlf sfdbc thcfw lf uflfudfhlf^ ew[j tht,ib fcbvbkbhlf&

\ | + CF E R E Y T

\| c-bc vboehekc thsbfyb cfmfhsdtkjc cfvtaj cfvfl ufb.j& thsbvtat lf]lf bvthtsc ~fktmcfylht ,fuhfnbc ‘t`^ vtjht rf[tsc ~fktmcfylhtubjhub |+++-bc ‘t`^ [jkj mfhskib rjycnfynbyt ++ ~fktmcfylht +-bcidbkbidbkb` ufvtalf&

velvbdb ibyfiajsb b.j cfmfhsdtkjib& .dtkf vtat wfk-wfkrtcfmfhsdtkjc ufthsbfyt,bcsdbc b,h’jlf lf lfyfhxtys t,h’jlf& bcbybsfdbfys sfdc chekbfl cfmfhsdtkjc vtatt,c eojlt,lyty&

stveh-ktyubc itvjctdt,bc itvltu ufhtit vnht,vf itvjntdt,bitfytktc^ mdt.fyfv fvjbceysmf ̂lfo.yfhlf& v[jkjl vvfhsdtkb atyt,b dthbcdtyt,lyty^ velfv tjvt,jlyty thsvfytsc&

[vfkb^ uesfyb lf cfhoveyjt,f ‘dtkt,ehfldt fcekluvekt,lfxdtyt,eh rfwc^ vfuhfv lblb bltfkt,b erdt fqfh b.j& mdt.fyf cekbthflvjtidf^ vjbstysf&

cfmfhsdtkj rf[tsbc^ mfhskbc^ bvthtsbc cfvtajt,fl^ lflbfybc^uehbtkbc^ fsf,fubc cfvsfdhjt,flff lfikbkb lf^ fvfdt lhjc ̂rbltd eahjvtnb lfikbc ntyltywbt,bw firfhfl brdtst,f ̂cojhtl tc lfikbkb yfobkt,btehxt,bfy^ vnhj,ty lf fh,tdty thsvfytsc^ pjuflfl rb cfmfhsdtkjdhwkflff uflfzbvekb& rf[tsbc cfvtajc fqvjcfdktsb cfpqdfhb rfcgbbcpqdblfy cek 200-vlt rbkjvtnhbsff lfijht,ekb lf ifmsfy uflbc*

++ gthbjlb \++-\|+++ cc


cfv[htsbs _ mfhskbc cfpqdfhb ctdfybc n,fvlt fqotdc^ fsf,fut,bccfvsfdhjcb rb _ dfkfirthnsfy lf fhphevsfy* uehbf _ zfytsc vjbwfdc^ [jkjlfcfdktsbs bvthtscf lf cflflbfyjc ifdb pqdf lf ]bmtsbc mdt.fyftcfpqdht,f&

\|-\|+ cc-ib cfmfhsdtkj ̂ ufycfresht,bs rf[tsb ̂ cfdct lf vf’qfhbmdt.fyf b.j&

#extvjl dbs bvqthtsfj^@ _ rbs[ekj,lyty mdt.ybtht,fpt f[kflvjdktybkb sfdflt,b ~fmfvlt cfmfhsdtkjib fhw ,fnjy.vj,f b.j lf fhwsfdflt,b`&

mfhsdtkt,sfy jvb lf ̂vbs evtntc ̂vfsb lfvjhxbkt,f fhw bct fldbkbb.j& vfs thsb gbhb lf thsbfyb cf[tkvobaj hjv /mjyjlfs^ dthw sehmtsblf dthw cgfhctsb dthfhfc lffrkt,lyty ̂sevwf fhw lfikbk cfmfhsdtkjcsfyefldbklt,jlfs jvb&

mfhsdtksf cekbcrdtst,f lf sfdufyobhdf rfhufl xfyc vtat cdbvjybcths othbkib% #dujyt,^ smdtyw itbn.j,lbs^ hfjltyb itoe[t,f lf nfy]dfufvjdbfhts^ vfuhfv uekb vfbyw fh ufdbnt[ts& xtvc sfdc ufdobhfd thsbfyfllf fuhtsdt xtvc mjhaf idbkcfw^ lfdqdhb xtvc cbc[kcf dblht erfyfcrytkodtsfvlt ]dfhwvekbc btcj mhbcntc lf qdsbc cb.dfhekbcfsdbc ̂dblht gbhibcekb vblubf^ [tkc fh fdbqt, jcvfkt,bc obyffqvltu jvpt^ fhfcjltc emvfld.ja bv lfeafct,tk cbc[kcf^ hjvtkbw btcj mhbcntv lfqdhf xtvsdbc@&&& fvyfo.dtnblfy rfhufl xfyc^ se hfnjv dth uffemvf tdhjgfib ufzhbkvfsehmtsvf fhf se chekbl cfmfhsdtkjc cf[tkvobajt,hbj,f^ fhfvtllfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjcbw rb^ sevwf mfhsek vbof-o.fkc sbsmvbc thsbvtcfvtlb yfobkb _ cffsf,fuj vj/ukb]f lf uffsfshf&

vfhsfkbf^ cfmfhsdtkjc cfvtajc fcecnt,lf cfvsfdhjt,bcthsvfytssfy ,h’jkf^ vfuhfv^ hjwf thsfl itbrhb,t,jlyty ̂pjuflmfhsekbcfv[tlhj ‘fkf cfrvfjl isfv,tzlfdb b.j& fvbs ecfhut,kbf sehmtsbcceksfyc lf ̂mfhsek o.fhjsf sfyf[vfl ̂cfmfhsdtkjc vtatt,b vbeupfdybfbthecfkbvbc fcfqt,fl& hjujhw o.fhjt,blfy xfyc^ \|+ c-ib mfhsdtkt,cvfuhfl vjerblt,bfs at[b bthecfkbvib&

cf,jkjjl eylf bsmdfc^ hjv^ vfhsfkbf^ mfhsdtkt,b vfvfwbvt,h’jkt,b b.dyty lf [vfkbw ezhblfs^ vfuhfv ujybtht,fpt oby tvjwbt,cf.tyt,lyty& gfnbdvj.dfhtj,fc fhfcjltc bdbo.t,lyty^ vfibyfw rb^ hjwf tccfthsj cfmvbcfsdbc cfpbfyj b.j&

vbe[tlfdfl bvbcf^ hjv cfmfhsdtkj lfbifkf lf ofhvjbmvyfthsvfytsbcfufy lfvjerblt,tkb mfhsekb cf[tkvobajt,hbdb thstekt,b%mfhskbc^ rf[tsbc^ bvthtsbc cfvtajt,b^ uehbbc^ cfvtuhtkjc^ cfvw[bc^cdfytsbc cfvsfdhjt,b^ gfce[bcvut,kj,f tsybrehb thsj,bc obyfitvjcf[ktj,fc ]th rbltd ityfhxeyt,ekb /mjylf^ vfuhfv lfikbc ghjwtcc

50sfy cltdlf thsbfy mfhsdtk [fk[ib stvj,hbj,bc fqjh’byt,bc ghjwtcb&

lfikbc lhjc mfhsdtkb thbc sfyfvtlhjdt tsyj]ueat,b _ bvthkj,f^mfhsktkj,f^ rf[tkj,f^ vtuhtkj,f^ uehekj,f^ vtc[j,f lf c[d&ufycfresht,bs fqjh’bylf lf thsbfyb cf[tkvobajc lfikbc rdfklfrdfkxfvj.fkb,lf&

thsbfyb cf[tkvobajc lfikbc itvltu res[eh-mfhsekcf[tkvobajib vw[jdht, mfhsdtkj,fc res[eh-stvehb sdbsitvtwyt,fexylt,jlf& thjdyekb sdbsitvtwyt,f ‘fkpt lftwf&

cfthsj-mfhsekb bltbc vfnfht,kfl trktcbf lfhxf& cftrktcbjsdfkcfphbcbs cfmfhsdtkj thsbfy vskbfy jhufybpvc ofhvjflutylf& fvlhjbcfsdbc mfhsek trktcbfc erdt jhb wtynhb /mjylf _ vw[tsf lf,bzdbysf& fqvjcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbfc mfhskbc cfrfsfkbrjcjufyfut,lf^ lfcfdktsbcfc _ fa[fptsbc cfrfsfkbrjcj&

mfhsk-rf[tsbc cfvtajt,b [ibhfl thsbfylt,jlyty& fctdtthsbfylt,jlyty lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc cf[tkvobajt,hbdb thstekt,bw&fv afmnc^ fk,fs ̂mfhskbc thsbfyb cfrfsfkbrjcjcf lf fa[fptsbc thsbfybcfrfsfkbrjcjc fhct,j,fw ufyfgbhj,t,lf&

trktcbf [tkc eikblf mfhsdtkb thbc njvj,hbd lfyfobkt,fc& bcthjdyekb vfrjycjkblbht,tkb ‘fkf b.j&

\ | + + C F E R E Y T

\|++ c^ itb’kt,f bsmdfc^ ev’bvtcb cfereyt b.j mfhsdtkb thbcbcnjhbfib& se obyfs vnht,b cfmfhsdtkjc lfg.hj,bs^ fylf lf[fhrdbsrvf.jabklt,jlyty^ fv cfereytib cgfhctsbcf lf jcvfktsbc bvgthbt,vf.dtkfathb bqjytc mfhsdtkb thbc ufcfyflueht,kfl& fctek fsfcj,bsmfhsdtkb cfmfhsdtkjibdt lf[jwtc^ eahj vtnb cgfhctsib uflffcf[ktc&rf[tsb ufferfwhbtktc lf vjvsf,fht sehmvfyekb njvt,b xfvjfcf[ktc&vtc[tsib b’ekt,bs uffvf/vflbfytc ~uffsfshtc` vrdblhb mfhsdtkj,f^vjobyffqvltutyb vjcgtc^ fylf fb’ektc uflfcf[kt,ekb.dyty& lfcfdktscfmfhsdtkj rb exdtekj fyfhmbfv vjbwdf% lfbo.j n.dtsf c.bldf&mfhsdtkt,b se fhfmfhsdtkt,b vfcbehfl fn.dtdt,lyty mfhsdtkt,c lfvjyt,fl /.bllyty& mfhsdtkt,b fahbrtksf vcufdcfl vjyfsf ,fpfhibb.blt,jlyty & sevwf bcbw eylf bsmdfc^ hjv jcvfkts-cgfhctsbccfpjufljt,hbdvf o.j,bkt,fv fhf vfhnj mfhsdtkt,b ufb.dfyf vjyfsf,fpfhpt^ fhfvtl c[df tdhjgtkb lfg.hj,bkb [fk[t,bw% ,jcybtkt,b^fk,fytkt,b lf c[d&

++ gthbjlb \++-\|+++ cc


.jdtkbdt fvfc sfy lfthsj lfcecnt,ek lf uferfwhbtkt,ekcfmfhsdtkjib xhlbkjrfdrfcbehb njvt,bc xfcf[kt,f& lfqtcnytkt,bfqvjcfdkts rf[tsib xfcf[klyty lf^ fhf vfhnj xfcf[klyty^ fhfvtlflubkj,hbd mfhsdtkj,fc fn.dtdt,lyty^ bvjyt,lyty^ fh,tdlyty lf‘fhwdfdlyty& iblf mfhskbc vsbfytsib xhlbkj rfdrfcbblfy ufjct,ekbldfkt,b xfcf[klyty& tuhbc-fa[fptsibw xhlbkj rfdrfcbtkt,b _flbqttkt,b^ facef-f,fpt,b^ facfht,b^ xthmtpt,b lfvrdblhlyty&

lfg.hj,bk cfmfhsdtkjib mfhsdtkt,b vbpfyvbvfhsekflbltdyt,jlyty& w[flbf^ fcts lhjc fveifdlf uflfhxtybc bycnbmnb _mfhsdtkj,bc thsb yfobkb efh.jalf thjdyt,fc^ pjub sfshlt,jlf ̂pjubcjv[lt,jlf ~uhbujhbfyekb cfhoveyjt,bc mhbcnbfyt,c cgfhcts-jcvfktsbfh cltdyblf` ̂pjub #ahfyult,jlf@ ~rfsjkbrtt,bw yfrkt,fl bltdyt,jlyty`&fvbc ufhlf ̂mfhsdtkt,b ktrlt,jlyty^ jclt,jlyty^ fa[fplt,jlyty&

cf,tlybthjl^ ltyfwbjyfkbpfwbbcf lf thjdyekb uflfudfht,bccfahs[tc mfhsdtkt,bc lblb yfobkb vnrbwtl lfeluf&

eylf fqbybiyjc^ hjv thbc uflfhxtyfib elbltcb qdfokb mfhsek fyecfmfhsdtkjc cfvjwbmekj trktcbfc vbe’qdbc& cfmvt bcff^ hjv v[jkjlmhbcnbfyj,bc ityfhxeyt,bs mfhsdtkt,b thjdyt,fc dth byfhxeyt,lyty&vfufkbsfl ̂uhbujhbfytkb mfhsdtkt,b rdkfd mhbcnbfyekb cfhoveyjt,bcvfnfht,tkb b.dyty^ vfuhfv sfylfsfy ufcjv[lyty& ‘bhbsflfl bubdt bsmvbcrfsjkbrt mfhsdtkt,ptw& mfhsdtkj,f v[jkjl vfhskvflblt,kt,vf _cfmfhsdtkjc cfvjwbmekj trktcbbc otdht,vf itbyfhxeytc&

mfhsdtkb thbc fv cfibytkb ufycfwltkbc lhjc^ cfhoveyjt,bcityfhxeyt,bcfc elbltcb vybidytkj,f /mjylf vfufkbsbc ‘fkfc& vfqfkb atybcofhvjvflutykt,b% vtat-ltljakt,b^ vsfdht,b^ sfdflfpyfehj,f lf vfsbj]f[bc otdht,b cfvfufkbsjyb b.dyty vjcf[ktj,bc lf,fkb^vhfdfkhbw[jdfyb atyt,bcfsdbc&

ofhxbyt,eksf ufvf/vflbfyt,bc itvltu vtc[tsb sbsmvbc chekbflufvf/vflbfylf& vfkt cfhoveyjt,flfrfhuekvf vjcf[ktj,fv thjdyt,fw _mfhsdtkj,f lfrfhuf&

fctsb dbsfht,bc lhjc ufycfresht,bs lfcfafct,tkbf rf[tsbcltljakbc _ mtstdfybc sfdlflt,f cfhoveyjt,bcfsdbc& itb’kt,f bsmdfc ̂hjvvfvekb lf thb cekbth-[jhwbtkb vjcgj,bcfufy lf c[df [fk[t,ibfcbvbkfwbbcfufy ovblf mtstdfybc^ ovblf vtabc kefhcf, ++-bc^ c[dfofhxbyt,eksf^ cftrktcbj vjqdfotsf se thbcrfwsf mhbcntcflvbsdbsitobhdfv uflffhxbyf&

\|++ c& ufvjhxtekbf mhbcntc vjofvtsf cbvhfdkbs& mfhsekvftrktcbfv v[jkjl pjubthsb vfsufybc rfyjybpbht,f it’kj^ hflufy lblbb.j vfsb hbw[db& rfyjybpbht,ekbf 1616 otkc lfdbs ufht]bc elf,yjib

52fvjo.dtnbkb 6000 ov& vjofvt* cfmfhsdtkjc lblt,ekb ov& vtat kefhcf,b^mhbcntcfsdbc ofvt,ekb 1622 otkc* lblvjofvt cfmfhsdtkjc vyfsj,brf[tsbc ltljafkb ov& mtstdfyb ̂yfofvt,b 1624 otkc* w[hf ‘vf [th[tekb’t^ltlbsf lf lbs lf vfssfy thsfl vfhf,lbc ,h’jkbc dtkpt 1625 otkcfvjo.dtnbkb 9 000 mfhsdtkb* cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbc vtsfehb ov& vfvftdltvjp rfsfkbrjcb^ ofvt,ekb 1642 otkc* ov& ,b’byf xjkj.fidbkb^tkbp,fh lf ifkdf mcybc thbcsfdt,b^ ofvt,ekyb 1661 otkc* 1696-1700okt,ib ufht]bc vjyfcnthib ktrsfufy fvjo.dtnbkb qbhcb vfvt,b% ibjf[fkb ̂lfdbsb lf uf,hbtkb* vfs ufhlf rbltd vhfdfkvf lfclj sfdb mhbcntcflf cfvij,kjcfsdbc& vfs ijhbcff xdtyb ov& vfvf _ stdljht^ 1669 otkcofvt,ekb^ ov& mtstdfybc sfyv[kt,b vqdltkb lf efvhfdb ov& vjofvtyb^hjvtksfw uff,ho.bytc mfhsekb trktcbf& mfhsdtkvf thvf lf mfhsekvftrktcbfv e,tleht,bcfc lblb cbvnrbwt ufvjfv;qfdyf&

\|++ c-ib cgfhctsb lblfl uf’kbthlf if/-f,fcbc vvfhsdtkj,bc lhjc&if/c ‘fkpt fahs[j,lf lf fqbpbfyt,lf rf[tsbc cfvtajc rfdibhb hectssfylf jcvfktssfy&

1615 okbc 15 ctmntv,thc fkfdthlj,bc cflqtcfcofekj obhdbcitvltu rf[tkt,b f]fy.lyty& vfkt bvthtsblfy stbvehfpb xfvjdblf lff]fy.t,ekt,c xfeluf cfsfdtib& f]fy.lf ibhdfybw& stbvehfpvf sdbsjyecfhlkf mfhsdtksf ]fhc^ cgfhctkt,c obofvehsfy lfe[dlf lf hfvltybvtcffsib vechb uffdkj& mfhsdtkt,vf ,ho.bydfkt ufvfh]dt,f bptbvtc&

if/b cfmfhsdtkjc bctd itvjtcbf lf ffj[hf^ vfuhfv ofdblf se fhf^rf[tkt,b rdkfd f]fy.lyty& vfhsfkbf^ if/vf lbl’fkb ]fhbs f]fy.t,bcxf[ij,f it’kj^ vfuhfv mfhsdtkt,vf uekb fh ufbnt[tc lf vbc cbcfcnbrtcbctd f]fy.t,bs egfce[tc& 1617 o& if/b vtjs[tl itvjbzhf cfmfhsdtkjib&

stbvehfpb fhfse itlhrf^ fhfvtl .bpbk,fisf obyffqvltu lbl,h’jkfc xfeluf cfsfdtib lf ittwflf jcvfksf ]fhbc lf[vfht,bs vbtqobfsfdbcb vbpybcfsdbc ̂vfuhfv jcvfkt,vf ofhvfnt,fc dth vbfqobtc& stbvehfpvf1618 otkc hectscfw cs[jdf lf[vfht,f& jcvfktssfy lf hectssfy vbcbrfdibhbs ufwjat,ekvf if/-f,fcvf iehb stbvehfpbc j]f[bc otdht,pt b’bf&1620 otkc stbvehfpbc df;t,b _ ktdfyb lf fktmcfylht lffcfzehbct,byf^hbc itltuflfw evwhjcb ufhlfbwdfkf^ [jkj eahjcb _ zreblfy itbifkf&

bdfyt ]fdf[bidbkbc itafct,bs^ hectsbc vsfdhj,f cfmfhsdtkjibcfzbhj lfv[vfht ]fhbcf lf pfh,fpyt,bc xfvjvc[vtkb jcnfnt,bc yfwdkflfupfdyblf hec cfvqdltkjt,fc ̂hjvtkbw fvhtpbs bmwtjlf lf trktcbt,ibobhdfcfw fh rflhekj,lf& sfdbfys cfvij,kjib vodfkt,kj,fc vbxdtekybmfhsek cftrktcbj qvhsbcvcf[eht,fc tzdbc sdfkbs e.eht,lyty&

1624 otkc if/-f,fcvf stbvehfpbc ltlf _ ov& mtstdfyb _ cfcnbrflfofvf lf vjrkf& mtstdfy ltljafkb mfhsekvf trktcbfv ovblfyfl ithfw[f&

++ gthbjlb \++-\|+++ cc


vfy sfdbcb vfufkbsbs chekbfl cfmfhsdtkj ufvf/vflbfyt,f-ufsfsht,bcfufy b[cyf&

if/-f,fcc ufyphf[ekb /mjylf mfhsk-rf[tsbc vjcf[ktj,bc chekbflf.hf lf cgfhctsib uflfcf[kt,f^ [jkj vfs flubkfc cgfhctkt,cxffcf[kt,lyty& fv vbpybs vfy ubjhub cffrf’t ufvjupfdyf epfhvfpfhbkfimhbs& vfuhfv ubjhub cffrf’tv itbn.j^ hjv mfhsk-rf[tsbc vjj[ht,bcflf sfdbcb vbpybc ufy[jhwbtkt,bc itvltu if/c vbcb vjrdkf /mjylfufyphf[ekb^ fvbnjv bub lferfdibhlf pehf, thbcsfdc lf itbsfy[vff]fy.t,ekb.dyty cgfhcsf obyffqvltu& f]fy.t,f mfhsdtksf ufvfh]dt,bslfvsfdhlf& tc b.j ths-thsb elbltcb ufvfh]dt,f mfhsdtkb thbc bcnjhbfib&tc vj[lf 1623 otkc&

itmvybk cbnefwbfib #e’ktdtkvf@ if/vf stbvehfpsfy ithbut,fuflfo.dbnf& 1631 otkc if/vf stbvehfpb ufthsbfyt,ekb mfhsk-rf[tsbcvtatl fqbfhf&

stbvehfpb ibibc pfhc cwtvlf vf/vflbfy vvfhsdtkt,c^ fvbnjv vbcvtaj,fc if/b lbl[fyc dth vjbsvtylf& vfy cfmfhsdtkjcrty rdkfd epfhvfpfhb]fhb ufvjfupfdyf ̂hjvtkcfw stbvehfpbc uf’tdt,f lf #ueh]bcnfybc dfkfl@hjcnjv-[fybc lfcvf tdfkt,jlf&

1632 okblfy uf’tdt,ekb stbvehfpbc yfwdkfl mfhskbc vtatl67 okbc hjcnjvb lf]lf&

lblb obyffqvltuj,bc ufotdbcf lf mfhsdtksf vhfdfkb f]fy.t,bcvbe[tlfdfl stbvehfpvf dth it’kj hjcnjvbc lfvfhw[t,f^ hflufy bc.bpbk,fisf ‘fkfc t.hlyj,jlf& stbvehfpb rf[tsib uflfdblf&

1642 otkc lblb itsmvekt,f vjto.j hjcnjvbc obyffqvltu& vfcibvjyfobktj,lf rfsfkbrjcb tdltvjy lbfcfvb’t& hjcnjvvf lffvfhw[ff]fy.t,ekt,b^ [jkj rfsfkbrjcb wb[tib xfcdf^ vwbht [ybc itvltu rbvjfrdktdbyf lf rjirblfy uflvjfult,byf& hjcnjvvf ̂hjvtkbw cfmfhsdtkjctrktcbbc cekc ̂fphcf lf bltfc t,h’jlf ̂]fht,b rf[tsc itecbf lf lffvfhw[fstbvehfpb^ hjvtkbw bvthtsib ufb[bpyf& hjcnjvb mfhsk-rf[tsbc vtatlbmwf&

,thfl fqrdtwbkb stbvehfpb 74 okbcf ufhlfbwdfkf& eahjflht ufhlfbwdfkf hjcnjvb& vbc flubkpt ve[hfytkb ,fuhfnbjyb _ufvf/vflbfyt,ekb df[nfyub ~if/yfdfpb ̀lfcdtc&

stbvehfpbcf lf c[df thsuek idbksf sfdlflt,fv mhbcntccfhoveyjt,bcflvb bv lhjc mdt.fyf chekb uflfudfht,bcfufy b[cyf& mfhsdtksfjhbtynbhb rdkfd cfhoveyjt,f lf vfvekb b.j&

bv;fvfl cgfhc-jcvfkt,b uffasht,bs t,h’jlyty fhf pjuflflmhbcnbfyj,fc^ fhfvtl cfmfhsdtkjc cfvjwbmekj trktcbfc _vfhskvflblt,kj,fc& bcbyb uhbujhbfyt,cf lf rfsjkbrtt,c fh t,h’jlyty^

54gbhbmbs^ mhbcnbfy cjv[t,c lf vfs cftrktcbj wtynht,c egbhfntcj,fcfybzt,lyty^ [jkj cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbc otdht,c cfcnbrfl cltdyblyty lffdbohjt,lyty& fb’ekt,lyty vbtqjs vf/vflbfyj,f^ fy^ se bctd mhbcnbfyt,fllfhxt,jlyty^ #ufcjv[t,ekb.dyty@ fy #ufahfyut,ekb.dyty@&

se hfnjv t,h’jlf stbvehfp vtat hjcnjvc lf hf vybidytkj,f/mjylf mfhsdtkj,bc ityfhxeyt,bcfsdbc stbvehfpbc lfevjhxbkt,kj,fc^tc hjcnjvbc lf[fcbfst,blfy rfhufl xfyc& bcnjhbrjct,b othty^ hjv bubmfhskib uf,fnjylf lf vtatl bmwf ew[j ‘fkbc vtidtj,bs^ cgfhcsf cfv[tlhj‘fkbs& hjcnjvb sfdbcb pyt-xdtekt,t,bs eahj cgfhctkb b.j^ dblhtmfhsdtkb& ,thb tuyfnfidbkbc wyj,bs^ vfiby mfhsdtkt,b uekohatkybb.dyty& hjcnjvvf ofvjb.dfyf cgfhctsblfy ufsfsht,ekb mfhsdtkt,b lfufyfotcf vj[tktt,fl& ufvhfdklf mfhskib fyufht,f lf cbvlblhbcvj.dfht,f&,bkot,bc vjmvtl mfhsdtkt,c lbl gfnbdc cwtvlf lf ecvtylf hjcnjvb ̂[jkjcbvfhskbc vj.dfheks gbhbmbs tmwtjlf&&& fv lhjblfy itvjdblf n.dtsfuf.bldf sfdflsf vbth lf ufvhfdklf wjldf& vje’kehlf c]ekb lfcftrktcbj otcb ufybh.dyf^ hflufy fqfh bqdojlyty cekbcsdbc^ fhfvtlv[jkjl [jhwbcfsdbc pheyfdlyty&

n.dtsf c.bldf vfyfvlt xdtyb [fk[bcfsdbc ew[j b.j& vbcbjythsflfrdbhdt,bsfw xfyc^ hjv cgfhctkt,cf lf sehmt,c cfmfhsdtkjlfy n.dtsfc.bldf mhbcnbfyj,bcf lf mfhsdtkj,bc fqvja[dhbcfsdbc yt,fdlfs&

mfhsdtkb [fk[b ‘fkpt vofhtl ufybwlblf n.dtsf c.bldfc ̂hjvtkcfwitltufl mhbcnbfyj,bc lfrfhudfw vjcltdlf& fv e,tleht,bc ae’tvlt,tkbfqvjcfdktsib hjcnjv-[fyb^ [jkj lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjib _ ktdfylflbfyb b.j& fv ecfibyktcb wjldbc ybiyt,bc ufvjxtybcsfyfdt cfmfhsdtkjctrktcbfv ufyufib fnt[f& vjodtek bmyf rht,f^ hjvtkvfw fv ,jhjnt,bcxfvltyb .dtkf flfvbfyb itfxdtyf^ vfuhfv^ cfvoe[fhjl^ fv ctyc cftrktcbjrht,bc ufyxbyt,fvfw dthfathb eidtkf&

mfhsek trktcbfc ̂w[flbf^ fh itt’kj vidblfl t.eht,byf mfhsdtksfcekbthb uflfudfht,bcfsdbc& esejl fvbc ufvj vjeo.j f]fy.t,f hjcnjvcmfhskbc rfsfkbrjcvf tdltvjy lbfcfvb’tv^ hjvtkcfw cehlf mfhsdtkj-,bcfsdbc sfdlflt,ekb vt,h’jkb stbvehfpb t[bkf mfhskbc cfvtajnf[npt& hjcnjvvf rfsfkbrjcb vjfrdktdbyf ̂cfvfubthjl cfvqdltkj gbht,c]fvfubhb ufyeotcf^ ffityf vw[tsbc cdtnbw[jdkbc uev,fsb lf c[dftrktcbt,bw^ hjvkt,bw lfyuhtekb b.j^ hfsf [fk[bc uekb vjtuj&

hjcnjv vtatv cfae’dtkb lfelj mfhsk-rf[tsib f[fkb nbgbccf[tkvobajc& thsb v[hbd^ fh vjifkf ‘dtkb mfhsekb cf[tkvobajt,hbdbcnhemneht,b^ fh itwdfkf cf[tkvobaj vvfhsdtkj,fyb^ ‘dtksfufydtfhct,ekb mfhsekb cf[tkj-sfyfvlt,j,fyb lf sfdbc sfdcfw #vtatc@eojlt,lf^ vfuhfv vtjht v[hbd^ upf ufe[cyf #.bpbk,fieh hbuc@^ itvjbqj

++ gthbjlb \++-\|+++ cc


.bpbk,fiehb sfyfvlt,j,t,b& jhcf[f ~jhgbhb` [fcbfsb vbcwfvvfhsdtkj,fc& mdt.fyf bh.dyt,jlf lf vjcf[ktj,f txdtjlf vf/vflbfyehotccf lf hbuc^ vf/vflbfyeh xdtekt,t,c& se flht cgfhctssfy eiefkj,h’jkbcfc mfhsdtkt,b byfhxeyt,lyty vfqfk cekbtht,fc^ mfhsdtkj,fcflf thjdyekb reknehbc cbovbyltc^ vfuhfv ‘kbth pfhfklt,jlytyvfnthbfkehfl^ f[kf^ vfhsfkbf^ vfnthbfkehfl fqfh pfhfklt,jlyty^vfuhfv cfyfwdkjl rybylt,jlf mfhsekb reknehf lf cekbtht,f& mdt.fyfthjdyek-cfhoveyjt,hbdb uflfudfht,bc upfc lffluf&

cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbf thsflthsb thjdyekb ,eh]b b.jmfhsdtkj,bcf^ vf/vflbfyeh bvgthbt,sfy vt,h’jkb^ fvbnjvfw vfssdbcvbeqt,tkb& vf/vflbfyt,vf it’ktc vjtcgjs ,th’yekb cf[tkvobaj^ fvbcufvj ,th’yekb trktcbf vfssdbc cfibib fqfh b.j^ _ it’ktc vjtcgjs cjv[ehbcf[tkvobaj^ fvbc ufvj cjv[ehb trktcbf vfssdbc cfibib fqfh b.j^ vfuhfvdth it’ktc mfhsekb cf[tkvobajt,hbj,bc chekb vjcgj,f^ hjvkbc cekcflf uekc lf vfvj’hfdt,tk ‘fkfc cfmfhsdtkjc thsbfyb trktcbfofhvjflutylf& fvbnjv t,h’jlyty bcbyb cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbfc& ufhlf fvbcf^vfs ,bpfynbbcf lf cjv[tsbc lfg.hj,bc ufvj it’ktc hjujhw ,th’yekb^ bctcjv[ehb trktcbt,b sfdbfysb ptlfv[tldtkj,bc cathjib vjtmwbfs& jhbdtfv trktcbfc^ hjvtksfw lbl’fkb vhtdkb tmdtvlt,fht,jlf vf/vflbfyehmdt.yt,ib^ vf/vflbfyb vvfhsdtkt,b vfhsdf-ufvutj,bc cfmvtibw b.tyt,lyty&

hjcnjvb^ hjujhw cgfhcb vj[tkt^ dfklt,ekb b.j ufycfresht,ekb.ehflqt,f lf vpheydtkj,f ufvjtxbyf cjv[ehb trktcbbcflvb&vjyjabpbnt,bcflvb hjcnjvbc uekvjo.fkt,f bvltyfl ecfpqdhj b.j^ hjvsdbs cjv[t,c bub cjv[fl vbexytdbfs^ ‘dtkb cjvt[b lbyfcnbt,bc fybctkb,fuhfnbjyt,bc isfvjvfdkfl& fqcfybiyfdbf^ hjv bvlhjbyltkb mfhsekbcfpjufljt,bc vfqfkb yfobkbw cjv[jabkehb ntyltywbt,bc vfnfht,kflbmwf&

hjcnjvbc bcnjhbrjcb^ vbc rfhpt fqphlbkb lf cgfhctsib vjqdfotafhcflfy ujhub]fyb’t cfthsjl rfhufl fh bwyj,lf mfhsekbcnjhbjuhfabfc^ cfvfubthjl bwyj,lf cjv[ehc lf fvbnjvfw lfothfcfmfhsdtkjc bcnjhbf^ cjv[jabkehb ntyltywbt,bs&

fcts dbsfht,fib xff.tyf cfmfhsdtkj lf cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbfhjcnjvbc #rjvghjvbcekvf@ mfhsek-cgfhcekvf cf[tkvobajv&

stbvehfpc tv[hj,jlf mfhsk-rf[tsbc vjcf[ktj,bc elbltcbyfobkb& vbcb vtaj,f mfhsdtksf cehdbkb b.j&

56

\ | + + + C F E R E Y T

\|+++ c-bc lfcfo.bcib cfmfhsdtkjc gjkbnbrehvf lfikbkj,fverblehtcb cf[t vbbqj^ hfcfw sfy cltdlf ibyf jvt,b&

vtabc ufdktyf ‘kbth lfcecnlf& sfdflt,b sfdbfys vfvekib chek[tkvobaj,fc bxtvt,lyty&

cfmfhsdtkjc thsbfyj,bc fqlutybcfsdbc vfhfl b,h’jlytyufvjxtybkb vjqdfotyb^ vfuhfv cgfhcts-jcvfktsb sbsmvbc .jdtk cfereytibfyf[kt,lf 1555 okbc pfdc^ hjvkbc ‘fkbsfw fqvjcfdkts cfmfhsdtkj _bhfybc^ [jkj lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkj jcvfktsbc dfcfkeh v[fhtt,flbsdkt,jlf&

thsbfyb cf[tkvobajc lfhqdtdfv njvj,hbj,f lf stvj,hbj,fffqjh’byf& sfylfsfy xfvj.fkb,lf mfhsdtkb thbc ]ueat,b _ mfhsktkj,f^rf[tkj,f^ bvthkj,f& bvthtsbc cfvtajc ufvjt.dyty jlbibc^ uehbbc^fa[fptsbcf lf cdfytsbc cfvsfdhjt,b&

vfuhfv^ vbe[tlfdfl fctsb gjkbnbrehb lfmewvfwt,ekj,bcf^ [fk[ibfqvjxylf ‘kbthb thjdyekb sdbsituyt,f ^ hfcfw ufyfvnrbwt,lfcfmfhsdtkjc trktcbf&

fa[fptsbc cfrfsfkbrjcjv^ hjvtkbw \|+ c-bc lfcfo.bcib lblnthbnjhbfc vjbwfdlf ̂vjcf[ktj,bc ufvf/vflbfyt,bc ufvj vbcb lblb yfobkblfrfhuf xhlbkjtsbs lf cfv[htsbs&

hjujhw bsmdf^ xhlbkjtsblfy xfvjcf[klyty flbqt-xthmtpekb[fk[t,b^ hjvtksfw facfht,c eojlt,lyty ‘dtk cfmfhsdtkjib& vfs it’ktcfa[fpsf lf,fkb atyt,bc fcbvbkfwbf& fa[fpsf vfqfk atyt,c fh lferfhufdstsybrehb sdbsitvtwyt,f& ‘dtkt,ehfldt mfhsek reknehek ohtcvbfresdyt,lyty sfdbfys sfdc&

fctdt rf[tsib xfvjcf[klyty ktrt,b^ [jkj mfhskib _ jct,b^hfvfw mfhsdtksf fcbvbkfwbf ufvjbodbf& vsblfy xfvjcf[kt,eksf ijhbcvf/vflbfyt,b lf ofhvfhst,b zfh,j,lyty^ hfcfw itltufl trktcbf-vjyfcnht,bc^ cftgbcrjgjcjt,bcf lf sdbs cfrfsfkbrjcj nf’ht,bc mjyt,bclfnfwt,f vj/.df& ufemvlf vhfdfkb cftgbcrjgjcj& vrdblhb vjcf[ktj,f _cfvo.cj yfluehlt,jlf& vfs fy bnfwt,lyty lf vjyt,fl /.bllyty^ fylfibyf.vt,fl lf vjcfvcf[ehtt,fl fmwtdlyty^ hfcfw sfy cltdlf vfsbufofhvfhst,f lf thjdyekb uflfudfht,f&

.jdtkbdt fvbc obyffqvltu b,h’jlf mfhsekb trktcbf& vbcbegbhdtktcb fvjwfyf b.j lft[cyf mhbcnbfyt,b n.dtj,bcfufy lf lftcf[kt,byfsfdbfys vfvekt,ib& lf[vfht,jlf qfhb,c^ j,jkc ̂cfwjlfdc& fqtchekt,byfmdtkb cfmvt lf itto.fkt,byf emjytkb& .ehflqt,fc fmwtdlf fuhtsdt

++ gthbjlb \++-\|+++ cc


[tkjcyt,bc ^ obuybc uflfvotht,bcf lf v[fndht,bc mjyt,hbdepheydtk.jafc&

trktcbbc mjyt,bc thsb yfobkb [vfhlt,jlf nf’ht,bc itvrj,fc lfvjyfcnht,c& fqcfybiyfdbf^ hjv trktcbbc vfvt,b lf vfvfvsfdht,b cobhfdlytygbhflb itvjcfdkbs it’tybkcfw&

sevwf cekbs thsbfyb mfhsekb trktcbf jh cfrfsfkbrjcjl b.juf.jabkb ̂vfsb cfqvhsbcvcf[ehj tyf mfhsekb b.j& ovblf ybyjc lhjblfy\+\ c-vlt cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbfib fh .jabkf ufvj.tyt,ekb c[df tyf&

df[nfyu |+-v ̂sfdbcb cf[tkvobajt,hbdb vjqdfotj,bc lfo.t,bcsfyfdt^1705 otkc^ vjbodbf cftrktcbj rht,f^ hjvtkvfw mfhskbc rfsfkbrjcfldf[nfyubc ‘vf _ hectsblfy f[kfl lf,heyt,ekb ljvtynb frehs[f^hjvtkbw sfdbcb vjqdfotj,bc gbhdtk tnfgpt df[nfyuc tythubekflidtkjlf cf[tkvobaj cfmvtsf vjudfht,fib&

df[nfyu |+ ,fuhfnbjysf evwhjc injc _ ve[hfy,fnjysf lbyfcnb-fc tresdyjlf& vfy lf vfcsfy lff[kjt,ekvf sfdlflt,ekvf mfhsdtkt,vflfcf[tc cfmfhsdtkjc #ufvj[cybcf lf fqlujvbc@ utuvf& #ufvj[cyfib@buekbc[vt,jlf vf/vflbfyehb mdt.yt,bcfufy sfdbc lfqotdf^ [jkj#fqlujvfib@ _ cfmfhsdtkjc ufthsbfyt,f&

#fqlujvbcf lf ufvj[cybcfsdbc@ cfzbhj b.j mhbcnbfyekbcf[tkvobajt,bc sfyflujvf& fv ghjuhfvfpt b.j fut,ekb df[nfyu |+-bcf lfmfhsdtkb vjqdfott,bc cfufhtj gjkbnbrf&

fmdt eylf fqbybiyjc^ hjv hjujhw tdhjgekvf^ bct hecekvfjhbtynfwbfv rhf[b ufybwflf lf^ cf,tlybthjl^ sdbs mfhsdtksf ijhbcdtfqvjxylf ‘fkf #fqlujvbcf lf ufvj[cybcfsdbc@&

\|+++ c-bc lfcfo.bcib bhfybc cf[tkvobajc ‘kbtht,f erblehtcfllftwf& lfcecnlf fuhtsdt jcvfktsbw& vj[lf bct^ hjv bhfybc dfcfkehbmfhskbcf lf rf[tsbc cf[tkvobajt,blfy cgfhctsib xfcekb mfhsdtkblblt,ekt,b fmnbehfl vjyfobktj,lyty lf ufhrdtekobkfl ofhvfhsfdlytyrbltw fv mdt.ybc w[jdht,fc ̂[jkj cgfhctsib mfhsdtksf ]fhb e’kbthtcbb.j& fcts dbsfht,fib se mfhsdtkt,b ufthsbfyt,fc it’kt,lyty^ vfs obydthfdby fqelut,jlf&

vfuhfv ̂cfvoe[fhjl^ ufthsbfyt,f zbhlf&mfhsdtksf vfhskvflblt,kj,f jcvfksf lf cgfhcsf vbth

ufyb[bkt,jlf^ hjujhw vfs cfobyffqvltujl vbvfhsekb gjkbnbrehbjhbtynfwbf& vbs evtntc vfiby^ hjwf vfhskvflblt,tkb hectsbc bvgthbfrfdrfcbbc vsfuht[bkc vjfluf lf mfhsk-rf[tsbc vtatt,b thsvjhoveytj,bcufvj hectsc rfdrfcbbc rfhbc ufqt,fc it/gbhlyty&

hjujhw bsmdf ̂fv vbptpt,bc ufvj vf/vflbfyt,b fhw ths mhbcnbfyekfqvcfht,kj,fc bct fh cltdyblyty rfdrfcbfib^ hjujhw mfhsdtksf

58vfhskvflblt,kj,fc& bcbyb fdbohjt,lyty vfhskvflblt,tk mfhsdtkt,clf fb’ekt,lyty vfs ittwdfkfs cfhoveyjt,f^ vf/vflbfyj,f ̂rfsjkbrj,f fyvjyjabpbnj,f vbtqjs ̂hfw mfhsdtksf ltyfwbjyfkbpfwbfc bodtdlf&

1713 otkc vjvpfllf tkxj,f tdhjgfib cek[fy-cf,f jh,tkbfybcvtsfehj,bs^ hjvtkcfw vbpyfl lfcf[ekb /mjylf%

1& mfhskbc mhbcnbfyekb cf[tkvobajc fhct,j,f behblbekfl eylftwyj bhfyc^ hfw df[nfyu |+-bc^ hjujhw mhbcnbfyb vtabc^ bhfyblfycfmfhsdtkjib lf,heyt,bs vbbqotjlf&

2& cfmfhsdtkjc ufthsbfyt,f&3& xhl& rfdrfcbtksf itvjctdt,bc ito.dtnf&4& mfhsdtksf ltyfwbjyfkbpfwbbc ito.dtnf&vfuhfv cek[fy-cf,f [tkwfhbtkb lf,heylf cfmfhsdtkjib 1715

otkc& tc mfhsdtkb vtabc tdhjgekb jhbtynfwbbc rhf[c ybiyfdlf&bhfybc cf[tkvobajc erblehtcvf lfcecnt,fv^ fdqfysf vbth vbcb

vvfhsdtkb lbyfcnbbc xfvjult,fv^ mdt.ybc erblehtcvf ibyfufyvf rhbpbcvf^hjujhw xfyc^ cfmfhsdtkjc gjkbnbrjct,c cfiefkt,f vbcwf firfhflufvjt[fnfs cohfadf vhskvflblt,tkb hectsbcfrty&

1722 otkc df[nfyu |+-v cfmdt.yjl uffv;qfdyf sfdbcbuflfo.dtnbkt,f hectssfy cfv[tlhj rfdibhbc itrdhbcfrty& fvfy ‘fkptitfiajsf vf/vflbfyehb mdt.yt,b lf xhlbkjrfdrfcbehb njvt,b&

hectsc cgfhctsib ufycfresht,ekb trjyjvbehb bynthtct,b /mjy-lf& gtnht lblc cehlf^ cgfhctsbc dfzhj,f hec dfzht,c xftuljs [tkib&gtnhtv tkxb ufvjeupfdyf df[nfyu |+-c& sevwf cf[tkvobajc lfh,fbctksfthsb ]ueab df[nfyuc cbahs[bktc ehxtdlf&

df[nfyubcf lf hectsbc rfdibhvf itfiajsf lf ffqtkdf vstkbf[kj fqvjcfdktsb lf sdbs tdhjgf& rjycnfynbyjgjkib lfbcdf cfrbs[bgtnht +-cf lf df[nfyuc |+-bc cfjvfh vjmvtlt,fsf obyffqvltu fmnbehbpjvt,bc vbqt,bc itcf[t,&

bhfyb^ jcvfktsb lf lfqtcnfyb mfhskbc cfvfufkbsj lfc]bcfsdbcvjtvpflyty&

gtnht +-vf 1724 otkc vjekjlytkfl itrhf pfdb cgfhctssfy&cfmfhsdtkj vnhbc cfsfhtijl uflfbmwf& df[nfyu |+ epfhvfpfhb fvfkbshectsc uflfdblf&

vfkt .dtkfcfsdbc w[flb uf[lf^ hjv hectsbc vsfdhj,f sfdc fhboe[t,lf cfmfhsdtkjcsdbc&

fvhbufl^ df[nfyubc hecekb gjkbnbrfw rhf[bs lfvsfdhlf&vnthsf itvjctdt,vf ̂w[flbf^ mfhsekb trktcbfw lblfl lffpfhfkf&

vhfdfkb cftgbcrjgjcj lf tgfhmbf cfthsjl ufemvlf^ [jkj cftrktcbjvfvekt,bcf lf .vt,bc vybidytkjdfyb yfobkb ibyfjvt,bc gthbjlib cfthj

+++ gthbjlb


atjlfkt,vf vbbnfwtc& vfuhfv cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbfv itbyfhxeyf bc cekbthbldhbnf^ hjvtkbw itvltu 1744-45 okt,bcfsdbc^ mfhsekb mhbcnbfyekbcf[tkvobajt,hbj,bc fqjh’byt,fc lftlj cfae’dkfl&

1744 otkc itcheklf mfhsdtkb [fk[bc lblb [ybc jwyt,f&cfmfhsdtkjc cfvtaj nf[npt mhbcnbfyb vtat lf]lf& tc ,tlybtht,f rf[tk,fuhfnbjysf cf[kbc idbkc _ stbvehfp ++-c thuj&

mfhsdtksf cb[fhekb ecfpqdhj b.j& rfsfkbrjc-gfnhbfhmvffynjyvf vjb’bf vtatl rehs[tdbc e’dtktcb mfhsekb otct,b lfcfvqdltkjsf lfcb cfufyut,j cflqtcfcofekj wthtvjybbcfsdbc vjfvpflf&uf[fht,ekvf [fk[vf mext,b^ vjtlyt,b^ ,fpht,b vjhsj& xbhfqlyt,bsf lfufkj,bs ittut,f vtatc^ ltljafkcf lf ,fnjybidbkt,c& vtatl vbhjyw[t,bccflqtcfcofekj cb[fhekb ufyepjvtkb b.j&

mfhsekb cf[tkvobajc cedthtyj,bc fqlutybs ufy[jhwbtklf#ufvj[cybc@ bltf^ hbc itltuflfw [jhwb itbc[f #fqlujvbc@ bltfvfw& fvfibbuekbc[vt,jlf bv mfhsekb vbof-o.kbc lf,heyt,f^ hjvtkbwxfvjwbkt,ekb /mjylf cfmfhsdtkjc&

1758 otkc cjkjvjy +-vf^ thtrkt ++-v lf stbvehfp ++-v vtuj,hj,bcflf ehsbthslf[vfht,bc [tkitrhekt,f lfltc& vjodtek bmyf cfufyut,jcftrktcbj rht,f 1759 o& 4 lf 5 ltrtv,thc& rht,fv frh’fkf n.dtsf c.bldf&fqluf mesfstkbc rfstlhf^ trktcbf ufysfdbceaklf uflfcf[flbcfufy&

\|+++ c-bc 70-bfy okt,ib fqluf lfcfdkehb mfhsekb cf[tkvobajclfvjerblt,kj,f& bvthtsbc vtatv cjkjvjy +-vf mdt.yblfy sehmsfufhybpjyt,b uff’tdf&

60

CFMFHSDTKJC TRKTCBBC BCNJHBBC+++ GTHBJLB

MF HS EK B TR K T C B F \+ \-\\ C F E RE Y T T, IB

cfmfhsdtkjc cfvjwbmekj trktcbbc 2000-okjdfyb bcnjhbbcjhb^ itb’kt,f bsmdfc^ .dtkfpt vybidytkjdfyb vjvtynb \+\-\\ cc-cufytresdyt,f& tc fhbc cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbc fdnjrtafkbbc ufemvt,fhectsbc cfbvgthfnjhj rfhbc vbth lf vbcb fqlutyf mfhsdtkb thbcf lfcfvqdltkjt,bc ,h’jkbc o.fkj,bs& \+\ c-bc mfhsekb trktcbbc cfdfkfkjvlujvfhtj,bc itcf[t, ufvjmdt.yt,ekbf efvhfdb vfcfkf&

cfmfhsdtkjib vjwbmeksf mflfut,bcf lf vfs vbth cfvjwbmekjtrktcbbc lffhct,bc itvltu mhbcbnbfyj,f mfhsdtksf thjdyekcfhoveyjt,fl bmwf& lf fct b.j cfereytt,bc vfy’bkpt&

1811 okblfy mfhsekb trktcbf^ mhbcnbfyekb cfhoveyjt,bclfvwdtkb vstk rfdrfcbfib^ hecekb ,behjrhfnbekb cbcntvbc lfyfvfnfluflffmwbtc&

cfmfhsdtkjib hectsbc itvjzhfvlt mfhsekb trktcbf akj,lflbl’fk mjyt,fc& bub b.j trjyjvbehfl lfvjerblt,tkb thstekb^ fvbs bubvrdtshfl ufyc[dfdlt,jlf hectsbc trktcbbcfufy^ hjvtkbw hectsbc[tkbceakt,bc vbth cf[tkvobajc yfobkfl b.j uflfmwtekb& vfc 1722okblfy j,thghjrehjhb [tkv’qdfytkj,lf^ hjvtkbw ov& cbyjlc tlufcfsfdtib& bub cfthj gbhb b.j lf lblb eakt,t,b /mjylf& cfthj[tkbceakt,bcflvb trktcbbc lfvjhxbkt,bc cfmvt^ hjvtkbw gtnht lblvfofvjbo.j 1721 otkc gfnhbfhmj,bc ufemvt,bs^ 1784 otkc lffchekftrfnthbyt ++-v& fctsb vlujvfhtj,bc ufvj^ hectsb^ w[flbf^ dth vjbsvtylfcfmfhsdtkjib trktcbbc hjujhw trjyjvbeh lfvjerblt,kj,fc ̂bct elbltcufdktyfc cfthj [tkbceakt,fpt& lf fvbnjv vfy vbpyfl lfbcf[f cfmfhsdtkjctrktcbbc htjhufybpt,f&

1810 okbc 3 vfhnc rfsfkbrjcb fynjy ++ sbsmvbc ‘fkbs ufbodbtcgtnth,ehuc& 1811 okbc 30 bdkbcc itbmvyf lbrfcnthbf lf cfmfhsdtkjctrktcbfv lfrfhuf fdnjrtafkbf& lbrfcnthbbc vtsfehfl lfbybiyf dfhkfvthbcsfdb lf t,j’f vfc cfmfhsdtkjc tupfhmjcbc nbnekb& fv lhjblfy lfbo.jev’bvtcb gthbjlb cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbc w[jdht,fib& hectsbc[tkbceakt,f fmnbehfl iteluf tgfhmbt,bc itvwbht,fc^ hfcfw bub flhtwvbvfhsfdlf& tc [lt,jlf vsfdhj,bcfsdbc fhfcfcehdtkb gbht,bc rfstlhblfyxfvjcfijht,kfl&

+++ gthbjlb


1815 okbc 30 fudbcnjc lbrfcnthbf uflfrtslf #cfmfhsdtkj-bvthtsbc cbyjlfkeh rfynjhfl@& hecekvf vsfdhj,fv vfc lfevjhxbkfuehbf-cfvtuhtkjc trktcbt,bw&

1817 otkc dfhkfv thbcsfdb gtnth,ehuib ufbodbtc& fvfdt okblfytupfhmjcfl lfbybiyf hbfpfytkb fhmbtgbcrjgjcb stjabkfmnt hecfyjdb&vbc itvltu v[jkjl hecb thjdyt,bc tgbcrjgjct,b vfhsfdlyty cfmfhsdtkjccftupfhmjcjc& stjabkfmntv 1819 otkc itfvwbhf bvthtsbc cftgbcrjgjcjt,bvfsb ths tgfhmbfl ufthsbfyt,bc upbs& sbsj-sbsj tgfhmbf lfnjdf uehbfcflf cfvtuhtkjib& lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc 12 tghfmbblfy lfhxf 3& fvfc ufhlf^tupfhmjcb fvwbht,lf vjmvtlb trktcbt,bc hfjltyj,fc&

hectsbc vsfdhj,bcfsdbc cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbf ufyb[bkt,jlf^hjujhw cf[tkvobaj itvjcfdkbc ths-thsb o.fhj& vsfdhj,f abmhj,lf^cfcekbthj gbhsf hfjltyj,bcf lf c[dflfc[df [fh]t,bc vrdtshb itvwbht,bs[tkc iteo.j,lf [fpbyfib trktcbblfy itcekb itvjcfdkbc phlfc&

hectsbc bvgthbbc fynbtrktcbehvf gjkbnbrfv fqfiajsf mfhsdtkb[fk[b&

1818 okbc bdkbcib lfbo.j f]fy.t,f vij,kbehb trktcbbc lfcfwfdfl&vj]fy.tt,vf ofvjf.tytc kjpeyub #cfvij,kjc ufysfdbceakt,f@&vjcf[ktj,bc .dtkf atyf vjyfobktj,lf ,h’jkfib _ fhnbkthbbsitbfhfqt,ekb gjkrt,bcf lf ,fnfkbjyt,bc obyffqvltu&

1820 otkc lffgfnbvhtc vbnhjgjkbnt,b ljcbstjc mesfstkb lftmdsbvt utkfstkb ̂c[df ufdktybfyb gbht,b ̂hfvfw eahj uff’kbthf f]fy.t,f&

vj[ewb vbnhjgjkbnb _ ljcbstjc mesfstkb ~othtstkb` njvfhfibxfecdfvs lf hectsbcrty ofe.dfybfs& bub njvfhfibdt wtvbs vjerkfdsujhsfy f[kjc& vtjht vbnhjgjkbnb tmdsbvt utkfstkb ~ithdfib’t`[tkbceakt,fv lffgfnbvhf ̂hjujhw f]fy.t,bc ths-thsb vjsfdt&

vbnhjgjkbnt,b lf cfthsjl tgbcrjgjct,b [tkite[t,tkyb b.dytylf vfs vf/vflbfyt,bw rb gfnbdc cwtvlyty& hecsf mvtlt,fv f]fy.t,f uff’kbthf&hecbc ]fhvf cfvrdlhj-cfcbwjw[kj ,h’jkbc itvltu ufzbhdt,bs ufbvfh]dfelbltcb lfyfrfhut,bs& vjfh,btc lf uflfodtc hfzf^ fhnbkthbbs vbofcsfyuffcojhtc itvjmvtlbc wb[t uehbfib& cjakt,b uflfodtc^ pjub vj]fy.txfvjf[hxtc^ efvhfdb hectsib uflffcf[ktc^ vfsb mjyt,f [fpbyfc uflfcwtc&

1820 okbc 21 vfbcc cfhoveyjt,bcf lf sfdbceakt,bcfsdbcvt,h’jkvf 2 000 mfhsdtkvf lflj sfdb& vfs ijhbc b.dyty vt,h’jkbvqdlkt,b^ ,tht,b lf cfcekbthj gbht,b&

mfhsek trktcbfc bcnjhbekfl fstekj,bs cftgbcrjgjcj fyetgfhmbf /mjylf fqvjcfdkts^ lfcfdkts lf cfv[hts cfmfhsdtkjib&cftgbcrjgjcjsf vjcgj,bs lftwf mhbcnbfyekb cfhoveyjt,f mfhsdtksf

62ijhbc& fvbnjv mfhsdtkb cfcekbthj gbht,b vjbs[jdlyty ufemvt,ekbtgfhmbt,bc fqlutyfc&

cftupfhmjcjc gjkbnbrf bodtdlf vhtdkbc cfhoveyjt,hbdbylbathtynbpvc^ erfhufdlf mfhsek trktcbfc thjdyek cf[tc& [fk[cufycfresht,bs fqfiajst,lf mfhsekb tybc frh’fkdf trktcbt,cf lfcfcofdkt,kt,ib& uffemvtc mfhsektyjdfyb cfcekbthj cfcofdkt,kt,b lfuf[cytc hecektyjdfyb^ hfw bodtdlf vjvfdfk cfvqdltkj gbhsfufeyfskt,kj,fc& mfhsdtkb f[fkufphlt,bc yfobkb ufeew[jdlf mfhsekc&lftofayty hecek lf tdhjgek bltt,c cjwbfkbpvbcfc^ fstbpvbcf lffyfhmbpvbcfc&

trktcbt,blfy lf vjyfcnht,blfy lfbrfhuf cfereytsf vfy’bkpt yfuhj-dt,b e’dbhafctcb mjyt,f^ jmhj-dthw[kbsf lf ‘dbhafcb mdt,bs itvrekbcfcekbthj ybdst,b& [fpbyfv trktcbf-vjyfcnht,c xfvjfhsdf vbot,b&

fcts dbsfht,fib fh fhbc ufcfrdbhb mfhsdtkb cfcekbthj gbht,bcfmnbehb vjyfobktj,f cfmfhsdtkjc ufcfsfdbceakt,kfl vjo.j,bkf]fy.t,t,ib 1804^ 1812 lf c[df okt,ib& 1832 okbc f]fy.t,bc ths-thsbfmnbehb ofhvvfhsdtkb b.j fhmbvfylhbnb abkfltkajc rbryf’t&

tupfhmjc gfdkt kt,tltdbc lhjc 1886 otkc ctvbyfhbblfyufhbw[ekvf jbct, kfqbfidbkvf vjrkf ctvbyfhbbc htmnjhb ltrfyjpbxeltwrb& vbc lfcfakfdt,fpt ofhvjsmvek cbn.dfib tupfh[jcc lfeo.tdkbfvrdktkbc #ofhvjvij,b [fk[b@& fqiajst,ekb mfhsdtkt,bc fphb ufvj[fnflbvbnhb .babfyvf& vfy vjeojlf tupfhmjcc^ se vfhsfkb b.j [fk[ibufdhwtkt,ekb [vf^ vfiby #itvxdtyt,tkb ufybltdyjc itxdtyt,ekbmdt.yblfy@& lbvbnhb .babfyb fvbcfsdbc lfcf]tc uflfcf[kt,bs^ cflfw1887 otkc vjrktc&

mfhsekb trktcbbc lfcfwfdfl [vf fbvfqktc sdbs hecb thbccfertstcj idbkt,vf& ths-thsb fctsb b.j wyj,bkb cofdkekb ckfdjabkbybrjkjp lehyjdb& vfy cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbc cfdfkfkj vlujvfhtj,f fcf[fsfdbc yfihjvib #,tlb mfhsekb trktcbbcf@&

cfvoe[fhjl^ \+\ c-ib^ hectsbc bvgthbfib cfmfhsdtkjc .jaybc lhjc^mfhsdtk [fk[ib ufytklf v[ehdfkt cfhoveyjt,f&

\\ c-ib hectsbc bvgthbfv bo.j hqdtdf^ hfw trktcbbc w[jdht,fibwfbcf[f&

hectsbc bvgthbbc ufycfvnrbwt,kfl cfzbhj b.j bvgthbfib tw[jdhfths tyfpt vjkfgfhrt thsb cfhoveyjt,bc vmjyt^ mdt.ybcflvb thsuekvjcf[ktj,fc& lqbc otchbuib lfluf mfhsdtkj,bc^ bct hjujhw c[df[fk[t,bc ̂hect,ib fcbvbkfwbf-itho.vbc cfrbs[b& uf’kbthlf mfhsekb tybcobyffqvltu ,h’jkf& tupfhmjct,bc vbpfyb b.j vhtdkbc ufhect,f& mfhsdtkvf[fk[vf itcf,fvbcfl egfce[f bvgthbbc fv mvtlt,fc&

+++ gthbjlb


1908 otkc vjrktc tupfhmjcb ybrjyb& hecb bthfhmt,b cfmfhsdtkjc#dtkeh lf cfcnbr v[fhtc@ eojlt,lyty lf f[fk tupfhmjct,c tibyjlfscfmfhsdtkjib xfvjcdkbcf&

mfhsekb trktcbbc vfvt,b lf thbc cfertstcj idbkt,b vb[dlyty^ hjvcfhoveyjt,bc uflfcfhxtyfl cfzbhj b.j cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbc ufyijht,fhecekb bvgthbekb vfymfybcfufy ̂t&b& cfzbhj b.j fdnjrtafkbbc fqlutyf&

hectsbc bvgthbfib htdjkewbehb ghjwtct,bc lfo.t,fvfw lffxmfhffdnjrtafkbbc vjs[jdybc ofvjo.t,f& fv vjs[jdyt,bs vhfdfk]th vbvfhstchectsbc bvgthfnjhcf lf ov& cbyjlc&

mfhsdtkb vqdltkvsfdht,bc vbth ofvjo.t,ek fdnjrtafkbbcvjs[jdyfc fmnbehfl lfezbhf v[fhb mfhsekvf byntkbutywbfv% ov& bkbfvfhsfkvf ~zfdzfdf’tv`^ ov& tmdsbvt sf.fbidbkvf^ bfrj, ujut,fidbkvf^fk& wfufhtkvf^ fk& [f[fyfidbkvf^ ybrj vfhvf lf c[d& mfhsekb trktcbbcfdnjrtafkbfc v[fhc ezthlf jhb hecb vtwybthb cjkjdbjdb lf pfjpthcrb&

bkbfc vjrdkbcf lf bvgthbfib htfmwbbc ufvfh]dt,bc itvltumfhsdtkvf fdnjrtafkbcnt,vf uflfo.dbntc sfdbfysb bltbc [fk[bcuekfvlt vbnfyf obuyt,bc ufvjwtvbs& vfs trktcbbc sfdbceakt,f vbfxylfscfobylhfl cfmfhsdtkjc vjvfdfkb sfdbceakt,bcf&

hectsbc bvgthbfib 1917 otkc st,thdkbc htdjkewbbc itvltumfhsdtkvf cfvqdltkjt,fv uflfo.dbnf ecohfatcfl tcfhut,kf itmvybkbvjvtynbs& 1917 o& 12 vfhnc vw[tsfib itbrhb,f fsbfsfcj,bs vjhoveyt&obhdbcfc^ #ufybwfltpt@ cbn.dbs ufvjdblf tgbcrjgjcb ktjyblt~jmhjgbhb’t ̀lf ufvjfw[flf cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbc fdnjrtafkehb vfhsdf-ufvutj,bc fqlutyf& fvfdt okbc 17 ctmntv,thc cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbcrfsfkbrjc-gfnhbfhmfl fbhxbtc tgbcrjgjcb rbhbjyb ~cf’fukbidbkb &̀ 1918okbc 26 vfbcc cfmfhsdtkj ufvjw[fllf lfvjerblt,tk cf[tkvobajl&vfuhfv^ cfvoe[fhjl^ mdt.ybc cfsfdtib vj[dlf fhf thjdyekb gfhnbf^ fhfvtl_ cjwbfkbcnehb& 1918 okbc 27 bdybcc vfhn.jaib vjrktc ov& rbhbjyb&

cfmfhsdtkjc cjwbfkbcnehb vsfdhj,f fstbcnehfl b.j ufyo.j,bkb^fvbnjv bub dth fafct,lf cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbc vybidytkj,fc mfhsdtkbthbcfsdbc& tc .jdtkbdt rfsfkbrjc-gfnhbfhm ktjybltc fqiajst,fc bodtdlf&

#vtyitdbrt,vf@ dth ufbsdfkbcobytc #vleqfht hectsblfy@vjcfkjlytkb cfahs[t lf 1921 okbc st,thdfkib hectsvf rdkfd lfbg.hjcfmfhsdtkj&

1921 otkc ktjybltc ufhlfwdfkt,bc itvltu cftrktcbj rht,fvcfmfhsdtkjc rfsfkbrjc-gfnhbfhmfl fbhxbf ov& fv,hjcb ~[tkfbf`&

,jkitdbrehb hectsbc vbth cfmfhsdtkjc fytmcbbc itvltucf[tkvobajv uffnfhf cfufyut,j vtsjlehb qjybc’bt,fyb^ hfsf cfthsjlvjtcgj trktcbf& mhbcnbfyt,vf vhfdfkb ltdyf ufybwfltc cfereytsf vfy’bkpt^

64vfuhfv fv v[hbd^ fk,fs^ dthfathb ittlht,f rjveybcn-,jkitdbrt,bc vbth\\ c-bc 20-30-bfy okt,ib mhbcnbfysf ltdyf-itdbohjt,fc& ,jkitdbrt,bfyuhtdlyty trktcbt,c^ qvhsbcvcf[eht,c fofvt,lyty hjujhw abpbrehfl^bct cekbthfl^ ‘fhwdfdlyty trktcbf-vjyfcnht,c&

\\ c-bc 20-bfy okt,ib lf[ehtc fsfcpt vtnb trktcbf^ uffemvtcqvhsbcvcf[eht,f&

cojhtl fv yuhtdf-ufyflueht,bc lhjc chekbfl cfmfhsdtkjcrfsfkbrjc-gfnhbfhmvf _ ov& fv,hjcb [tkfbfv ztivfhbnfl ufcobhf sfdbmfhsdtkb thbcfsdbc lf utyebc rjyathtywbfc ufeupfdyf vbvfhsdf^ hjvkbsfwvcjakbjc fvwyj mfhsdtkb thbc e,tleht,f& bub sfdbc vbvfhsdfibvjbs[jdlf^ hjv cfcohfajl uft.dfyfs hectsbc cfjregfwbj ]fhbcfmfhsdtkjlfy lf mfhsdtk thc vbcwtvjlf cfiefkt,f #c[dfsf‘fklfenfyt,kfl lf erfhyf[jl@ vjto.j #bctsb ajhvt,b cjwbfk-gjkbnbrehb w[jdht,bcf@^ hjvtkbw vbcsdbc vbcfqt,b b.j&

hectsbc vsfdhj,f lblfl uffyfo.tyf rjyathtywbbcflvb cfmfhsdt-kjc gfnhbfhmbc vbvfhsdfv^ fvbnjv ov& fv,hjcb [tkfbf lf vbcb sfyfvj-fphtyb% mesfbcbc vbnhjgjkbnb ov& yfpfhb kt;fdf^ fhmbvfylhbnb gfdkt]fafhb’t^ mfietsbc trktcbbc ltrfyjpb rfkbcnhfnt wbywf’t^ lbfrjyblbvbnhb ~kfpfhbidbkb` lf c[dt,b^ lffgfnbvhtc lf uffcfvfhsktc&ufvj’bt,bc ghjwtcib wlbkj,lyty ov& gfnhbfhmbc cekbth ufnt[fc^wlbkj,lyty vfc efht.j utyebc rjyathtywbbcflvb of.tyt,ekb vjs[jd-yt,b& vfuhfv ov& fv,hjcbv rbltd eahj ufyfvnrbwf tc vjs[jdyt,b sfdbcbdhwtkb cf,jkjj cbn.dbs& ov& fv,hjcbc vbecf]tc 7 okbs gfnbvhj,f&lffdflt,ek gfnhbfhmc cfc]tkbc dflf itevwbhtc& bub ufhlfbwdfkf 66 okbcfcfrib^ 1927 okbc 28 vfhnc&

cf,zjsf [tkbceakt,bc lhjc mfhsekb trktcbbc [dtlhc lf .jafcufycfpqdhfdlf vsfdhj,bc lfvjrblt,ekt,f cfpjufljl trktcbbc vbvfhs&itb’kt,f tc gthbjlb cfv tnfgfl lfd.js& 1943 okfvlt trktcbbc ltdyf-itdbohjt,f ‘dtkt,ehfl uh’tklt,jlf& uthvfybfcsfy jvbc lhjc cf,zjsfvsfdhj,fv vjo.fkt,bc sdfkbs uflvj[tlf trktcbfc^ fqbfhf hectsbctrktcbbc sfdbcsfdflj,f^ vbcwf gfnhbfhmbc fhxtdbc eakt,f^ itcf,fvbcfl^ufev]j,tclf mfhsekb trktcbbc vlujvfhtj,fw&

1943 otkc hectsbc trktcbfv fqbfhf mfhsekb trktcbbc cfvb eakt,f~fdnjrtafkbf^ cfgfnhbfhmj qbhct,f^ |+ flubkb lbgnb[ib`&

trktcbbc vlujvfhtj,f bctd ufefhtclf y& [heixjdbc lhjc& vbc vbthufnfht,ekb t&o& #ltvjrhfnbekb lfs,j,f@ fh ufydhwj,bkf trktcbbcvbvfhs&

fv gthbjlib bltdyt,jlyty cfvqdltkj gbht,b^ jqjyl f[kf c[dfvtsjlt,c vbvfhsfdlyty& vfs cf[tkc ent[lyty cfufyut,j cf[tkvobajt,hbdb

+++ gthbjlb


jhufyjt,b& fctsb ltdybc j,btmnb b.j^ vfufkbsfl^ tahtv ++& trktcbbcpytj,hbdb ltdyf uh’tklt,jlf rfsfkbrjc-gfnhbfhm bkbf ++-bc ptj,bcgbhdtk [fyt,ibw dblht 1985 okfvlt&

1985-86 okblfy vlujvfhtj,f vrdtshfl ufev]j,tclf^ vfuhfv70-okbfyb ,fnjyj,bc lhjc rjveybcnt,vf vstkb sfj,t,b fqpfhltctrktcbbcf lf cfcekbthj gbhsf vbvfhs efh.jabsb lfvjrblt,ekt,bs& fv,fhbthbc lf’ktdf [fk[bcfsdbc fldbkb fqfh b.j& vvfhsdtkj,bc ,jkjokt,ib cf,zjsf [tkbceakt,f fqfh rh’fkfdlf ov& othbkbc ~,b,kbbc`,tzldf-ufdhwtkt,fc^ vbc cfufptsj ge,kbrfwbt,c& fv ajypt^ hjwf ,b,kbbcfdnjhbntnb bctd ufbpfhlf^ [jkj trktcbbcf lf cfcekbthj gbhsffdnjhbntnb [fk[bc sdfkib lfwtvekb b.j^ v.fhb cfae’dtkb vbtwfctmnfynj,bc ufdhwtkt,fc* ,fgnbpvc^ btqjdtkj,fc lf c[df ctmnt,cvjmvtlt,bc fcgfhtpb uft[cyfs^ hflufyfw bcbybw ,b,kbbc fdnjhbntncfqbfht,lyty ̂[jkj cfvqdltkjt,fc rb fh wyj,lyty&

vfhsfkbf^ 1917 okbc 12 vfhnc ufvjw[fllf cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbcfdnjrtafkbbc fqlutyf^ vfuhfv hectsbc trktcbfv tc afmnb v[jkjl 1943otkc cwyj^ [jkj vcjakbj vfhskvflblt,tkvf trktcbt,vf _ 1990 okbc25 bfydfhc& vfuhfv lqtvlt uflfo.dtnbkb fh fhbc lbgnb[bc cfrbs[b&mfhsekb trktcbbc flubkb lqtvlt lfelutytkbf lf ofhvjflutyc vcjakbjtrktcbfsf itcofdkbc j,btmnc&

\\ c-bc ,jkjc cfmfhsdtkjc lfvjerblt,kj,bc fqlutybcfsdbccfmfhsdtkjc cfertstcj idbkt,c kjwfdlf lf frehs[t,lf eovbltcb lfeytnfhtcb^ chekbfl cfmfhsdtkjc rfsfkbrjc-gfnhbfhmb bkbf ++ lf ovblfcbyjlb& lfvjerblt,kj,bc fqlutybc itvltu mfhsdtkvf [fk[vf cb.dfhekbsegfce[f ovblf trktcbfc ̂\\+ c& lfcfo.bcblfy ufyvnrbwlf vfhskvflblt,tkbcfhoveyjt,f^ .jdtk lf,f-cjatkcf lf mfkfmib fbuj f[fkb trktcbt,b^ lfbljitsfy[vt,f ovblf trktcbfcf lf cf[tkvobajc ijhbc^ hfsf ufyvnrbwltcmfhsdtkb thb lf vbcb ovblf vfhskvflblt,tkb cfhoveyjt,f^ fvby&

66

[#cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbc vjrkt bcnjhbbc@^ thsb yfobkbofhvjflutyc vbnhjgjkbn fyfybf ]fafhb’bc #cfmfhsdtkjc cfvjwbmekjtrktcbbc bcnjhbbc@ js[njvtekbc y& ,erbfc vbth itchekt,ekitvjrkt,ek htlfmwbfc]

[vbnhjgjkbn fyfybf ]fafhb’bc obuybc #cfmfhsdtkjc trktcbbcvjrkt bcnjhbbc@ ntcnt,b itflubyf ktdfy vfstidbkvf]


testebi

68

mitropolit anania jafariZis wignis

`saqarTvelos mokle istoriis~

testebi

varianti # 1

1 . bibliis mixedviT iafetis STamomavlobidan romelniiTvlebian qarTvelTa eTnarqebad?

a) gomeri, Tirasi; g) iavani, Tirasi; b) magogi, madai; d) Tubali, meSeqi;

2. romeli uZvelesi qarTuli wyaro mogviTxrobs arian-qarTlze?

a) `qarTlis cxovreba~; g) ̀ aswlovani istoria; b) ̀ moqcevai qarTlisi~; d) epigrafikuli monacemebi;

3& .jdkfl ovblf qdsbcvij,tkc obkfl [dlf itvltub mdt.fyf%

f` fk,fytsb u` bdthbf,` xthmtptsb l` /thtsb&

4& [fk[sf lf tyfsf ijhbc .jdkfl ovblf qdsbcvij,tkb ufycfresht,bsvafhdtkj,lf%

f ̀kfsby [fk[cf lf kfsbyeh tyfc*,` mfhsdtk [fk[cf lf mfhsek tyfc*u ̀ehfhnetk [fk[cf lf ehfhnetksf tyfc*l ̀gjynjc [fk[cf lf gjynjtksf tyfc&

5. vin gvawvdis cnobas, rom andria mociqulma saqarTveloSimesame mogzaurobisas sxva mociqulebic Camoiyvana?


a) evsevi kesarieli; g) irineos leoneli; b) epifane konstantinepoleli; d) balsamoni;

6. romel wels aRiares qarTlis samefoSi qristianobasaxxelmwifo sarwmunoebad?

a) 326 w. g) 311 wb) 329 w. d) 337 w.

7. rogor dasaja vaxtang gorgasalma mTavarepiskoposi,romelmac kbilebi Seumusra?

a) sikvdiliT dasaja;b) gadaasaxla konstantinepolSi;g) kldekaris cixeSi gamoamwvdia;d) konastantinepolis eklesias gaugzavna gansasjelad;

8. XI s-is I naxevarSi ra iyo mizezi imis, rom qarTulieklesia da samRvdeloeba bizantiis teritoriaze devnasganicdida?

a) qarTvelebi eresSi iyvnen mxilebulni;b) qarTveli berebi berZnebs aviwroebdnen;g) qarTuli eklesia win aRudga bizantiis jars;d) qarTuli eklesiis gauqmeba undodaT;

9. vin icavda rusudanis mier datovebul Tbiliss jal-aledinis Semosevis dros?

a) Salva da ivane axalcixelebi;b) biZina da boco jayelebi;g) SanSe da avag mxargrZelebi;d) ivane da biZina Torelebi;

10. vin iyo pirveli saqarTvelos egzarqosi?

a) varlam erisTavi; g) pavle lebedevi; b) vasil cicianovi; d) Teofilaqte rusrovi;

70

varianti # 2

1. ra erqva kimerielTa Semosevisas kolxeTidan gamoZevebulisamxedro aristokratiis mier samxreTiT daarsebul axalsaxelmwifos?

a) qarTli; g) arian-qarTli; b) iveria; d) qarTvelTa samefo;

2. visi cnobaa, rom iberebma, romlebic kolxebad iwode-bian, qristianoba jer kidev romis imperator traianamde(98-117 ww) miRes?

a) evsevi kesarielis; g) balsamonis;b) irineos lionelis; d) lazare farfecis;

3 . rodis daarsda afxazeTis sakaTalikoso?

a) VIII s. YYY g) X s.b) IX s. d) XI s.

4. XI saukuneSi romel wlebSi mimdinareobda bizantiasa dasaqarTvelos Soris omi?

a) 1011-1021 ww. g) 1054-1064 ww.b) 1021-1054 ww. d) 1064-1080 ww.

5 . XI s-Si ra iyo mizani saqarTvelos meTaurTamolaparakebebis dros bizantiasa da saqarTvelos Soris?

a) bizantiis mier aneqsirebuli teritoriebisdaTmoba;

b) saqarTvelos eklesiis sapatriarqo uflebebiscnoba;

g) erToblivi samxedro eqspediciebis mowyoba;d) saeklesio reformis Catareba;


6. XII s-Si visi uSualo xelmZRvanelobiT moxda cixe-qalaqsamSvildes aReba?

a) daviT aRmaSeneblis; g) yubasaris;b) giorgi Wyondidelis; d) demetre batoniSvilis;

7. ra iyo XVI s-is samefo-samTavroebad daSlil saqarTvelosmakonsoliderebeli Zala?

a) qarTlis mefe; g) qarTuli eklesia; b) gareuli mteri; d) imereTis mefe;

8 . romel wels moxda Teimuraz II-is qristianuli wesiTmefed kurTxeva?

a) 1740 w. g) 1746 w. b) 1744 w. d) 1749 w.

9. 1832 wlis SeTqmulebaSi romeli sasuliero piri iRebdamonawileobas?

a) varlam erisTavi;b) eqvTime gaenaTeli;g) filadelfos kiknaZe;d) gabriel qiqoZe;

10. rodis mokles kirion II kaTalikosi?

a) 1917 w. g) 1919 w.b) 1918 w. d) 1920 w.

72

varianti # 3

1& vtat afhyfdfpbc cfvtajib itvfdfk tuhbcbc cfthbcsfdjc vfhsfdlf lblbcf[tkvobaj vjqdfot%

f ̀df[nfyu ujhufcfkb u` me]b thbcsfdb,` vbhbfy vtat l` ,fuhfn lblb&

2& mhbcntij,fvlt +|-+++ cc-ib lffhct,ekb thsbfyb cfmfhsdtkjccf[tkvobajc jabwbfkehb cf[tkb b.j%

f ̀ehfhnec cfvtaj u` rf[tsbc cfvtaj,` fk,fytsbc cfvtaj l` mfhskbc cfvtaj&

3& vtat afhyfdfpbc cfvtajc lfcfdktsb cfpqdfhb uflbjlf%

f` ifd pqdfcf lf vl& vnrdfhpt u` ctdfybc n,fcf lf vl& ,fv,frpt,` ifd pqdfcf lf vl& tuhbco.fkpt l` rfcgbbc pqdfcf lf vl& fhfmcpt&

4& vtat afhyfdfpvf gbhdtkb thsbfyb cfmfhsdtkjc cf[tkvobaj tyflufvjfw[flf%

f` ,th’yekb tyf u ̀ehfhnec tyf,` kfsbyehb tyf l` mfhsekb tyf&

5& rbvthbtksf itvjctdbcfc mhbcntij,fvlt |+++ c-ib rjk[tsbc cfvtajccfv[tlhj fhbcnjrhfnbf uflfcf[klf%

f` xhlbkjtsbs u` fqvjcfdktsbs,` cfv[htsbs l` lfcfdktsbs&


6& rbvthbtksf itvjctdt,bc itvltu rjk[tsbc cfvtajc cfv[tlhjfhbcnjrhfnbfv cfv[htsbs lfffhcf f[fkb cfvtaj cf[tkojlt,bs%

f ̀vblbf-cgfhctsb u ̀fhbfy-mfhskb,` gjynj-rfgfljrbf l` nfibh-jhfrthnb&

7& e’dtktc mfhsdtksf tsybreh-thjdyekb lf tyj,hbdb vskbfyj,bcitcf[t, mhbcntij,fvlt 600 okbs flht othlf%

f` gjkbrfhgt cbwbkbtkb u` lbjuty tatctkb,` /trfnjc vbktntkb l` ybrjy fktmcfylhbtkb&

8 . ratom Seicvala XI s-is II naxevarSi bizantiis rogorcsagareo, ise saSinao mdgomareoba saqarTvelos mimarT?

a) bizantia dasustda; g) Turq-selCukebi gamoCndnen; b) saqarTvelo gaZlierda; d) bizantiis imperia daiSala;

9. romel saukunemde hqondaT qarTvelebs qristes saflavisgasaRebi?

a) XII s-is II naxevramde; g) XIV s-is IInaxevramde;b) XIII s-is II naxevramde; d) XV s-is IInaxevramde;

10. vin iyo gagzavnili rusudan mefis mier baTo yaenTanmosalaparikeblad?

a) SanSe mxargrZeli; g) arsen Wyondideli;b) avag mxargrZeli; d) ivane Toreli;

74

varianti # 4

1& #vjc[t,b _ rjk[ehb njvbf@ _ fv cbn.dt,bs /trfnjc vbktntkbfqybiyfdlf^ hjv lfcfdkts lf fqvjcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc vjcf[ktj,f

f` wyj,bkb njvt,bf u` thsbfyb [fk[bf,` ewyj,b njvt,bf l ̀c[dflfc[df [fk[bf&

2& ltlf qdsbcvij,tkvf sfdbc yfwdkfl cfmfhsdtkjib cfmflfut,kflufvjfupfdyf ovblf vjwbmekb%

f ̀gtnht u ̀fylhbf,` gfdkt l` bjfyt&

3& hjvtk otkc fqbfhtc mfhskbc cfvtajib mhbcnbfyj,f cf[tkvobajcfhoveyjt,fl%

f` 326 o& u` 311 o&,` 329 o& l` 337 o&

4& mfhsek o.fhjsf vb[tldbs^ cfl uflbjlf vtat vbhbfybc lhjc mfhskbccfvtajc lfcfdktsb cfpqdfhb%

f` rfdrfcbbc vst,ib u` ctdfybc n,fpt,` vlbyfht tuhbco.fkpt l` fk,fytsib&

5 . rogori iyo mociqulTa mier daarsebuli eklesiebi?

a) mociqulebis daqvemdebarebaSi;b) ierusalimis iurisdiqciaSi;g) avtokefalurebi;d) upirates episkoposs daqvemdebarebuli;


6. vin iyo qarTlis pirveli kaTalikosi?

a) ioane; b) petre; g) miqaeli; d) samoeli;

7. rodis aRsdga dasavleT egrisSi qarTul-enovaniRvTismsaxureba?

a) VIII s-Si, afxazTa samefos Camoyalibebis Semdeg;b) XI s-Si, saqarTvelos gaerTianebis Semdegg) XVI s-Si, saqarTvelos erTiani saxelmwifos daSlis Semdegd) XVIII s-Si, qarTl-kaxeTis samefos Camoyalibebis Semdeg

8 . dasavleT egrisSi rodis aRikveTa qarTuli ena da dawesdaberZnuli RvTismsaxureba?

a) 530-ian wlebSi; g) 730-ian wlebSi; b) 630-ian wlebSi; d) 830-ian wlebSi;

9. ram gamoiwvia XI s-is dasawyisSi ‘mabralobelTa~ da‘mayvedrebelTa~ gamravleba?

a) bizantia-saqarTvelos omma;b) qarTuli eklesiis sisustem;g) qarTuli eklesiis siZlierem;d) saqarTvelos saxelmwifos sisustem;

10. romel wels daapatimres aTeistebma saqarTvelos wmidapatriarqi ambrosi xelaia?

a) 1899 w. b) 1903 w. g) 1906 w. d) 1924 w.

76

varianti # 5

1. rogoria s. janaSias qarTvelTa winaparTa gansaxlebiskoncefcia?

a) qarTvelebi cxovrobdnen: SuamdinareTSi;b) qarTvelebi cxovrobdnen: wina aziasa da samxreT

evropaSi;g) samxreT aziaSi;d) sinas naxevarkunZulze;

2& hebc-eh,ybcbc rht,bc vb[tldbs^ fylhbf vjwbmekvf uffmhbcnbfyf fyevjfmwbf

f` fqvjcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc vjcf[ktj,f*,` lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc vjcf[ktj,f*u` chekbfl cfmfhsdtkjc vjcf[ktj,f*l` vtc[tsbc vjcf[ktj,f&

3 . prokofi kesarielis mixedviT vis eqvemdebarebodnendasavleT saqarTvelos qristianebi?

a) konstantinopolis patriarqs;b) ierusalimis patriarqs;g) guTeTis eklesias;d) kaTalikoss (qarTlisa);

4. rodis gaxda Cr. kavkasia mahmadianuri?

a) monRolebis dros;b) Temur-lengis dros;g) uzun-hasanis dros;d) Sah-abasis dros;

5 . ratom ebrZodnen ufro meti gaafTrebiT iran-osmalebisaqarTvelos eklesias, vidre somexTa da berZenTaeklesiebs? imitom rom:


a) qarTvelebi sZuldaT;b) saqarTvelos eklesia agresiuli iyo mahmadianebis

mimarT;g) saqarTvelos eklesias didi gvlena hqonda kavkasiaSi;d) maT SeZles moespoT somxuri da berZnuli saxelmwifoebi, qarTuli ki arsebobda;

6. vin moiZia mefed kurTxevis uZvelesi qarTuli wesi?

a) ambrosi nekreselma; g) antoni I kaTalikosma;b) gaioz reqtorma; d) arsen safarelma;

7. romel wels gaiwvies anton II kaTolikosi peterburgSi?

a) 1809 w. g) 1811 w. b) 1810 w. d) 1812 w.

8. vin gamoacxada 1917 w. saqarTvelos eklesiis avtokefalia?

a) kirion saZagliSvilma; g) ambrosi xelaiam; b) leonide oqropiriZem; d) nikita TalakvaZem;

9. vin gamoacxada 1917 wels saqarTvelos eklesiisavtokefaluri marTva-gamgeobis aRdgena?

a) kirion saZagliSvilma; g) ambrosi xelaiam; b) leonide oqropiriZem; d) nikita TalakvaZem;

10. romel wels aRiara ruseTis eklesiam saqarTveloseklesiis sami ufleba _ avtokefalia, sapatriarqo Rirseba,VI adgili diptixSi?

a) 1917 w. g) 1943 w.b) 1927 w. d) 1990 w.

78

varianti # 6

1. rodis gamocxadda wm. andria mociqulis saqarTveloSiqadageba legendad?

a) X s. b) XV s. g) XIX s. d) XX s.

2. sad daarsa wm. andria mociqulma saqarTveloSi pirvelisaepiskoposo?

a) oZraxeSi; g) awyurSi;b) biWvinTaSi; d) gonioSi;

3& hebc-eh,ybcbc rht,bc vb[tldbs ̂ovblf ybyjv ufyfyfskf fye uffmhbcnbfyf

f` lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc mfhsdtkj,f*,` fqvjcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjc mfhsdtkj,f*u` #.jdtkyb mfhsdtkyb@ fye chekbfl cfmfhsdtkjcmfhsdtkj,f*l` vtc[tsbc mfhsdtkj,f&

4. saqarTvelos eklesias ra saxelwodeba hqonda uZvelesdroidan?

a) saqarTvelos sakaTalikoso eklesia;b) saqarTvelos sapatriarqo eklesia;g) saqarTvelos samociqulo eklesia;d) saqarTvelos avtokefaluri eklesia;

5 . romelma mTavarepiskoposma Seumusra kbilebi vaxtanggorgasals?

a) ioaneb; g) miqaelma;b) petrem; d) samoelma;


6. rodis Camovidnen asureli mamebi saqarTveloSi?

a) VI s-is Sua wlebSi; g) VI s-is bolos;b) V s-is bolos; d) VII s-is dasawyisSi;

7. ratom iyo monofizitoba VI s-Si sparselebisTvis misaRebisarwmunoeba?

a) sparseTSi bevri monofizituri eklesia arsebobda;b) antibizantiuri aRmsarebloba iyo;g) monofizitoba loialuri iyo mazdianobisa;d) monofizitebi regularulad ixdidnen xarks;

8 . efrem mcires mixedviT romelma msoflio saeklesio krebammisca neba yvela eklesias, maT Soris saqarTvelosacadgilze ekurTxebinaT mironi?

a) efesos; g) konstantinepolis;b) qalkedonis; d) trulis;

9. rodis SemouerTa bagrat III-m erTian saqarTveloskaxeT-hereTi?

a) 990 w. g) 1010 w.b) 1003 w. d) 1013 w.

10. ra uwodes melqisedek I-s, mis iurisdiqciis qveS myofieklesiis teritoris sididis gamo?

a) didi patriarqi;b) sruliad iberiis patriarqig) aRmosavleTis patriarqi;d) erTiani saqarTvelos patriarqi;

80

varianti # 7

1. VIII-X ss-Si ̀ afxazTa samefos~ mosaxleobis kulturisa dasaxelmwifo ena iyo

a) afxazuri ena g) berZnuli enab) qarTuli ena d) xazarul ena

2. sad aris aRmoCenili saqarTvelos II-III saukuneTaqristianuli eklesiis naSTebi?

a) nekresSi; g) noqalaqevSi;b) nastakisSi; d) vanSi;

3 . romeli wliT aTariRebs vaxuSti bagrationi qarTlismocqevas?

a) 317 w. g) 327 w.b) 324 w. d) 337 w.

4. saqarTvelos romelma mefem datova anderZad ‘berZenTasiyvaruli~

a) mirianma; g) bagrat III;b) vaxtang gorgasalma; d) daviT aRmaSenebelma

5. ra aris asureli mamebis yvelaze didi Rvawli, romelicmaT gauwies qarTul eklesias?

a) ganumtkices qarTvelebs sarwmunoeba;b) jer kidev mouqceveli mxareebi gaaqristianes;g) eklesias aaciles monofizitobis safrTxe;d) ganamravles samRvdelo dasi;


6 . ratom gawyvita guTeTis eklesiam konstantinepolissapatriarqosTan kavSiri?

a) damoukideblobis moTxovnis gamo;b) xatmebrZolebis gamo;g) bizantiis keisris agresiis gamo;d) mezobel eklesiasTan daaxloebis gamo.

7 . romel saukunemde hqondaT qarTvelebs qristes saflavisgasaRebi?

a) XII s-is II naxevramde; g) XIV s-is II naxevramde;b) XIII s-is II naxevramde; d) XV s-is II naxevramde;

8 . ra mizeziT iyo gamowveuli XV s-is miwurulsa da XVI s-is dasawyisSi qarTuli eklesiis wiaRSi warmoSobiliseparatizmi?

a) seqtantobiT; b) sarwmunoebrivi ganxeTqilebiT; g) kaTolicizmiT; d) administraciuli gandgomiT;

9 . 1434-35 wlebSi aleqsandre dids saqarTvelosTvis romelimxare SemouerTebia 60 000 qristiani suliT?

a) Sirvani; g) sivnieTi (yarabaRi);b) anisi; d) dvaleTi;

10. ra akrZala 1759 wlis saeklesio krebam?

a) Tavaduri separatizmi; g) ucxo rjulze gadasvla;b) tyveTa syidva; d) batonymoba;

82

varianti # 8

1 . visi winaswarmetyvelebaa: `viame, xizani var meSeqisa,vbinadrob kedaris karvebTan~?

a) ieremias; g) ezekielis;b) daviTisi; d) ambakumisa;

2. rogori saxelmwifo iyo mociqulTa epoqis iberia?

a) dasustebuli;b) danawevrebuli iransa da roms Soris;g) Sina omebiT dasustebuli;d) Zlieri saxelmwifo ameirkavkasiaSi;

3 . sad aris dakrZaluli mataTia mociquli?

a) artanujSi; g) oZrxeSi;b) gonioSi; d) trapezuntTan;

4. romel wels Semovida wm. nino saqarTveloSi?

a) 303 w. g) 325 w.b) 313 w. d) 329 w.

5 . uZvelesi qarTuli wyaros mixedviT qarTlSi mefobagauqmda:

a) VI s-is dasawyisSi; g) VI s-is II naxevarSi;b) IV s-is II naxevarSi; d) VII s-is dasawyisSi;


6. rodemde iarseba saqarTvelos erTianma sapatriarqom?

a) VIII s-is Suamde; g) XVI s-is Suamde;b) IX s-is Suamde; d) XIX s-is I naxevramde;

7. efrem mcires mixedviT romeli saukunidan ikurTxebodasaqarTveloSi mironi?

a) IV s-dan; g) IX s-dan;b) V s-dan; d) XI s-dan;

8 . ra erqva bagrat IV-is dedas, romelic 1054-1057 wlebismolaparakebebSi aqtiur monawileobas iRebda?

a) miranduxti; g) rusudani;b) mariami; d) borena

9. wm. mefe Tamaris sagareo politika riT gansxvavdebodawm. mefe daviT aRmaSeneblis politikisagan?

a) Tamarma daviTis msgavsad ver gaafarTova Tavisi qveynissazRvrebi;

b) Tamarma ufro naklebi sagareo omebi gadaixada;g) Tamari damarcxebul qveynebs uSualod ar uerTebda

Tavis samefos, aramed ymadnaficobiT kmayofildeboda;d) Tamaris dros saxelmwifos ukve aRar SeeZlo

ewarmoebina sagareo omebi;

10. romel wels gauqmda saqarTvelos eklesiisavtokefalia?

a) 1801 w. g) 1811w.b) 1810 w. d) 1814 w.

84

varianti # 9

1& mfhsek o.fhjsf vb[tldbs^ hjlbc xfvj.fkb,lf thsbfybcfmfhsdtkjc cf[tkvobaj%

f` mhbcntij,fvlt \ c-ib*,` mhbcntij,fvlt +|-+++ cc-ib*u` f[fkb otksfqhw[dbc |++ c-ib*l` f[fkb otksfqhbw[dbc \+ c-ib&

2. romeli qarTveli moRvawe, werda, rom Cven qveyanaSiuqadagia barTlome mociquls?

a) giorgi mTawmindeli; g) efrem mcire;b) arsen iyalToeli; d) ioane petriwi;

3 . `qarTlis cxovreba~ romel mefes miawers warmarTuliRvTaebisaTvis sisxliani msxverplis Sewirvis akrZalvas?

a) varaz-baqars; g) amazasps;b) revs; d) mirdats;

4. VII s-Si romelma imperatorma CamoaWra qarTlissamefos dasavleT egrisi?

a) basili II-e; g) konstantinem;b) heraklem d) romanizma;

5 . rodis daarsda saqarTvelos erTiani sapatriarqo?

a) VII s. g) IX s.b) VIII s. d) XI s.


6. XI s. dasawyisSi vin gamoafxizla eri bizantiisagresiis dros?

a) mefem; g) didaznaurobam;b) qarTvelma samRvdeloebam; d) sardlobam;

7. vin iyo wm. mefe Tamaris istorikosi?

a) basili ezosmoZRvari; g) CaxruxaZe;b) leonti mroveli; d) Wiaberi;

8 . XVII s-idan qarTvelad SeZles darCena:

a) gagrigorianebulebma;b) gakaTolikebulebma;g) berZnuli eklesiis wevrebma;d) saqarTvelos eklesiis wevrebma;

9. ra akrZala 1759 wlis saeklesio krebam?

a) Tavaduri separatizmi;b) tyveTa syidva;g) ucxo rjulze gadasvla;d) batonymoba;

10. vin awama saqarTvelos eklesiis meTauri wm. mamaevdemon kaTalikosi?

a) rostom xanma b) osmaleTis sulTanmag) feiqar xanma d) erekle I-ma

86

varianti # 10

1& ‘dtkb rjk[ehb reknehbc fhtfkib lfcfdkts cfmfhsdtkjcsfythsfl itlbjlf%

f ̀xhlbkj ehfhne u` fqvjcfdktsb cfmfhsdtkj,` xhlbkj vtcjgjnfvbf l` fqvjcfdktsb fk,fytsb&

2. vis Cauweria wm. ninos cxovreba?

a) ioane episkopos; g) nana dedofals;b) salome ujarmels; d) daCi ujarmels;

3. dasavleT egrisSi rodis aRikveTa qarTuli ena da dawesdaberZnuli RvTismsaxureba?


4. XII s-Si visi uSualo xelmZRvanelobiT moxda cixe-qalaqsamSvildes aReba?

a) daviT aRmaSeneblis; g) yubasaris;b) giorgi Wyondidelis; d) demetre batoniSvilis;

5. ramdeni weli batonobdnen monRolebi saqarTveloSi?

a) 50 w. g) 200 w.b) 100 w. d) 250 w.


6. V-VI saukuneebSi ratom aZlierebda sparseTi somxureklesias?

a) sparseTSi bevri somexi cxovrobda;b) antibizantiuri mimarTulebis gamo;g) somxuri eklesia aRiarebda Sahis Zalauflebas;d) somxuri eklesiis finansuri siZlieris gamo;

7. XI saukuneSi romel wlebSi mimdinareobda molaparakebabizantiasa da saqarTvelos Soris?

a) 1021-1024 ww. g) 1054-1057 ww.b) 1044-1047 ww. d) 1067-1070 ww.

8 . vin iyo daviT aRmaSeneblis moZRvari?

a) giorgi Wyondideli;b) arsen iyalToeli;g) ioane kaTalikosi;d) miqaeli;

9. vin moakvlevina saqarTvelos eklesiis meTauri wm. mamaevdemon kaTalikosi?

a) Sah-abasma; g) Sah-navazma; b) rostom valma; d) daud-xanma;

10. rodis aRdga saqarTvelos eklesiis avtokefalia?

a) 1916 w. g) 1918 w.b) 1917 w. d) 1919 w.

88

varianti # 11

1 . qristeSobamde VI s-is romeli avtori wers, rom mosoxikolxuri tomia?

a) herodite; g) straboni;b) hekatos mileteli; d) megasTene;

2& hjvtkb cf[tkvobaj vjqdfobc lf[vfht,bs lfffhcf vtat afhyfdfpvfthsbfyb cfmfhsdtkjc cf[tkvobaj%

f ̀,fuhfn thbcsfdbc u` ltvtnht thbcsfdbc,` me]b thbcsfdbc l` uhbujk thbcsfdbc&

3 . rogori iyo mociqulTa mier daarsebuli eklesiebi?

a) mociqulebis daqvemdebarebaSi;b) ierusalimis iurisdiqciaSi;g) avtokefalurebi;d) upirates episkoposs dakvemdebarebuli;

4. vaxuSti batoniSvilisa da sxva Zveli istorikosebismixedviT romel wlebSi aRiara qarTlis samefo karmaqristianoba saxelmwifo sarwmunoebad?

a) 317-318 ww. g) 323-325 ww.b) 323-325 ww. d) 331-337 ww.

5 . sad aris dakrZaluli mataTia mociquli?

a) artanujSi; g) oZraxisSi;b) gonioSi; d) trapezuntTan;


6& ghjrjab rtcfhbtkbc vb[tldbs^ dbc tmdtvlt,fht,jlyty lfcfdktscfmfhsdtkjc mhbcnbfyt,b%

f ̀rjycnfynbyjgjkbc gfnhbfhmc*,` fynbjmbbc gfnhbfhmc*u` bthecfkbvbc gfnhbfhmc*l` vw[tsbc ~mfhskbc` #rfsfkbrjcc@&

7. romel wels aiRo wm. mefe daviT aRmaSenebelma Tbilisi?

a) 1120 w. g) 1122w.b) 1121 w. d) 1123 w.

8. daviT aRmaSenebelma Camosaxlebuli yivCayebi CaasaxlasaqarTvelos sazRvrebze, romelic imJamad gadioda

a) Sida qarTlSi; g) dRevandel somxeTsa da azerbaijanSib) kaxeTSi; d) odiSsa da argveTSi

9. saqarTveloSi Semosvlisas monRolebi ratom araviwroebdnen qristianebs?

a) qristianuli eklesia xarks uxdida;b) qristianuli eklesiis siZlieris gamo;g) isini jer ar iyvnen mahmadianebi;d) monRolTa nawili qristiani iyo;

10. XV s-is bolos qarTvel mefe-mTavrebs Soris amtydarSina omebSi vin iCenda gansakuTrebul separatizms, romeliceklesiur gaTiSvamdec ki midioda?

a) imereTis mefe; g) mesxeTis mTavari;b) guriis mTavari; d) kaxeTis mefe;

90

varianti # 12

1& mfhsekb vobuyj,hj,f xfvj.fkb,lf%

f` mhbcntij,fvlt +|-+++ cc& vtat afhyfdfpbc lhjc*,` f[fkb otksfqhbw[dbc ++-+++ cc-ib afhcvfy mdtkbc lhjc*u` f[fkb otksfqhbw[dbc +++-+| cc vbhbfy vtabc lhjc*l` f[fkb otksfqhbw[dbc |++-|+++ cc-ib fhxbk vtabc lhjc&

2. vin gvawvdis cnobas, rom andria mociqulma saqarTveloSimesame mogzaurobisas sxva mociqulebic Camoiyvana?

a) evsevi kesarieli; g) irineos leoneli;b) epifane konstantinepoleli; d) balsamoni;

3& mfhsek o.fhjsf vb[tldbs^ dby b.j thsbfyb cfmfhsdtkjc cfvtajcgbhdtkb vtat%

f ̀,fuhfn +| u ̀afhyfdfpb,` lfdbs fqvfityt,tkb l` ubjhub |&

4. III saukunis romel qarTlis mefes hqonia qristes siyvarulida mosmenili hqonia saxareba?

a) aderkis; g) farsman II-s;b) revs; d) amazasps;

5. dasavleT egrisSi rodis aRikveTa qarTuli ena da dawesdaberZnuli RvTismsaxureba?



6. ra erqva ori sakaTolikososgan Seqmnil saqarTvelossapatriarqos pirvel patriarqs?

a) petre; g) melqisedeki;b) ioane; d) miqaeli;

7. ratom gawyvita guTeTis eklesiam konstantinepolissapatriarqosTan kavSiri?

a) damoukideblobis moTxovnis gamo;b) xatmebrZolobis gamo;g) bizantiis keisris agresiis gamo;d) mezobel eklesiasTan daaxloebis gamo;

8. XI s-Si ra aRiara antioqiis patriarq petre III-is Catarebulmakrebam, garda qarTuli eklesiis da qarTveli berebis devnisSewtvetisa?

a) qarTuli eklesiis iurisdiqciis sazRvrebi;b) qarTuli eklesiis avtokefalia;g) saqarTvelos eklesiasi mironis kurTxevis ufleba;d) saqarTvelos eklesiis sapatriarqo uflebebi;

9. jalaledinis mier Tbilisis aRebisas ramdeni adamianiSeewira qristes rwmenas?

a) bevri; g) oci bevri; b) aTi bevri; d) asi bevri; (`bevri~ 10.000)

10. rodis scnes saqarTvelos eklesiis avtokefaliaberZnulma sapatriarqo eklesiebma?

a) 1927 w. g) 1990 w.b) 1943 w. d) 1995 w.

92

testebis swori pasuxebi:

mosaxsenebeli:

es wigni daibeWda sulis cxonebis maZieblisfatima muradovas mosaxseneblad.

Эта книга посвящается памяти вечной душиФатимы Мурадовой

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varianti # 11:

varianti # 12:

1d

1g

1g

1g

1b

1d

1b

1b

1b

1g

1b

1a

2b

2b

2d

2g

2g

2g

2b

2d

2g

2b

2b

2b

3g

3a

3b

3a

3d

3g

3a

3b

3b

3b

3g

3g

4b

4b

4d

4b

4b

4g

4b

4a

4b

4b

4a

4b

5b

5b

5b

5g

5d

5g

5g

5a

5d

5b

5b

5b

6a

6b

6g

6b

6g

6a

6b

6g

6b

6b

6d

6g

7d

7g

7b

7a

7b

7b

7d

7b

7a

7g

7g

7b

8g

8b

8g

8b

8b

8b

8d

8b

8d

8b

8g

8d

9b

9g

9d

9a

9b

9g

9g

9g

9b

9b

9g

9b

10a

10b

10g

10d

10g

10g

10b

10g

10a

10b

10g

10g


C F H X T D B

itcfdfkb -------------------------------------------------- 3

CFMFHSDTKJC TRKTCBBC BCNJHBBC

+ GTHBJLB^ +-\+ CC&

~ov& vjwbmekt,blfy - hebc-eh,ybcbc rht,fvlt`

+ cfereyt ------------------------------------------------- 7

++ cfereyt ------------------------------------------------ 9

+++ cfereyt ------------------------------------------------ 11

+| cfereyt ----------------------------------------------- 12

| cfereyt ------------------------------------------------ 14

|+ cfereyt ----------------------------------------------- 17

|++ cfereyt----------------------------------------------- 20

|+++ cfereyt ---------------------------------------------- 22

+\-\ cfereytt,b ----------------------------------------- 24

\+ cfereyt ----------------------------------------------- 25

94


++ GTHBJLB^ \++-\|+++ CC&

~hebc-eh,ybcbc rht,blfy fdnjrtafkbbc

ufemvt,fvlt`

\++ cfereyt----------------------------------------------- 29

\+++ cfereyt ---------------------------------------------- 35

\+| cfereyt --------------------------------------------- 40

\| cfereyt ---------------------------------------------- 43

\|+ cfereyt --------------------------------------------- 48

\|++ cfereyt --------------------------------------------- 50

\|+++ cfereyt -------------------------------------------- 56


+++ GTHBJLB

mfhsekb trktcbf \+\-\\ cfereytt,ib ----------------60

ntcnt,b --------------------------------------------------67

საქართველოს ეკლესიის მოკლე ისტორია

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Transcript of საქართველოს ეკლესიის მოკლე ისტორია