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Index

Abdullah, Ibrahim, 194Abeokuta (Nigeria), 39, 147–64, 502, 506.

See also women (traders), women inAbokuta (Nigeria)

economic conditions, 53, 148, 152food policy and quotas, 150–53, 157–58,

160, 163, 164independence, 149Local Defense Volunteer Force, 154Native Authority police, 159, 160, 161poll tax, 149, 164Saros, 148treaty with Britain, 149

Abeokuta Grammar School (AGS), 163Abeokuta Ladies Club (ALC), 162Abeokuta province, 36, 152, 153, 154, 158,

159, 162Abeokuta Union of Teachers, 154Abeokuta Women’s Union (AWU), 164Aberdeen Hill, gun installation, 189Aboye, Dejazmach Mengaesh, 392Abyssinia, 25, 26, 305, 310, 488. See also

EthiopiaAbyssinian campaign, 467Accra (Gold Coast), 339, 341, 342, 343,

344, 345, 346, 355, 503acordo missionario, 233Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 7, 310, 387, 388,

389, 390, 466Ademola II, Alake of Abeokuta, 148, 164,

165adire, 149Adugna, Minale, 392Africa, 478, 479, 502, 503

African American experience in, 401,403–04, 405, 410, 413, 414, 417,419, 506

colonial powers, 438, 463, 501, 502, 505historiography, 461perceptions of, 418strategic significance, 403, 441vision for the new Africa, 484

Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI) (Italian EastAfrica), 259, 388

Africa-Middle East Wing, 342African Americans. See soldiers, African

AmericanAfrican Auxiliary Pioneer Corps (AAPC), 7,

8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 20, 134, 142African farmers, 54, 62, 63, 239, 255African Farmers’ Cooperative, 493African Line of Communication (AFLOC),

55, 463, 506African Section, British Legion, 142African Standard (Freetown), 61, 188Africanization, 292, 483Afrikaner(s), 65, 306, 309, 320, 321.

See also womennationalism, 309opposition to war, 14British South African contempt for, 320

Afrique equatoriale francaise (AEF). SeeFrench Equatorial Africa (FEA)

Afrique occidentale francaise (AOF). SeeFrench West Africa (FWA)

Agbaja village group, (northern Igboland),283, 288

Aggett, Bryan, 37

509

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510 Index

Agricultural Production and SettlementBoard (Kenya), 36

agriculture, 38, 104, 135, 152, 472agriculture department, 158, 180, 232, 240,

255Agua Ize, 235Aıd, Mohamed Bel, 433–34air raids, 94, 310, 463, 465, 472Air Transport Command, 342aircraft, 20, 53, 54, 65, 81, 83n63, 154,

171, 173, 221, 342, 344, 387, 389,458, 463, 464, 466

airports, 197, 231Aisne river, 324Akyeampong, Emmanuel, 341Alamain, 467Alao, Otun of Ijaiye Obirinti, Nigeria,

162Alexander, Harold, 270–71Al-Fajr (Sudan), 472Al-Fashir (Sudan), 463al-jahir, 98al-maghrib al-arabi, 98Al-Mirghaniyya, 469Al-Mutatwiat (volunteers), 474Al-Sudan al-Jadid (Sudan), 475Al-Ubbayyid (Kordofan province, Sudan),

463Algeria, 93, 100, 169, 325, 360, 403, 415,

416, 421, 429, 436, 508All Seamen’s Union (Freetown), 194Allie, Alhaji Momodu, 192n29Allied Forces, xx, 25, 30. See also Free

FranceAfrican participation in military

operations, 71, 311, 448African press coverage, 154importance of African resources, 34, 37,

170loss of Far East colonies, 27, 31Moroccan support, 90, 97, 103neutrality of Vichy African

administrations, 360operations in North Northeast Africa, 7,

197, 319, 414, 416, 466, 467Sudan as major supply center and line of

communications, 42, 426, 463, 464,473

victory, 161Allied powers, 324, 403, 150, 270, 273Americo-Liberians, 411Anderson, David, 152

Anglo-American Economic Mission toEquatorial Africa, 173, 175, 176

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 62, 465, 471, 472Anglo-Franco-Belgian alliance, 33Anglo-Portuguese Alliance, 121Angola, 29, 38, 173, 220, 221, 222, 225,

226. See also coffeeAnnasr (newspaper published in Alger), 99,

100, 103–04anti-Semitism, 92, 262apartheid, 66–67, 316Arabia, 469Arabian peninsula, 253Arbegna, 383Arbeitskommandos, 425, 426, 429, 433,

434Argonne (France), 324armistice

France (1940), 4, 89, 91, 92, 92n7, 93,94–97, 99, 325, 326, 326n8, 360,365, 370

Italy (1943), 270, 270n67armored cars, 171, 310Army Nurse Corps, 407, 408artificial limbs, 134, 136, 138Ash, Catherine Bogosian, 201, 443Asia, 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, 18, 27, 31, 64, 107,

108, 166, 167, 170, 171, 179, 189,224, 256, 324, 403, 404, 417, 420,463, 506

Asmara (Eritrea), 259, 264, 265, 266, 267,268, 269, 270, 466, 469

Association des Noirs de l’AOF, 336Association of West African Merchants

(AWAM), 160, 161Australia, 7, 25, 34, 138, 320, 409, 410Aswan (Egypt), 463Atbara (Sudan), 55, 462, 464, 465, 467,

471, 472, 474Atlantic Charter, 3, 59, 60, 134, 376, 475

Article 3, 61`Atiyyah, Hasan, 473, 474Autour de Brazzaville, 200, 201, 206Axis powers, 15, 26, 27, 171, 419, 441

defeat, 474, 495Azikiwe, Nnamdi, 61, 294, 298Azores, 220, 221

Badoglio, Marshal Pietro, 264, 270viceroy and governor-general of AOI, 388

Baggi, Shaykh Ahmad Hasab, al-, 470Bahri, Younes, 98






Index 511

Bahri,Yunis, 472, 473Baker Force, 465BaKongo, 230Bakr, Shaykh `Abdalla, 470Bamenda district (Cameroun), 177bananas, 38, 171, 251, 489Banco Espirito Santo, 232Banco Portugues do Atlantico, 232banda (company), 388Banda Force, 465Bani Amir, 468Bas-Chari, 214–15Basutoland (Lesotho), 8, 15, 72, 86Bata, shoe company, 173Bataka Union, 482, 495, 496 (Figure 25.1)Battle of Britain, 53Battle of France, 446Bayan, Lekelash, 383, 390, 394, 395Bechuanaland (Botswana), 8, 72beeswax, 241Behrens, C. B. A., 185, 195Beira, 221, 222, 231Beirut, 243Beja, 465–66, 469, 470Belgian Congo, 17, 214, 230

declared loyalty to Belgiangovernment-in-exile, 170

forced labor, 181strategic mineral production, 33, 34, 61

Belgium, 26, 29, 33, 52, 150, 153, 158,223, 279, 404, 423

German occupation, 34Belime, Emile, 114–15Beni dance societies, 50Benin, 179Benson, Mary, 318Berberati (western Oubangi-Chari), 175Berhe, Aregawi, 389, 390n32Bernal, Victoria, 63, 400Bertram, Gertrude, 407–08, 419Bettencourt, Jose Tristao de,

governor-general of Mozambique,227, 228, 232

bicycles, 175, 248, 285, 476, 490, 495,497 (Figure 25.2)

“big compound”, 287, 300“big men”, 287biltong (dried meat), 37, 38, 38n62black market, 37, 38, 52, 160, 161, 163,

248, 290, 450, 453Blackall, H. W. D., 350, 351, 352, 355Blacklock, Prof. D. B., 191

blitzkrieg, 4, 150, 168blockade, 29, 168, 169, 171, 174, 223, 225,

364Blue Nile, 464, 466, 469Blum, Leon, 384Boegner, Pastor Marc, 374, 377Boisson, Pierre, governor-general of AEF,

200, 202n7, 326, 360, 361, 370, 371“bonus marches”, 128Book of Honor, 384Booue (Gabon), 215–16Bordeaux (France), 427, 429, 433, 434Bourdillon, Bernard Henry, governor of

Nigeria, 298, 347“boys”, derogatory workplace term, 45, 49,

296boat boys, 151boss boys, 291pick boys, 280, 296rail boys, 296timber boys, 296tub boys, 296

Brazil, 34, 156, 205, 222Brazzaville, xxi, 27, 46, 203, 205, 206, 209,

210, 211, 215, 216, 218capital of Free France, 5, 26

Brazzaville conference, 117, 219, 361–62,375–77, 441, 507

bride price inflation, Igbo, 285–86Britain, xix, xxi, xxii, 16, 24, 25, 26, 27,

28, 29, 33, 34, 44, 507and colonies, 40, 45, 498and Ethiopia, 25control of food supplies, prices and

production, 35, 41coordination of war effort, 33, 503German bomb raids, 22

British Africa, 7, 23, 47, 170British Cameroon, 171, 180, 181British Caribbean, 44, 294British Disabled Person’s (Employment Act)

1944, 128British East Africa Disabled Officers’

Colony, 132British Legion, 23, 132–33, 141, 142British Military Administration (BMA),

Eritrea and Somalia, 259, 260–68,260n4, 270, 271, 272, 274

British Military and Economic Mission, 6British Somaliland, 5, 27, 310British West Africa, 295, 340, 355brothels, 18, 19, 352, 353






512 Index

Browne, Raymond Browne, 352bud-grafted clones, 179Buganda, 480n1, 481, 482, 483, 485, 488,

490, 491, 493, 494, 497, 498Bulletin des Armees d’Outre-Mer, 99,

100–02Bureau du Maghreb Arabe, 98Burma, xix, 133, 139, 140, 142, 242, 256,

343rice imports, 226, 246

Burma campaign, 11, 12, 15, 17, 21,23n65, 133, 139–41, 198

Burns, Sir Alan Burns, governor of GoldCoast, 352

buses, 171, 481

Cadbury, John, 175cadernete (pass book), 227Cairo, 260, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270,

272, 342, 463, 506Calabar, 349, 351Cameroon, 170, 178, 181, 200, 201, 202,

209, 218, 219, 349, 453. See alsorubber

Cameroons Development Corporation, 181Cameroun, 201camouflage des goums, 95, 97Camp Paradise (Liberia), 409–10Camp Shangri-La (Liberia), 409–10Camp Thiaroye (Senegal), 329camphor (Ocotea usambarensis), 243Canada, 34, 173capatazes, 227Capdevila, Luc, 398Cape of Good Hope, 168Cape Verde Islands, 58, 220, 231

drought and famine, 233–34out-migration to Sao Tome and Principe,

58capital, 22, 40, 231, 232, 235, 245, 349,

409, 502sexual, 409social, 478

Carnot (Oubangui), 207Carreira, Antonio, 234Carrier Corps, World War I, 130, 131Carstairs, C. Y., 40cash crops, 48, 112, 149, 176, 198, 229,

241, 502, 504. See also cassava,cocoa, cotton, peanuts rubber

cassava, 37, 56, 57, 152n15, 155, 247cassava starch, 156

Cassin, Rene, 202, 218Castilla elastica, 166Castro Almeida, 235Catholic Action, 498Catholic Church, 233, 487Catholic missions, 368, 373, 378cattle, 77, 139, 181, 236, 393, 451, 485–86casualties, 21, 53, 97, 137, 138, 188, 465,

467, 486cedar (Juniperus procera), 243Central Africa, 173, 463Central African Republic, 30, 130, 175, 178Central African Service Command, 404Central Province (Tanganyika), 181Ceylon (Sri Lanka), 11, 133, 140, 172, 205Chad, 215, 362, 403Champalimaud, 232charcoal, 32, 238, 239, 241, 245, 247–48,

255, 256, 451chemical industry, 239, 242, 255chiefs, 48, 58, 86, 133, 159, 193n37, 206,

227, 228, 283, 340, 341, 444, 482,483, 486, 490, 492, 498

canton, 443, 443n4, 446colonial policy, 228, 283, 364, 449, 507RDA challenge to authority, 458–59resistance to authority, 41, 445, 453,

456–58, 502role in conscription, 12, 13, 14, 41,

76–78, 134, 229, 465role in forced labor, 58, 159, 193, 227,

284n23, 452children, 48, 61, 121, 154, 287–88, 300,

496, 505and education of, 280, 299and missions, 365, 373and propaganda, 74, 104in Ethiopia, 397, 399Italo-Eritrean, 260–61, 267–68, 270,

273, 274labor of, 46, 65, 176, 177, 191, 207, 254,

285mixed-race, in France, 330, 337, 339,

431starvation, 234traffic of, in the Gold Coast, 346, 351,

352, 503Children of the French Empire, 331Christians, 276, 362, 366, 372n33, 375Chukwuani, chief of Nkanu, 287Churchill, Winston, 53, 60, 89, 264,

484






Index 513

circle commandants, AEF, 120, 121, 122,327, 328, 334, 371, 378, 381, 447,450–51, 454, 457, 459

cities, 56, 64, 93, 157, 176, 184, 187migration to, 48, 65, 504population growth, 55, 295, 344social change, 20, 58, 185

citizenship, 128, 270French, 119, 120, 121, 122, 126, 128,

129, 328n17, 431, 432, 438, 443in British African colonies, 129, 496, 497Italian (in Eritrea), 270, 273–74obligations, 317second-class in the US, 402

civilian defense, 187–89clerks, 280

role in nationalist movements, 23n65, 61,281, 283, 294

Cline Town wharf (Freetown), 189“closer settlements” in Tanzania, 240, 252cloth, 25, 30, 122, 148, 149, 210, 393, 476,

156n46, 175, 176clothing, 82, 82n58, 87, 87n87, 112, 115,

121, 175, 426, 448, 449incorporation of foreign styles, 187women’s, 396n69, 398

coal, 32, 54, 64, 67, 185, 189, 190, 195,231, 239

shortages, 190, 451. See also coalindustry in Nigeria

“coal gentlemen”, 284–85“Coal City”, 281coal industry in Nigeria, 276–302“Coal Men”, 279–80coal miners, xix, 277, 282, 299, 504. See

also strikesawareness of mining conditions in the

west, 58, 278, 279, 298Igbo ethnicity, 283role in nationalist politics, 283, 301, 504socioeconomic change, 58, 282, 285,

286, 288, 300cobalt, 35, 47cocoa, 40, 148–49, 167, 171, 224, 333

in Ivory Coast, 178in Nigeria, 152, 155–56in Sao Tome, 231, 234, 235

Cocoa Control Board, 40cocoa hold-ups in the Gold Coast, 40,

40n74, 48n18coffee, 395, 397, 450, 451, 488

cooperatives in Tanganyika, 484

in Angola, 224, 225, 229, 235in British Cameroon, 171, 178in Uganda, 480, 481, 493, 494shops, 265, 333, 472, 473

COLA award, 59Cold War, xxii, 240colis du marechal, 434Colliery Surface Improvement Unions

(CSIU), 291Colliery Workers Union (CWU), 276, 291colonatos (planned agricultural settlements),

230Colonial Act (1930) of Portugal, 223colonial administration, 8, 135, 404, 411

French, 62, 113in French Equatorial Africa, 213in French West Africa, 114, 326–27, 328,

329–38, 341, 359, 364, 365, 377,444, 451, 453, 356, 458

in Nigeria, 149, 292, 293Colonial Development and Welfare Act, 191Colonial Development and Welfare

Corporation, 255Colonial Development Bill, 130Colonial Labour Advisory Committee, 52colonial mentality, 72Colonial Office, 292, 487, 484n7, 489

labor policy, 50, 51, 52, 58, 59, 67,293n53, 294, 301

reformers, 293war controls, 32, 40, 57

colonialism, xx, xxi, 15, 67, 331, 348, 349,400, 482, 484, 485

French, 89, 98, 325, 429, 430n36in Eritrea, 262–67Italian, 478

combat, xix, xxi, 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, 19, 21,41, 74n12, 95, 97, 130, 134, 137,140, 151, 303, 306, 321, 505, 506

African American participation, 401,402, 404, 414, 416

and Africans, 41, 95, 130, 424, 449, 478,479, 486

in Ethiopia, 383, 387, 387n14in shaping white South African

masculinity, 314–19, 322, 323stress, 12, 131, 139, 140

Combined Chiefs of Staff (C.C.S.), 184Combined Development Trust, 34Comforts for Nigerian Troops Fund, 155commando, 309, 425, 426 (Figure 22.1)

work, 431






514 Index

Commission du Caoutchouc, 175Commissioner for the Colonies for Free

France, 448Commissoes Reguladoras de Importacao,

226Communist party, 400

in France, 460in South Africa, 42, 66, 316, 317in Sudan, 42, 477

Comoro Islands, 222Companhia da Ilha de Prıncipe, 235Compulsory Native Labour Act (South

Rhodesia), 37Compulsory Production Order (Northern

Rhodesia), 178Compulsory Service (Essential Works)

Regulations (1942), 58Compulsory Service Ordinance (Gold

Coast), 340Conakry, 17, 169, 174, 447, 451, 454Conakry-Niger Railway, 451, 452, 459concordat, 233concubinage in Eritrea, 261

legislation against, 267–68, 269prosecution of, 268–69

Confederation Generale du Travail (CGT),460

Congo, 6, 34, 35, 53, 64, 83, 173, 211,403, 405, 407, 463. See also BelgianCongo

Congo basin, 166, 178Congo Brazzaville, 26Congo Free State, 174Congolese Tenth Casualty Clearing Station,

11Connaught Hospital, Freetown, Sierra

Leone, 188“conscripted volunteers”, 78Conscription Law (1919), 446conscription, 442n1, 498

labor, 37, 253, 278, 355military, 12–15, 20, 41, 55, 239, 444,

445–49, 489, 506conservation, 239Constituent Assembly, Fourth Republic, 21,

23consumer goods, 28, 57, 64, 175, 177, 223,

232, 239, 244, 248, 451, 456, 464,476, 483, 485, 489, 490, 498

contractors, 27, 243, 245, 248convoy(s), 54, 183, 185, 189, 190, 191,

197, 278

convoy harbor, 189, 199copal, 38, 202, 239, 241, 246copper, 33

in Angola, 231in Belgian Congo, 34, 53in Northern Rhodesia, 25, 53, 61U.S. imports from Belgian Congo, 33

copra, 31, 224, 229Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine, 201corruption, 291–92n50, 433–34, 435corvees, 118, 214cost of living, 39, 47, 59, 142, 299

bonus, 195, 196index, 192, 192n25

cotton, 30, 35, 36, 148, 238, 397, 450in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 30, 465, 469,

472in Uganda, 41, 480, 481, 482, 483, 486,

487, 487n19, 488, 493–96, 498in Portuguese African colonies, 35, 38,

224–29, 232in West Africa, 57

Cotton and Coffee Fund (Uganda), 41, 482“cowboys”, 285n29Cowen, Michael, 28Creole. See Kriocrop requisitions, 442n2, 501

in French West Africa, 449–51Cross River Basin, 347, 348Cummings-John, Constance Agatha,

192n29custodian of enemy property, 170, 243cutch (dyebark), 254Cyrenaica (North Africa), 385Czechoslovakia, 34

Dahomey, 153, 158, 279, 334, 335, 336Daileader, Celia R., 330–31Daily Guardian (Freetown), 192n26Daily Service (Lagos), 162Dakar (Senegal), 4, 333

attempt to overthrow Vichy governtment,53

Evangelical missions in, 369, 373port, 185, 197, 504railway workers, 476, 504return of soldiers from France, 326, 327,

448soldiers’ mutiny at Thiaroye, 17, 329,

436, 447support for de Gaulle, 375Vichy administration, 360, 361, 371






Index 515

Dakar-Niger Railroad, 109, 114, 115,119n26, 124, 125

Dambagna (military lands), 387n17, 390,391

‘Dan Nana, Pastor, Hausa SIM convert,366–67, 374

Dar es Salaam, 39, 242, 244, 246, 247, 248,249, 251, 255, 504

Daughton, J. P., 201Davis, Ossie, 410, 417, 418de Bono, General Emilio, 385de Coppet, Jules Marcel, governor-general

of French West Africa, 111, 112,112n6

de Gaulle, General Charles, 384aborted invasion of Dakar, 53Brazzaville conference and reforms, 376,

441, 507Casablanca meeting, 89downplay of Africa’s role in war effort,

442n2establishment of Free French base in

Africa, 5, 26, 91, 97, 170, 200, 201,217, 362, 447

harsh labor policies in FEA, 209, 215promise of colonial reforms, 117, 118relations with Felix Eboue, 63–64, 203,

216, 360support for Protestant missions, 361–62,

377relations with U.S., 378takeover of FEA/AOF, 364–65whitening Free French army, 9, 17,

324–25, 325n3debt, 8, 9, 22, 28, 29, 64, 376, 377, 410,

455, 490“decasualization”, 196decolonization, xxi, 54, 182, 417, 506

in French West Africa, 337–38, 362, 377,379n50

“Defend Democracy” slogan, 78Defense (Essential Works)(General

Provisions) Order (1942), SierraLeone, 196

Defense Regulations and Essential Workslegislation, 58

demilitarization, 184, 185, 186of Freetown, 197–99

Demisew, Woizero Lakech, 391Demissi Force, 466demobilization, 20, 22, 327n13

in Kenya, 130, 134–36

of French West African soldiers, 330,447, 448

of Ugandan soldiers, 483, 484, 492democracy, xviii, xxi, 22, 45, 72, 259, 285,

315, 410, 472, 475, 507in British African colonies, 132, 491, 495in South Africa, 78–79, 80

Denmark, 398, 400depression, 47, 48, 49, 50, 170, 180, 193,

349in Nigeria, 149, 152, 164, 281, 284, 289in Portuguese African colonies, 230in Sierra Leone, 194in Tanganyika, 238, 241, 249

desertion, 16, 56, 62, 63, 116, 117, 217,235, 459

“detribalized” Africans, 48deuxieme portion du contingent militaire

(second portion of the militarycontingent), 13, 46, 62, 109–10,112–26, 115, 113n9, 119n25,119n26

development, xxi, 32, 128, 143, 150, 203,435, 502

Fascist ideas of, 484in Free France, 214, 216in French West Africa, 457in Kenya, 130, 133in Nigeria, 62, 126, 285, 299in Portuguese African colonies, 225, 230,

232in Tanganyika, 238, 240, 254, 255in South African industry, 64–66in Uganda, 483, 484, 485, 489, 492, 494,

495development plans, East African forestry

project, 63dhows, 253diamonds, 33, 47, 66, 231Dickins, Capt. A. R. A., 159Diori, Hamani, 455Dirma Gabriel, church of, 383disability, 21, 137–38, 141

pensions and payments, 22, 132, 134,135, 141, 454

ratings system, 130, 131disabled soldiers in Nigeria, 129, 131, 135discrimination

in the military, 82, 138, 324, 338, 438racial, xxi, xxii, 139, 259, 269, 270, 271,

273, 275, 296, 298, 320n63, 413job, 61, 67, 299






516 Index

diseases, 39, 57, 116, 116n19, 129, 137,207, 408, 426, 423. See also venerealdisease

livestock, 241Divisao do Fomento Orizıcola, 225Doctrine of Reciprocal Aid, 28drought, 36n56, 87, 104, 233–34Dunkirk, 94, 446Dunlop, 173Durban (South Africa), 54, 65, 66Dutch East Indies, 204, 249, 250, 256Duverge, Pierre, Gabon, 216–17dye, 155, 320dye bark, 253, 254

East Africa, 5, 8, 10, 14, 21, 27, 32, 52, 71marketing boards, 40

East Africa Command (EAC), 133, 135,140, 485n7, 140

discharge of disabled, 138medical records, 140military hospital system, 137rehabilitation, 134, 135, 136welfare, 133

East African campaign, 6, 310, 311East African colonial army, 13East Africa Military Labour Service

(EAMLS), 6East African Engineers, 140Eboue, Felix, governor-general of FEA

concern for African workers, 206, 213administration, 200, 201, 203–04, 205,

207, 214, 216handling of petitions of grievances,

216–17, 218and Mr. Tchioula’s racist attitude, 215advocacy for colonial reform policies, 218relations with de Gaulle and Free France,

63, 64, 200reform proposals at Brazzaville

conference, 376Echenberg, Myron, 21, 126, 325, 421,

446n5, 448Eden, Anthony, 384Edo people (Nigeria), 179education, 13, 133, 136, 185, 216n68, 230,

231, 232, 233, 267, 280, 476and missions, 287, 362, 373, 375, 377as part of French assimilation policy, 376Brazzaville proposals, 376in Uganda, 483, 484, 490women’s access to, 399, 477

Egba Native Administration (ENA), 153,162

Egypt, 7, 8, 9, 99popular depiction of, 312–13, 313

(Figure 16.4), 314, 318government, 467, 475nationalism, 103railway construction, 242

Egyptian Ministry of Rations, 30Egyptian Ministry of Supplies, 30, 37812th Engineer Aviation Battalion, 412,

413, 418El Alamein (Egypt), 9, 37, 71, 311Elder Dempster lighters, 195elections

for Territorial Assembly (FWA), 456,459

in Fascist states, 385in Guinea, 458

Eleventh (East Africa) Division, 11–12Emali (Kenya), 37Empey, W. S., 394enemy property. See custodian of enemy

propertyEnglish, Chief Kadri, Hausa leader in Accra,

341Enugu, 280, 281, 282, 283, 290, 300, 301,

505. See also coal industry inNigeria, coal miners, strikes

administrative capital of southeasternNigeria, 281

economy, 278, 288, 299emergence of working class, 289, 294,

297establishment of unions, 291“new middle class” of government

employees, 294population growth, 284, 287, 291rise of radical nationalism, 280, 293, 294,

295slums, 289

Enugu Government Colliery, 43, 276, 282,283

1949 shooting incident, 67, 302discriminatory practices, 299management, 291, 299

Equality Law (1950), 445, 457Equateur province (Belgian Congo), 176Equatorial Africa. See French Equatorial

Africa (FEA)Eritrea, 26, 259–75. See also British

Military Administration,






Index 517

concubinage, Fascism, Italiancolonialism, mixed race children

as part of Italian dream of empire, 472border with Sudan, 464, 465, 468, 469in military camps, 474Italian administration, 469

Eritreans, 3, 7, 12, 467Eritrea People’s Liberation Front (EPLF),

384n3espionage, 372, 382, 399, 469estates

housing, Enugu, 300in Cameroon, 171, 177rubber, 166, 169, 179–81, 182sisal, 253

Estatuto Missionario of 1941, 233Eteke gold mine, Gabon, 210Ethiopia, 147, 148, 383. See also Selassie,

Haile; women combatantsaristocracy, 385, 387, 388, 390, 397as base for Italian operations, in Sudan,

462battle of Adwa (1896), 385, 385n11,

466borders with Somalia and Sudan,

385n13, 467, 468British military operations, 33, 242federated to Eritrea, 260n3international support, 25, 155, 387n17Italian conquest and occupation, xvii,

xxii, 3, 5, 55, 147, 261, 384–88,385, 385n13, 387, 388, 462, 464

liberation, 10, 16, 19, 25, 401, 466resistance to Italians, 385, 387, 388–91,

397, 466rubber, 169South African military operations, 7

Ethiopian Red Cross, 25ethnic associations, 454ethnicity, 181, 185eucalyptus, 240, 246Europe, xx, 505

end of war, xxiilabor problems, 505

Europeans, xxi, 482accounts of WWII, 17, 18, 19imperial powers, 501, 505models, 502perception of Africans, 483, 505refugees, 487

European soldiers, 503, 506Evangelical Mission of Paris, 369

exports, 29, 44, 48, 54, 56, 63, 67, 155,167, 168, 205, 251, 504. See alsogold, rice, rubber, uranium

as pay for imports, 28from Portuguese Africa, 223, 224, 225,

228, 229from Nigeria, 278, 295navicerts for, 29n22strategic minerals, 6

family, 81, 101allowances, 60, 67, 74, 489Berber concepts of, 104, 106, 107in Ethiopia, 391, 392, 400in Ivory Coast, 328in Kenya, 130in Liberia, 411in Nigeria, 285–86, 287, 298, 300, 347in Sierra Leone, 192labor, 62, 287support for French wives of African

soldiers, 333, 334, 335, 336famine, 38, 56, 87, 293, 241, 295, 393,

451, 452in Cape Verde, 58, 233–34

Fargettas, Julien, 422Fascism, 111, 112, 259, 384, 385, 401,

480impact on British administration in

Eritrea and Egypt, 262, 264, 269,272

meaningless of ideology to Ugandans,495, 507

Nigerian discussions about, 147, 163views of Sudanese intelligentsia, 468,

472, 475Fascist race laws

in Eritrea, 260, 260n4, 267, 268, 271,272, 274, 274, 275

in Libya, 272Fascist womanhood, 400Fehrenbach, Heide, 267Fernando Po, 349Feyistan of Abeokuta, 157ficus (fig) trees, 177fils de l’Islam (Muslim sons), 104fire(s), 178, 191, 191n23, 248, 251fire drills, 188firearms, 241Firestone Rubber Company, 166

and Americo-Liberian elite, 179in South Africa, 250






518 Index

Firestone Rubber Company (cont.)rubber estates in Liberia, 30–31, 169–70,

180, 406, 409firewood, 32, 238, 248First World War. See World War IFloyer, R. K., 346Fofana, Ibrahima, RDA militant, 456Fogo, 234food, xx, 415, 423

African soldiers’ rations, 134as part of pay, 87n87, 245as taxes, 452disruption of imports, 233, 234, 238,

239requisition in, 41, 148riots in Cape Verde, 234security, 28, 48, 87Sudan as transit point for North African

food supplies, 463wartime struggle for food in colonies,

35–39food crops, 27, 450. See also cassava,

maize, riceFood shortage(s), 56, 62, 179, 211, 393

in Enugu (Nigeria), 289, 290, 295in FEA, 17, 176, 215, 216in Freetown (Sierra Leone), 185, 187,

192–93, 198in Mozambique, 228, 229in POW camps, 321, 330, 423, 424, 426,

434, 436, 448in Tanganyika, 239, 241, 243, 246–47,

249, 255protests about, 121

food production in the colonies, 25, 35, 2,150, 470, 504

food prices, 59, 183. See also price controlsFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO),

255Force Publique, 6, 17, 20, 83forced labor, 47, 57, 62, 181, 189. See also

deuxieme portion, indigenat,prestation, prisoners of war, rubber

abolition of, 41, 51, 182, 457in FWA under Free France, 201, 202,

207, 209, 214, 218, 442, 451–52in FWA under Vichy government,

109–26, 374, 444, 449in Great Britain, 298n72in Nigeria, 44, 284n23, 363in Portuguese African colonies, 226, 228in post-Vichy FWA, 458, 459–60, 501–02in Sudan, 63

in Tanganyika, 241intensification during wartime, 41, 44

Forces Francaises de l’Interieur, 94Forecariah circle (Lower Guinea), 452forest(s), 211, 235, 336, 426

in Tanganyika, 239–56production, 32, 64products, 32, 42reserves, 179, 239

forest region(s), 33in Guinea, 452, 459, 460

forestry, 32, 63, 202, 255, 425in Tanganyika, 240–43, 246, 255,

256Fort-Archambault (Chad), 217Fort-Lamy (Chad), 215Fortes, Meyers, 24France. See also armistice, colonialism, Free

France, Vichy Francearmed forces, 446as part of Allied forces, 25citizens, 13, 107, 114, 121, 122, 125,

336, 373, 431, 441, 459, 507civilians, 119, 329, 338, 421, 422, 425,

429, 436, 437, 438, 443, 449, 450,460, 461

colonial loyalty, 79, 96, 100, 104, 115,326, 370n27, 437, 454, 456

empire, 91, 92, 97, 103, 107, 117, 219,360, 361, 364, 366, 376, 382, 420,422, 429, 431, 434, 435, 438, 441,442n2, 446, 458, 507

fall of, xix, 8, 13, 17, 27, 29, 31, 32, 40,46, 53, 103, 148, 168, 169, 174,185, 325, 338, 360, 373, 444, 447

German occupation, 26, 117, 324, 361,448

of Alsace (1914), 99of southern France, 97, 364, 374

labor policies, 45, 51, 62, 63, 110,113–17

liberation, 9, 17, 96, 259, 278, 324, 425,435, 436, 437, 438, 442n2, 444,447, 448

metropolitan, 91, 113, 360, 455military glory, 89, 101, 103, 382protector of colonial subjects, 107resistance, 9, 95, 96, 104, 106, 107, 219,

336, 360, 384, 427view that exploitation of colonies

necessary to strengthen France, 112racism, xxii, 337, 400reliance on African troops, xix, 4, 7, 9, 93






Index 519

subjects, 9, 13, 46, 103, 107, 109, 118,121, 328n17, 336, 441, 446

universalism, rhetoric of, 454Fallatiyya, Aysha al-, 474franchise (voting rights), 21Franco, Francisco, 3–4, 220Free France, xxi. See also Brazzaville,

conference, deuxieme portion, forcedlabor, Gaullism, indigenat, rubber

African protest, 217anti-Vichy propaganda, 219base in Brazzaville and FEA, 5, 200, 219discredited regime, 175participation in liberation of France, 448policies of coercion, 62, 202, 218, 219relations with Felix Eboue, 218road and railroad construction, 214source of raw materials, 200, 278,

279 (Table 15.1)symbolic importance of empire, 91

freedom, 76, 78, 163, 285, 313, 401, 417movement for freedom in Africa, 418,

419Nigerian view, 163sexual, 348South African view, 306

Freetowncensus, 186, 186n5, 198n56civil defense, 187, 188n12demilitarization, 184, 185, 186, 197–98harbor, 183, 184, 185, 189, 190, 191,

192n29, 197, 199migrants, 183, 193, 193n37militarization, 183, 184–85, 186, 199newspapers, 185, 188, 192n28, 198outpost of South Atlantic command, 32,

183police, 184, 192, 194politics, 185population growth, 36, 185, 186,

192–93, 194n56port, 32, 51, 54presence of foreign troops, African and

white, 183water, 189–91, 198

Frejus (France), 329French Cameroon, 175, 180, 181French Congo, 207, 441French Equatorial Africa (FEA), 26, 36, 39,

41, 360, 362French Soudan (Mali), 46, 62, 63, 109, 115,

119, 126, 443, 445n5French Union, 120, 121, 122, 455

French West Africa (FWA), 26, 36, 39, 41,360, 361, 364, 375

administration, 368, 369de Gaulle takeover, 375Protestant missions in, 369, 372, 378,

380front stalags, 46Frontstalag, 425, 426, 428, 431, 432,

433–34, 434n52, 435, 437, 438Frosty Force, 465Funtumia elastica, 166, 167, 172, 181Futa Jallon, 452, 456

G. B. Ollivant, 159G. I. Bill, 128Gabon, 178, 202, 203. See also gold mines

civil war between Vichy and Free Frenchforces, 217

expansion of road networks, 214Free France administration, 215, 216wartime administration, 204

Gallabat (Sudan), 466Galvao, Henrique, 227–28Gambeila (Ethiopia), 467Gambia, The, 151, 152, 184,

279(Table 15.1), 290gangs, 196, 285n29Garden City, 300gari, 151, 151n15, 155, 157Garment Workers Union (Transvaal), 51Gash river, 465Gaullists, 217, 326, 327, 361Gbadebo I, Alake of Abeokuta, 149Gedarif (Sudan), 462, 466Gedle, Woizero Shewareged, 393, 394gender, xviii, xxii, 60, 104, 155, 185, 285,

300, 301, 311, 347. See alsomasculinity

changing relations, xxi, 399, 503, 505division of labor, 254ideologies, 282, 384, 395, 396in resistance movements, 395, 398norms, 60, 282, 299, 399oke okporo (male woman, Igbo), 285

General Defense Regulations, 159Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War

(1929), 423, 448Gerima, Haile, 394, 395German Afrika Korps, 71German Army, 4German East Africa, 130German High Command, 428, 430, 432German Inspection Control (KIA), 94






520 Index

German Military Command, 425German, 4, 241, 335, 414

estates in colonies, 171, 181, 231, 243,252

colonizers, 240, 241racism, xxii, 95, 431

Germany, 30, 53, 92, 161, 220, 267, 349,368, 398, 495. See also France(armistice), prisoners of war,propaganda

access to African raw materials andminerals, 26, 29, 29–30n22, 152,155, 168, 171, 220, 221, 231

Allied apprehension of attack on Africancolonies, 185, 187, 221, 222, 233

attack on Britain, 53collaboration with colonials, 97, 98, 428,

429, 468colonialism, 155, 240, 241, 252, 255, 425impressions of, 315, 317invasion and occupation of France and

overseas territories, 13, 26, 53, 89,91, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 113, 324,364, 374, 384, 448, 463, 467

invasion of Belgium and Poland, 6, 31,150, 404

North Africa campaigns, 8, 9, 54, 71, 94,97, 305, 319, 320, 403, 415, 448,464, 465, 467, 475, 476

race, 431, 438relations with Portugal, 220, 224relations with Vichy government, 32, 53,

113, 168, 360, 361, 362, 364, 403,422, 431, 435

war industry, 448Gezira (Sudan), 465Gezira Scheme, 46, 62, 472

forced relocation, 63tenant grievances, 477tenant strike, 502

Gezira Tenants’ Association (GTA), 477Gezira Tenants’ Union (GTU), 477Gibraltar, 98, 220Giles-Vernick, Tamara, 208Ginio, Ruth, 45, 436pn61, 443, 503Glanville, R. R., 158Global Labor History, 45global supply chains, 45globalization, 187Gobineau, Arthur de, 331Godechot, Thierry, 422Gogo ethnic group, Tanganyika, 181

Gojjam, 388gold, 28, 29, 33, 47, 61, 64, 65, 200, 231,

61Gold Coast (Ghana), 23, 33, 39, 152,

344, 356, 502, 503, 504, 507. Seealso cocoa farmers, prostitution,radio broadcasting, railway workers,soldiers, trade unions

imports, 149, 151, 278, 279 (Table 15.1)participation in West African War

Council, 184role of ex-servicement in politics,

445n5wartime planning, 184

Gold Coast Spitfires Fund, 344–45Gold Coasters, 5, 344, 347, 354, 355gold mines, 61, 245

in Gabon, 209–14Gordon College Students’ Union (GCSU),

477Gorgulho, Carlos de Sousa, 236–37goumiers, 93, 93n4, 95–97Government Defence Regulations, Nigeria,

177Graduate General Congress (GGC), 468Graham, J. C., 160Grandperrin, Maurice, 216Graziani, General Rudolfo, 387, 388,

389–90Great Britain, 128, 129, 153, 189, 503

1941 agreements with Felix Eboue, 2021942 agreement with US, 184and missionaries, 361, 381monetary understanding with Free French

government, 204relation with Sierra Leone colony, 183,

184n3, 188n10, 189–90wartime industrial strategies, 290

Great Depression, 170, 180Greeks, 248Gremio do Milho Colonial, 229groupements de tabors marocains, 97Gueye, Lamine, 118Gugsa (Dejaz), 388Guinea, 327, 373, 441–61, 501Guinea-Conakry, 169, 174gun emplacement, Freetown, 189

Hague Convention (IV) Respecting theLaws and Customs of War on Land(1907), 259, 268, 271, 272, 275

Haifa, 243






Index 521

Hall, Sir John Hathorn, governor ofUganda, 484

Hall, Virginia, 399hammock tradition, 296haqiba music, 471, 478harbor(s), 47, 504. See also Dakar,

Freetown, Tobrukhardship

bonuses, 448economic, 38, 56, 58, 87, 182, 247, 295,

297, 428pay, 17shared hardship of metropolitan and

colonial workers, 297hardware, 175hardwoods, 240, 241–43, 244, 246, 248,

254, 255, 256Harneit-Sievers, Axel, 39, 41, 160Hasib, Hasib Ali, 475Headrick, Rita, 337health, 18, 20, 126, 490

in the Gold Coast, 341, 343, 355, 503Health Department (Liberia), 409health policy, 191, 232, 340health services, 187, 232

impact of Brazzaville conference, 362,376

in eastern Nigeria, 264, 299, 300in the Gold Coast, 353, 354

Helal, Emad A., 30, 37“Hessian Houses”, 65hides, 37, 225, 229Higginson, John, 33High Commission Territories (HCT), 7, 9,

72Hindi, Sharif al-, 468His Majesty’s Forces Pension Ordinance

(1942), 141Hitler, Adolf, 15, 50, 97, 98, 100, 173, 177,

212, 230, 303, 306, 385, 421, 431,472, 474, 475, 480n2, 495

Hodson, Arnold Weinholt, governor of theGold Coast, 351, 352, 355

Hone, Brigadier Sir Herbert Ralph, 265,268, 269, 270

honor, 3, 107, 282, 294n57, 321, 322codes, 27, 308, 316, 319, 321“heroic honor”, 277“masculine honor denied” discourse,

294military, 103, 117

Hopkins, A. G., 187

Horn of Africa, 5, 133, 259, 384, 464, 506.See also Northeast Africa

horses, 168, 391, 397Houille (France), 334Houphoet-Boigny, Felix, 41, 118, 125Houphoet-Boigny law, 119, 126housing, 20, 22, 87, 343, 504

as workers’ grievance, 17, 55, 65,289n42, 505

colonial policies, 51, 53, 58, 59, 65in eastern Nigeria, 280, 289, 300in Freetown, 185, 191, 198in Tanganyika, 246, 247, 255

Huileries du Congo Belge, 180Huna Omdurman, 473, 476, 478hunting, 309, 311Huntziger, General Charles, 94Hyde-Clark, E. M., 135, 137, 141

“industrial men”, 50, 280Ibadan, 157, 505Ibadan province, 156Iberian colonies, 223Iberian countries, 29, 220Identity, 129, 278, 504. See also gender,

masculinityEnugu (Nigeria) workers’, 279, 283,

284n25, 285n29, 297, 299, 301national, 260, 400, 409racial, 412SIM denominational, 362

Igbo, 83, 277, 283, 286, 287Ila al-amam, 99Ilaro Division (Abeokuta province), 153,

154, 158image

British self-image of paternalistic imperialnation, 260

masculine soldier, 314, 323of complexity of war according to Mary

Benson, 318of desperate mother, 122of normalcy to soldier in battle, 104of soldiers in East Africa, 311Trek, 309Vichy government in eyes of Moroccans,

97white men on safari, 311

immigration, 103, 230Immigration Restriction Ordinance (1943),

352Immigration Restriction Regulations, 351






522 Index

Imoudu, Michael, 52imperial fiscal policy, 295imperialism, 45, 398, 400, 417

Axis version of, 3British, 306, 428contradictions of, 20French, 428German, 42reform, 21, 42

independence, 21, 45, 54, 210, 255, 282,287, 299, 362, 417, 419, 420, 445,461, 505

and involvement of veterans and formerPOWs, 438, 443

of (individual) colonies, 90, 222, 255,356, 338

Guinea, 441, 453, 459, 460, 460n49India, 7, 10, 11, 28, 29, 30, 57, 133, 140,

172, 205, 229, 242, 467Indian Army, 6, 12Indian Ocean, 256Indians, colonial troops, 5, 11, 16, 71,

324n1, 466, 471in South Africa, 173in Tanganyika, 243, 244, 251in Uganda, 486, 487

indigenat, 46, 62, 118, 120, 150, 213indigo dyed cloth, 149, 155indigo, 450indirect rule, 148, 283, 484, 507Indochina, 206, 325. See also metissage,

prisones of war, rubber, TirailleursSenegalais

industrial relationsinstitutions of, 44, 44n6, 51, 281, 290,

293inflation, 22, 28, 39, 50, 52, 55, 56, 57,

142, 157, 444in Guinea, 41in Nigeria, 56, 59, 160, 280, 285, 286,

289, 290, 291, 295, 299in Northern Rhodesia, 177in Sudan, 504

informal economy, 48in Sierra Leone, 186, 193

information officer(s)in Abeokuta (Nigeria), 153in Sierra Leone, 189

infrastructure projects, 33, 55in Dakar (Senegal), 185in Eritrea, 263in Free France, 214

in Freetown (Sierra Leone), 183, 185,189, 197, 199

in Gold Coast, 341in Mozambique, 232

Inspector General’s Trust Fund (Kenya),132

Institut Francais du Caoutchouc, 174International Committee of the Red Cross

(ICRC), 428, 429, 433, 435. See alsoRed Cross

iron mines in Marampa (Sierra Leone),193n36

iron ore, 25Israel, Adrienne M., 445n5Italian(s), 5, 20, 26, 231, 316, 318, 322

“Aryan”, 269, 271discrimination by Sudan Defense Force,

266in Ethiopia, 16, 387–88, 389, 391, 392,

394, 396, 397in North Africa, 8, 385prisoners of war

in Buganda, 490in Eritrea, 12, 262, 264, 265, 267,

270in Sudan, 462, 464–67, 469–70, 472,

474Italy, 4, 259, 264, 399, 467. See also

Ethiopia, propagandaand Allied Forces, 270, 360, 416, 448and Sudan, 462, 464, 468, 469argument to make Africa a demilitarized

zone, 489at war, 5, 27, 33, 71, 154, 242, 265defeat at Adwa, 385n11in Eritrea, 262, 270, 273invasion and conquest of Ethiopia, xvii,

25, 25n5, 147, 147n2, 261, 384,387–89

plan to create East African empire, 310,464

treaty to end war, xxiiuse of poison gas, 393

Ivory Coast, 30, 36, 41, 118n23, 169, 174,178, 328, 368, 422. See also veterans

Jackson (African American soldier inLiberia), 410

Jackson, Ashley, 24, 72Jackson, Wilfred Edward Francis, governor

of Tanganyika, 253Jacobs, Alexandra, 443






Index 523

Japan, 79, 154, 169. See also Pearl Harbor,rubber, World War II

campaigns in Southeast Asia, xix, 11, 19,27, 44, 167, 204, 224, 238, 249,278, 406

conquest of Singapore, 57, 340Japanese

atrocities, 163, 316control of Asian markets, minerals, and

crops, 27, 31, 38, 57control of Burma and Indochina, 206,

246expansion, 171–74occupation of Southeast Asia, 156, 250,

253total-war planners, 239

Jardine, Sir Douglas James, governor ofSierra Leone, 195n44

Jewsanti-Jew legislation, 272, 273, 275anti-Jew propaganda, 428discrimination against in Eritrea, 260,

268, 269, 270, 272genocide, xxi, 262in Libya, 272, 315

jihad, 100, 428, 468John Holt, 153Johnson, R. W., 174Juba (Sudan), 55, 463Junta da Exportacao dos Cereais, 229Junta de Exportacao de Algodao Colonial,

225Juntas de Exportacao, 225“just wage”, 299

Kalck, Pierre, 175Kalembo, Robert, 484Kankan (Guinea), 447, 451, 454, 455Kapp, Newton, 372, 372n33, 381Kaptue, Leon, 201Kassa, Dejazmatch Aberra, 392Kassala (Sudan), 462, 464, 465, 466

Italian occupation of, 468–71, 472, 478Kassum Virji, 251Katanga region (Belgian Congo), 34Kati (Niger) 116, 117, 123Keller, Pastor Jean, 361, 369–70, 372–74,

375Kennedy-Cooke, Brian, 265Kenya, 14, 22, 36, 129, 143. See also

demobilization, disabled, King’sAfrican Rifles, labor force,

nationalists, recruitment, strikes,veterans, World War II

colonial government, 6, 8, 10, 21, 23,128, 129, 130, 133

Ethiopian war refugees in exile, 383, 392Italian invasion of, 27Inflation and prices, 39, 142rural protests, 502settlers, 15, 61, 508

Kenya African Union, 142Kenya Army, 14Kenya Land Freedom Army, 23Kenya “War Relief Fund”, 131Kroo “Tribal” Court, Sierra Leone, 188Keren (Sudan), 466, 474kerosene, xx, 248Keta district (Gold Coast), 340Khartoum (Sudan), 462–67, 471, 477, 478Khartoum University Students’ Union

(KUSU), 477Khasif, Ibrahim al-, 473Khatmiyya brotherhood, 469, 470Kibangou (Gabon), 214Kikuyu, people, Kenya, 23n65, 83, 246, 412Kikuyu Central Association, 133Killingray, David, xvi, 71, 202, 218, 324n1,

442n2, 445n5Kilwa (Tanganyika), 250, 253Kimbaguism, 230Kindia (Guinea), 327, 447, 455King George VI of Britain, 177King’s African Rifles (KAR), 5, 6, 10–11,

12, 14, 15, 83, 130, 132, 133, 466,467, 498

labor units, 134regulations, 131

King’s National Roll Scheme, 132Kissidougou circle (Guinea), 450Kissy Naval base, Freetown (Sierra Leone),

197Kiswere sisal estates, Tanganyika, 253Kita (French Soudan), 119, 120, 121, 122,

125Kita letter, 122, 125Korean War, 182Kosti (Sudan), 463Kouroussa circle (Guinea), 451Krio, ethnic group, Sierra Leone, 181, 188,

188n10Krio language, 189Krull, Germaine, 200, 206, 207, 210, 212Kurmuk (Sudan), 466






524 Index

Labe air field (Guinea), 456Labor, 15, 19, 20, 47, 50, 67, 73, 76, 111,

112, 114, 122, 175, 179, 288, 362,366, 441, 504, 505. See alsoconscription, forced labor

authoritarian systems of, 43, 49colonial reconceptualization of, 289conditions, 51, 52, 113, 117differentiated from term “working class”,

46experts, 51, 292, 301harsh practices, 111, 113historians, 46history, 504impact of war, xx, 66, 157industrial labor as strengthening

indigenous models of masculinity, 49migrant, 48, 61, 65, 86military, 6, 14, 15, 55, 64, 487mobilization, 32, 43, 62part of international world system, 45, 46policies, 45, 50, 51, 52, 63, 67, 110, 195,

289, 290, 504, 505proletarianianization of, 87racialized process, 44, 66reforms, 51, 110, 289, 289n42, 293regimented systems, 62rural, 62–64shortage, 65, 119, 151stabilization, 59unrest, 445, 504

Labor in Enugu (Nigeria). See also “CoalTown”, forced labor

activism, 282, 285, 296appropriation of family labor by

patriarchs, 285, 287as embedded in communities, 282housing as means to segment labor,

300protest, 289, 294, 298recruitment, 287representation, 292wage, 282, 284, 288

Labor in Freetown (Sierra Leone), 184, 185,189, 190, 193n37, 195, 195n44,196, 199

Labor in Mozambique, 226, 227Labor in Sudan, 474, 476, 477Labor in Tanganyika, 240, 241, 244, 248,

252estate, 253migrants, 246, 247

shortages, 245, 252, 254unrest, 246

Labor Advisory Board, Sierra Leone, 194“labor problem”, the, 45, 505Labor protests. See worker protestsLabor unions. See trade unionslaborers, 6, 132, 183, 190, 196, 352, 416,

420, 495African “native”, 45in public works, 54in strategic sectors, 195, 197military, 3, 7, 23n65, 46, 343

Lachenal, Guillaume, 207Ladipo, J. A., headmaster in Abeokuta, 163,

163n84Lagos, 35, 39, 148, 152, 155, 158

food supplies, 157, 158, 159, 164general strike, 66, 296, 300markets, 159, 160military construction projects, 151port, 278prices, 157, 159, 291, 295worker unrest, 59, 295

Lajes air base (Portugal), 221Lambarene (Gabon), 216land, 10, 79, 139, 166, 225, 227, 228, 229,

246, 283, 370, 371, 390, 469access to, 246, 247acquisition, 285claims to, 241government seizure of private land in

Uganda, 482inheritance, 390, 393in forest reserves, 246, 253in Uganda, 484, 496, 498marginal, 131, 247shortage, 246, 247, 255

Landesschutzenbataillone (Home GuardBatallions), 425

Latin America, 171, 420Laurentie, Henri, 200, 203, 205, 216law(s)

abolition of forced labor in FWA, 118,121, 459

concubinage, 269, 273, 274equal treatment for French African

veterans, 444, 457exceptions to abolition of forced labor

laws in FWA, 119, 125, 126granting Africans citizenship in French

Union, 121, 125international law, 259, 271, 272, 275






Index 525

labor and trades disputes in BritishAfrica, 58, 292, 293, 293n53

labor in French African colonies, 114,203, 218

military and volunteer service, 17, 307,328, 330n23, 446

new administrative entity created, AfricaOrientale Italiana, 388

parallel justice systems in FWA, 328n17price controls, 160racial ideologies embedded in laws, 355regulating prostitution in the Gold Coast,

345, 350, 353Lauro, Angelo, 265Lawler, Nancy Ellen, 9, 19, 63, 342, 344,

421, 422, 443, 445n5Le Bon, Gustav, 331Lebango (French Congo), 207Lebanon, 324Leclerc, Philippe, 203, 214Lend-Lease Act (1941), 27, 28, 202Lend-Lease program, 37, 404, 406Leopold, King of the Belgians, 166, 182leprosarium in Maradi (Niger), 370,

371–72, 373, 375, 379Liberia, 20, 30–31, 167, 179, 342, 401,

405–11, 419, 452. See alsoprostitution, rubber, soldiers

Libertas, 303, 308, 308n13, 315Libreville, 175, 212, 215Libya, 362, 403, 462, 463, 464, 473

as part of dream of Italian empire, 472military campaigns, 7, 8, 33, 214, 242Italian administration, 26, 469

“life-world”, 279Liger Campaign (1948–1952), 457Lindsay, Lisa, 300, 505liquid latex, 180Litvinov, Maxim, 384Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, 191Liwale district (Tanganyika), 252–53, 255local authorities, 51, 57, 114, 175, 459,

480, 491Local Defense Volunteer Force. See

Abeokuta (Nigeria)local self-government, French overseas

territories, 458Loire River, 446London

and centralized planning, 150, 155and rubber production, 204, 205, 209,

219, 251

location of Belgian government in exile,176

changes in Colonial Office structure, 289Free French leadership in exile, 210, 217price control, 170shortage of shipping space, 167

Longrigg Stephen H., 264, 265, 267, 269,272

Lower Guinea, 452, 455loyalty, 84, 88, 463

African expectations of rewards for, 491,507

African expressions of, 44, 54, 57, 79, 86,184, 189, 194, 303, 370n27, 437,454, 456, 468, 470, 478, 480, 488

Ethiopian nobles forced to give oath ofloyalty to Italy, 388

performance of, 96, 104, 481, 485, 487,489

to RDA, 453Ugandans call on British to reciprocate,

481, 491, 498Luanda (Angola), 224, 231Luckenwalde camp (Germany), 428Luvale (Northern Rhodesia), 177Lyautey, Hubert, resident general of

Morocco, 92, 217Lyon (France), 446, 448

M’Vouti mine (Congo), 211–12Mabella Workers Trade Union, 195Mabon, Armelle, 336, 337, 411Macfie, John, 394MacMaster, Neil, 262Madagascar, 4, 11, 15, 16, 17, 34, 100,

133, 219, 222, 325, 437Madingo-Kayes (Congo), 214Mahdi, Sayyid Abd al-RSahman al-, 468Mahmoud, Abu Shama ‘Abd, al-, 473Maichew (Ethiopia), 391maize, 36–37, 38, 224, 229, 449Maka, Leon, 456, 457malaria, 137, 191, 408Malaya, 169

anticolonial insurgency, 256British campaign to reclaim, 11Japanese conquest and occupation, 204,

250loss as source of strategic raw materials,

27, 57, 206, 249male breadwinner norm, 60, 280, 287, 300,

301






526 Index

Malherbe, Ernst Gideon, 306, 309Mali, 23, 46, 62, 169, 438malnutrition, 36, 39, 130, 193n38, 446man of confidence, 433, 433n49, 434Mangin, Lieutenant-Colonel Charles, 92Manhattan Project, 47manhood

construction of, 285, 288, 299POWs view of loss of, 321

Manila hemp, 253Mann, Gregory, 438, 445n5Marampa mines (Sierra Leone), 193n36,

194n40market

as contested space, 164cocoa, 152, 155, 235collapse of rubber, 249, 256growing urban, 284n13In Mozambique, 173, 226Mayana rubber, 206–08Tanganyikan timber, 241, 245, 256unofficial, 160, 165world, 24, 25, 27, 34n45, 35, 57, 225,

494, 502market women. See women (traders)marraine(s) de guerrem, 330, 426, 429marriage a la mode du pays, 331marriage, 62, 270, 301, 396, 412

and Protestant missions, 377companionate marriage, 287interracial marriages, 331, 334rise of adultery complaints, 286, 286n32socioeconomic changes, 284, 285, 286

“marriage by photograph”, 286Marseille (France), 336martial groups (also race), 83, 83n65,

85–86masculinity, 18, 178, 281, 301, 307, 323,

332. See also combatBritish working-class notions of, 281Igbo notions of, 60, 282, 301, 287,

282–85, 285n29, 286–88“imperial”, 278, 505indigenous models of, 14, 15, 49, 178,

300, 321South African white, 303, 307, 309, 308,

311, 314, 315, 321, 322“virile”, 321

Mason, Capt., 154mass media, 506Massawa (Eritrea), 263, 267n51, 466Matadi (Congo), 55, 404, 405, 463

Mathere Valley mental hospital, 141Matthews, A. B., 189, 192, 192n16Matthews, Zachariah Keodirelang, 80,

80n45Mau Mau Emergency, 23Mauritius, 7, 26mauser guns, 394Maxwell, E. F. M., 271, 273Maxwell, K., 74Mayana (Moyen-Congo), 206–07Medal of the Campaign of 1936, 19, 41,

383Medal of the Patriots of the Interior, 383Medal of the Patriot Refugees, 383Mediterranean, 7, 53, 169, 220, 415, 416,

463Mehallas cherifiennes, 95, 96Mekonnen, Woizero Alemitu, 392memory, 89, 90, 316, 319, 323, 418, 479merchants, 40, 115, 160, 192, 244, 287,

468, 502Mers-el Kebir, 360metissage in Indonesia, 331Middle East, 7, 98, 107–08, 254, 342, 446,

468African imports, 170, 241, 256African soldiers in, 9, 10, 20, 127anti-Allies feeling, 472African supply bases and routes, 41, 241,

344, 406war theater, 33, 56, 133, 416, 462, 463,

464migrant(s)

in Freetown (Sierra Leone), 183, 186,193, 194, 195, 198

in Tanganyika, 246, 247in West Africa, 295

militarization. See Freetownmilitary, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20, 22, 32, 35, 36,

65, 88, 137, 138, 143, 151, 158,344. See also conscription,recruitment

authorities, 16, 18, 20, 91, 95, 131, 133,135, 140, 151, 330, 336

base(s), 32, 95, 109, 196, 197, 404benefits, 132, 133, 135culture, East African, 134discipline, 18, 84, 448hospitals, 135, 137, 140officers or officials, 18, 22, 103, 136,

184, 191, 196planners, 3, 5, 7, 133, 140






Index 527

police, 16, 456, 458, 464prestige, 95, 99recordkeeping, 72, 137service, 8, 12, 13, 18, 81, 84, 127, 129,

130, 134, 139, 142, 143, 338, 390training, 76, 139, 116, 139, 310, 389n28,

405, 417military, American, in Liberia, 401, 402,

403, 406, 407, 408, 409, 413, 415,416, 417

military, British, 139, 186, 259, 342. Seealso British Military Administration(Eritrea)

censors, 18in Freetown (Sierra Leone), 183–87,

184n3, 189–91, 196–98, 199in Gold Coast, 339, 340, 342, 343–44,

345, 346, 349, 353, 354, 355in Guinea, 449officers, 7, 22, 275planners, 5, 7, 128

Military, French, 3, 19, 23, 89, 91, 94, 95,97, 123, 142, 429, 431. See alsodeuxieme portion du contingentmilitaire, goumiers

camps, 448glory, 89, 101, 103in Morocco, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 97, 103

military, Italian, 169, 264, 268, 387, 388,464, 466, 474

military, South AfricanAfricans, 73, 74, 76, 80, 81, 84, 88command, 71whites, 288, 306, 307, 308, 309, 315,

319, 322military, Spanish, 93Minerals. See copper, cobalt, diamonds,

gold, tin, uranium, vanadium,wolfram

Mines. See coal industry in Enugu, goldmines in Gabon, iron mines inMarampa

Mining, 33, 47, 56, 61, 65, 66, 193n36,210, 212, 213, 219, 239, 279, 283,284, 297, 301

Ministry of Food and Supply (London), 150Ministry of Pensions (Great Britain), 132,

135Ministry of Supply (Great Britain), 40, 57,

202, 204, 250Ministry of War Transport (Great Britain),

190

Ministry of War (Great Britain), 91, 186Mirghani, Muhammad ‘Uthman al-, 469,

470missions. See also Sudan Interior Mission

American, 378Catholic, 368, 378Protestant, 361, 362, 368, 369, 372–73,

374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 380missionaries, xxii, 19. See also Sudan

Interior MissionBritish Protestants in French colonial

Africa, 361–62, 368Catholic emphasis on schooling, 373De Gaulle’s policy toward, 375French, 368n21, 369, 373, 378in Congo, 176in Ivory Coast, 368in Niger, 369–70n25in Nigeria, 286, 287, 367in Uganda, 482, 495suspicion of support for decolonization,

379n50Missionary Federation of French West

Africa, 369mobilization, xx, 90–91, 391, 444, 447,

448, 471, 483military, 5, 6, 25, 103, 187, 194, 391of resources, 24, 96political, 55, 128, 129, 194, 444, 445n5,

471, 476, 495–97, 498, 508worker, 43, 62, 227, 459–60, 504

Mockler, Anthony, 385, 385n13modernization, doctrine of, 133Mogroum (Chad), 215Mombasa (Kenya), 50, 58, 463Money, 12, 123, 127, 176, 192n29, 193,

232, 274, 280, 281, 327, 333, 352,407, 447, 471, 474, 480, 482, 489,493, 494, 507

donating, 147n1, 154, 176, 288, 481,487, 488, 495

raising funds, 444–45, 346, 488take money out of circulation, 47, 60

Monod, Guy, 378, 379, 380Montefusco, Emanuele, 273Morcenx camp, 434Moreno, Martino Mario, 274Morocco, 89, 90, 92, 93, 431. See also

goumiers, propagandaarmistice terms, 94–97clandestine organization of goums,

94–95






528 Index

Morocco (cont.)effort de guerre, 89–108role of qaids, 90n2Vichy regime, 91–96

Mossamedes fishing industry, 224Mt. Kilimanjaro, 243Moutet, Marius, 111, 118Moyne, Lord, 351Moyne Report, 50, 51Mozambique, 29, 31, 173, 226, 227, 229,

232. See also cotton, protestsrice production in Mozambique, 225–26

Mpadi, Simon, 230Mpanza, Jame (a.k.a. “Sofasoke”), 65Mulinge, Jackson, 14Muslims, 93, 472, 473

use in British and German propaganda,98

Vichy skepticism about possibility ofChristian conversion, 365,369–70n25

Mussolini, Benito, 4, 5, 212, 261, 262, 264,270, 385, 387n15, 388, 399, 472,474–75

Mustafa, Ahmad al-, 473, 478

Naanen, Benedict, 348Nairobi, 37, 133, 135, 136, 140, 242, 412,

413Namibia (formerly South West Africa), 6,

15, 72nashrat al-akhbar, 98National Assembly (France), 118, 124, 455nationalism, 41, 42, 90, 92, 93, 147, 187,

196, 238, 283, 285, 438in South Africa, 303, 309in Sudan, 42, 471, 477in Uganda, 483, 491, 498

nationalist movement, 67in Guinea, 453in Morocco, 90in Nigeria, 281in Sudan, 471, 475, 477, 479

Nationalist Party, South Africa, 66, 67nationalist press, Nigeria, 40, 280, 294,

297, 301Native Affairs Department, South Africa, 6,

78, 79, 84, 85native, 45, 59, 78, 79, 96, 176, 178, 213,

226, 228, 278, 336, 345, 350, 450,471, 490

courts, 122, 328, 328n17“native custom”, 8

“native reserves”, 15, 132, 133, 134“native troops”, 140, 230

Native Administrators, 85Native Authorities, 8, 14

in Nigeria, 39, 177, 282Native Commissioner(s), 14, 77, 78, 131Native Government, 29, 483, 487, 494, 498Native Military Corps, 71, 82Native Military Labour Corps, 6Nazi empire, 9Nazi propaganda, 90, 98, 133, 438Nazi racism, 260, 261, 262, 275Nazi regimes, 473Nazis, 168, 306, 315, 316, 441Ndebele, 84N’Djole (Gabon), 210, 212, 213, 215Negatu, Afamamber Malak, 394Netherlands, 398, 423New State. See PortugalNew Zealand, 25, 320, 359, 360, 361Newbold, Sir Douglas, 468, 471N’Gouine province (Gabon), 213, 214Niassa Company, 228Niger, 26n10, 31, 32, 359, 360. See also

Sudan Interior MissionVichy administration, 361, 362, 363, 364Perception missionaries as “brittainique”

and subversive, 374, 378, 379n50Protestant community, 366, 367,

368n20, 369n25, 370, 370n27,378n48, 379n50, 381

Nigeria, xx, 83–84, 148, 197, 345, 359,360, 370, 374. See also Abeokuta,coal, Enugu, prostitution, rubber,strikes, tin mines

agricultural production, 57, 30, 31, 33,36, 150, 158, 166, 180, 184

borders, 31, 32, 152, 153, 362, 364,365

broadcasting, 506colonial labor policy, 290, 298economy, 32, 52, 59, 173, 295, 363, 364,

502exports, 30, 54, 57, 149, 151, 151n15,

167, 190, 205forced labor, 44, 202impact of war on economy, 39, 41, 44,

57, 156, 182labor protest, 39, 59–60, 281, 297, 302,

504, 505labor, 48, 49n22, 50, 291, 293mineral resources, 33, 57, 505political protest, 147, 504






Index 529

presence of Americans, xx, 403, 418relations with Free France, 202relations with Niger, 360, 362, 363, 364,

365Nigeria-Chad-Sudan axis, 214Nigeria War Relief Fund, xx, 155Nigerian Defense Regulations, 295–96Nigerian General Strike (1945). See strikesNigerian Railway, 278Nigerian Supply Board, 150Nigerian Youth Movement, Gold Coast

section, 347Njinjo (Kenya), 253, 254Nkanu village group (northern Igboland),

283, 287No. 1 (East Africa) General Hospital, 127,

136No. 3 EAC Chest Centre (Nyeri), 136Nogues, Charles Hippolyte, resident general

Morocco, 95–96Nogues, Madame, 434noncombatant(s), 15, 58, 81, 314n33, 322,

478women, 397

North Africa, 15, 16, 18, 26, 54North African campaign (June 1940–May

1943), xviii, 4–5, 7, 8, 12, 42, 54,55, 173, 197, 242–43, 281, 414,474

food supplies from Northern Rhodesia,56

Free France involvement, 100, 219in popular culture, 474Moroccan participation, 89–109Participation of South African troops, 71,

79, 80North America, xxi, 46, 172, 241, 309North Borneo, 27North Kilimanjaro Forest Reserve, 246Northeast Africa, 5, 6, 7, 242, 393, 464,

506Northern Nigeria, 31, 44, 57, 148, 474Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), copperbelt,

44, 47. See also strikesNorthern Rhodesia Regiment, 5, 11, 12Norway, 150Nottingham, Eric Cato, 343, 345, 349, 350,

351, 352, 355nurse(s), 58, 121, 188

African American, 407–08, 419French, 329, 330from Nyasaland (Malawi), 5, 12, 16

N’Zerekore (Guinea), 452, 454, 456

Oberst, Timothy, 29, 67Obubra division (Ogoja province, Nigeria),

347, 348Occupied Enemy Territory Administration

(OETA), Middle East (ME), 260,263, 265, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272

Odutola, Timothy Adeola, 160Office du Niger, 114–19

forced labor (indigenat the deuxiemeportion and other forms of forcedlabor), 62, 63, 109, 114, 119n26

forced settlements or relocations, 46irrigation scheme, 62, 63

officers, 7, 18, 188, 424, 471, 474, 480nn2African attacks on, 139African noncommissioned, 10, 14, 96African, 134, 338American, 186–87British colonial administrative, 8, 153,

155, 158, 184, 196, 197, 284British military, 7, 8, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19,

22, 23, 132, 141, 183, 184, 185,186, 191, 193, 196, 260, 261–62,263, 265–66, 269, 270, 274, 275,471, 484–85, 489, 490

“civil absorption”, 23colonial administrative, 14, 18, 58French colonial administrative, 93n6, 95,

96–97, 99, 102, 103French military, 18, 19, 91, 101, 123,

326–27, 337, 432, 433, 434, 436,460, 468

German military, 424, 433medical, 134, 300, 407South African military, 6, 71, 77, 308

ogaranyan (“big man”, Igbo), 287, 287n37oke okporo (male woman, Igbo), 285Onyeama, Chief of Eke, 287n37Ogoja Province (Nigeria), 347Ogoou´e province (Gabon), 212, 213, 214ohu (slaves), 283, 284, 284n25oil-bearing plants, 229, 450Ojiyi, Isiah, 276–77, 291, 292, 294, 298,

299incident with Thomas Yates, 276, 277,

296, 299Oletta officer training school, 387Ollandet, Jerome, 208Olusanya, G. O., 445n5Omdurman (Sudan), 465, 471, 472, 474,

477Omdurman Radio, 473, 478, 506Onyeama, Chief, 287n36






530 Index

oppositional work culture, 301Orde-Browne, Major Granville St. J.,

52–53, 289Ormston, Henry, journalist, 346–47,

347n33Osborne, David, 359, 361, 362, 364, 366,

367, 368, 370–72, 375, 380–82Osborne, Drusille, 364, 367Osborne, Richard, 181Othello, 330Othellophilia, 331Oubangui-Chari (Central African Republic),

175, 178, 209Ouedraogo, Edouard, 424, 434overseas territories, 19, 91, 360, 455, 458Ovimbundu, 229Owerri (Nigeria), 347Owerri Province (Nigeria), 346Oyo province, 156Oyo empire, 148Ozo title (Igbo), 286, 287, 288

Palestine, 7, 20, 242, 398Palestine Railway, 243Palm oil, 31, 40, 56, 154, 156, 167, 242

in Nigeria, 155, 157, 283in Portuguese African colonies, 235

palmatoria, 43, 43n1, 236Pamol, 180Paris, 9, 118, 124, 325, 389, 429, 437Parsons, Sir Arthur, 269, 271, 272Patriots, Ethiopian, 383–400pay, 195, 196, 207, 267Pearl Harbor, 7, 27, 57, 406peasants, 35, 42, 61, 64, 89, 95, 104, 178,

225, 240, 253, 281, 393, 476, 477,507

pensions,belief that East Africans did not need

pensions, 132, 141FWA veterans, 21, 22, 129, 131, 141–42,

338, 438, 454, 455, 456, 460n49Kenyan disability, 134, 138, 141RDA demands, 455, 456

Pensions Assessment Board, 142Pepel. See MarampaPersian Gulf nations, 226, 256Petain, Marshal Philippe, 26, 201n7,

326petroleum, 239, 249Philippines, 27, 253pines, 240

pitsawyers, 244–45, 244 (Figure 13.1), 256plantations, 48, 61, 123, 226, 231. See also

cotton, rubber, sisalin Guinea, 451, 452, 459, 460in Tanganyika, 63, 239, 240, 242, 245in Sao Tome and Principe coca, 58, 231,

234, 235Platt, General William, 466, 471Plaut, Martin, 445n5Pleven, Rene, 202, 205, 206, 207, 448poaching (game), 251podocarpus (Podocarpus usambarensis),

243Pointe-Noire (French Congo), 203, 214poison gas, 394Poland, 50, 150, 398police, 16, 19, 96, 413, 227, 436

in Eritrea, 263n25, 266in France, 334, 335, 378, 436–37in FWA, 447, 454, 455–56, 458in Sierra Leone, 51, 192, 194in Sudan, 263, 464, 466, 467, 479in the Gold Coast, 31, 39, 343, 344, 345,

346, 349, 350, 351, 353in Uganda, 492, 492n42, 497 (Figure

25.2)Native Authority, Abeokuta (Nigeria),

159, 160–61, 162, 164, 165Popular Front, 62, 110, 111–12, 111n3,

112n6, 113, 114, 361port(s). See Cape Town, Durham (South

Africa), Freetown (Sierra Leone),Lagos (Nigeria), Port Harcourt(Nigeria), Takoradi (Gold Coast)

Port Harcourt, 295, 346Port Sudan, 464, 465, 470Porto Novo, 334Portugal, 34, 53, 222, 223, 233, 508. See

also Cape Verde, cotton, SalazarAllied ideas concerning German strategy,

220, 221colonial economic policy, 29, 35, 21, 223,

224, 226, 229, 230, 231, 232, 501grain self-sufficiency, 229neutrality, 26, 220New State, 223, 226, 233role of the Catholic church, 233

price controls, xx, 52, 159Prıncipe, 43, 58, 58n62, 235prazo system, 227prestation, 45, 112n6, 118, 214, 215, 216,

218






Index 531

prisoner(s) of war (POW), 4, 320, 420, 467.See also Scapini Mission

French treatment of ex-POWs, 448German treatment of POWs, 428, 429,

431, 432–34, 435, 436, 437, 438,446, 448

in Uganda, 490, 490n35Italians in Eritrea, 138, 264number of African deaths in camps,

447n7profiteering

in Abeokuta (Nigeria), 157, 161in Freetown (Sierra Leone), 192, 192n26,

192n28, 193, 198propaganda, 54, 57, 59, 67, 133, 134, 177,

184, 188, 206, 219, 261, 318, 322as mythical construction of justice, 101British, 97, 189, 199, 259, 263, 278, 468,

478competing campaigns in Morocco, 97–99raised awareness of contradictions in

colonial policy, 54, 72, 280German, 97, 98, 189, 221, 423, 424,

428–29, 435, 436, 438, 472, 473military, 74, 75, 79, 99, 353, 481, 487role of mass media, 54, 98, 99–100, 107,

154, 473, 478, 506Vichy, 44, 429

prostitution, 348–49n39European and American military clients,

355, 503in the Gold Coast, 339, 340–42,

343–46legislation against, 349–50, 352, 353,

355licensed, in Eritrea, 349

Nigerian immigrant sex workers in theGold Coast, 346, 347, 348, 351

racially encoded antiprostitution laws,350

Provence (France), 324Pruvost, H., 459Pullen, Capt. A., 159, 161Pullen Markets, 52punishment, corporeal, 44, 49, 296

qaids, 90n2

race, 7, 12, 79, 93, 354, 400, 408as determinant in SA recruitment drives,

71in South Africa, 6, 9

stereotypes and categories, 12, 72, 269,431

WWII as watershed, 216race laws, in Eritrea, 260, 267, 268, 269,

270, 271–72, 273–75racial consciousness, workers, 60, 280racial discourse, colonial, 103racial discrimination, xxi, xxi, 139, 215,

261, 269, 296n63, 271, 275, 299against Jews, in Eritrea, 260, 268,

269–70, 272–73, 275in workplace, 60, 294, 296, 301, 413

racial equality, 18, 280, 401, 455racial hierarchy, xxii, 261n8, 267, 296racial ideologies, xxii, 293, 355racial insult, 43, 279, 296, 297racial mixing, 10, 261, 267, 337racial policy. See British Military

Administration, Eritrea and Somaliaracial segregation, 6, 19, 55, 65, 71, 134,

138, 402, 403, 408, 413in South Africa, 64, 72, 80n45

racial subordination, 261, 262, 275,296

racial tension, 7, 183, 184, 196, 197, 262,275

racialized labor process, 44racism, 298

Fascist, 262Nazi, 260, 261, 262, 265

Radio Omduman, 473, 478, 506Railway workers, 39, 42, 50, 52, 55, 59,

67, 241, 295, 300, 476, 504, 505Railway Workers Union (Nigeria), 52,

293Rajaobelina, Christian, French-Madagascan

prisoner, 431Ransome-Kuti, Funmilayo, 163, 164Ransome-Kuti, Rev. Israel Oludoton, 154,

163Rapenne, Jean, 370–71Rassemblement Democratique Africain

(RDA), 445n5in Guinea, 453, 454–60, 461in Ivory Coast, 445n5See also chiefs, veterans

Rasul, Al-Shafi’ Khalid al-, 470rationing

food, 28, 38, 41, 90, 153, 451, 468, 492,501

water, 190–91Recham, Belkacem, 421






532 Index

recruitment, xix, 12, 33n33, 46, 93deuxieme portion (FWA), 110, 113n9,

114, 116, 117, 123in French Africa, 92n7labor, Angola and Mozambique, 227,

232labor, Free France, 202–03, 212, 214,

281labor, Nigeria, 151–52, 154military, Gold Coast, Nigeria, and Sierra

Leone, 184, 287, 355, 506military, Guinea, 449, 452, 501–02military, in South Africa, 71–81, 82,

84–85, 85n77, 86, 87, 88, 308–09,314n33

military, Uganda, 481, 486, 488Red Cross, 25, 330, 394, 402. See also

International Committee of RedCross

Red Sea, 5, 464, 465, 467, 469reform, 43, 44, 49

Eboue’s ideas of, 217labor, 61, 110–13, 111n3, 126

Regiments d’Infanterie Coloniale MixtesSenegalais, 449

regulos (chiefs), 227reproduction

social, 47, 48, 49, 52, 56, 57, 281, 397biological, 62

resistance, 42, 45, 91, 417, 471African participation in French

Resistance, 9, 112n6, 219, 336, 360,374, 427, 433

anticolonial, 45, 89, 444, 445, 461in Ethiopia, 383–400, 462to chiefs, 41, 443, 457, 458to crop requisitions, 36, 453to forced labor, 62, 63, 117, 119n26,

160, 225, 457, 502to taxation, 85n76, 147–49, 164workers’, 59, 64, 295, 301

Reveil, 455Rhodesia, 11, 202Rhodesian African Rifles, 11, 14Rhone River, 448rice, xix, 36, 37, 38, 39, 54, 121, 217, 224,

225, 238, 246, 333, 449, 450concession scheme, Mozambique, 38,

225–26, 227, 228in Abeokuta, 151, 157, 158–65in Guinea, 449, 450, 451, 452in Sierra Leone, 192–93

Rich, Jeremy, 201Richard-Molard, Jacques, 450rights, equality of, 455riots, 234, 288roads, 8, 48, 54, 62n80, 162, 178, 179,

214–15, 216, 243, 244, 285, 296,419, 446, 451, 490

Roberts Field (Liberia), 342, 406, 407, 410,411, 419

rocas, 235Roosevelt, Franklin, 27, 60, 89, 376, 406Roosevelt-Churchill club, 154Rose, Sonya O., 260Roseiris (Sudan), 466Rougier, Ferdinand, 111, 113Royal Air Force (RAF), 4, 15, 20, 342Royal West African Frontier Force, 5, 13,

151, 343rubber, 19, 30, 154, 181, 204, 207, 210,

219, 450. See also forced laboradulteration, 251Carpodinus vines, 177ceara rubber tree (Manihot glaziovii),

166, 178, 181, 249exports, 170, 205Funtumia elastica tree, 166, 167, 172,

175, 181Hevea brasiliensis tree, 166, 167, 169,

170, 171, 172, 178, 179–81, 182in Belgian Congo, 30, 172, 173, 176,

180, 205in Cameroon, 172, 175, 177, 178, 180,

187in FEA, 177, 175, 204–09, 210in Liberia, 166, 167, 170, 172, 179, 180,

181in Nigeria, 166, 167, 170, 172, 174, 176,

177, 179, 181, 182in Tanganyika, 177, 181, 239, 249–51,

256latex, 169, 172, 176, 178, 180, 204, 207,

249, 251natural rubber, 30, 166, 167–68, 169,

171, 173, 181, 204Panama rubber tree (Castilla elastica),

166plantations, 30, 166, 170, 180, 205, 240,

406reclaimed, 167reconditioning of tires, 173recycled, 171rubber goods industry, 169, 173






Index 533

rubber production, 19, 30, 168, 181, 204,205–06, 207, 210, 210, 249, 450

rubber stocks, 169, 170synthetic, 156, 168, 204, 249, 256tapping, 172, 177, 180, 241, 246, 250,

251, 252, 256wild, 172, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178,

181–82, 206, 207, 239, 249–50,256, 450

rugby, 308, 320–21rural areas, 44, 59, 62, 64, 95, 116, 155,

169, 228, 449, 456, 458–59, 460,501, 503

Russia, 389n18rutile, 202Ryckmans, Pierre, 33

S. Antao island, 234S. Nicolau island, 234Sadoul, Numa, 216, 216n68Sanaga Maritime region (Cameroon), 209safari, 311

gear, 304Sahara, 169, 212sailors, 53, 183, 401, 419Saint Raphael, 333Salazar, Antonio, 63, 229, 233

autarky, 220, 226neutrality, 220–21, 222Portuguese colonial policy, 35, 225, 230,

231salt, 150n11, 151, 151n15, 153, 155, 160,

161Sao Tome and Principe (also Sao Tome e

Prıncipe), 58, 58n62Sarour, Muhammad Ahmad, 471, 473, 474sawmills, 32

in Tanganyika, 243–44Scapini, Georges, 423, 429, 430–31, 432,

434Scapini Mission, 423, 428, 432, 433Scheck, Raffael, 46, 329Seabees, 186, 197“second colonial occupation”, 239, 255,

502Second Portion of the Military Contingent.

See deuxi`eme portion du contingentmilitaire

Second World War. See World War IIsegregation, 55

in France, 19in Kenya, 134, 138

in South Africa, 6, 65, 71, 72, 80n45in the US army, 402–03, 408, 413, 415

Sekgoma, Gilbert A., 187Sekondi (Gold Coast), 339, 353, 503Selassie, Haile, emperor of Ethiopia,

and women soldiers, 391, 392army reforms, 387–88exile in Britain, 383, 387League of Nations speech, 384return to Ethiopia in 1941, 259, 466

Selassie, Sahle, king of Shoa, Ethiopia, 392Selous Game Reserve, 252–53Sembene, Ousman, Senegalese author, 67Sena Sugar Company, 226Senegal, 41, 119, 327, 333, 368, 403, 436

contact with African Americans, 20market for indigo-dyed cloth, 149peanuts, 31, 451rice production, 36rubber exports, 169

Senghor, Leopold, 23, 41, 118report of captivity, 435n56

separation allowances, 298Seredou quinine plantation, 460servants

African Americana treated Liberians like,411

in Enugu, 300in Ethiopian, 390, 397

“service de la main d’oeuvre et du travail”,203

settersin East Africa, 249in Eritrea, 261in Kenya, 15, 36–37, 59, 61, 132in Niger, 62–63in South Africa, 309in Southern Rhodesia, 11, 61Italian settlers, 161n9Portuguese settlers, 230

sewing machines, 175, 285Seyoum, Kebedech, 392Shakespeare, 330–31Sheldrick, Dame Daphne, 37shifta (bandit or rebel), 390, 390n32Shingeite, Saleh, 468shipping, xx, 27, 36, 155, 156, 157, 170,

185, 242, 253shortage of, 57, 224, 232, 235

ship(s), 335, 473, 488cargo, 32, 185, 498, 503loading, 195, 402






534 Index

ship(s) (cont.)merchant, 222, 224troop, 185, 448

Shoa (Ethiopia), 392, 393, 397Shoah (Holocaust), 262, 269, 275Shodipo, Mr., 39, 160–61sidetegna (refugee combatant in Ethiopia),

383Sierra Leone, 52, 148, 183–99, 183n1, 290,

403, 503. See also cost of living,Freetown, mining, rice, strikes,workers

Americans stationed in, 183, 187Imports and exports, 32, 184, 151n15,

279(Table 15.1), 451concern about availability of forest

products, 32European population, 186military installations, 184n3wartime employment opportunities in,

186, 503wartime colonial administration, 186,

189, 194Sierra Leone Coaling Company (SLCC), 194Sierra Leone Colony, 183n1, 184n3, 186,

187, 188n10, 189, 191, 198n56Sierra Leone Defense Corps, 188n12Sierra Leone Protectorate, 183n1, 188n10,

193–94, 193n38, 198Singapore, fall to Japan (1942), 57, 204,

278, 296n63, 340consequences for Africa, 27

Sir Abdalla al-, 473sisal, 238, 450

in Tanganyika, 61, 63, 231, 245, 253U.S. market, 29, 224

Sissoko, Fily Dabo, 118, 124Slaugther, Jane, 399slavery, 41, 51, 62, 125, 401, 408, 418

comparison of Office du Niger policy offorced labor to, 118, 120, 121, 122,123, 363

legacy in eastern Nigeria, 284n23sleeping sickness, 174, 207, 240, 241, 252,

253smallholdings, 166, 178–79Symthe, John Henry, 15Smythe, Quentin, 306, 310, 319Smuts, General Jan, 6, 222, 303–04, 306,

306n4, 319, 322sobas (chiefs), 228Socfin (Groupe Rivaud), 180

social engineering, 62, 203, 240, 281softwoods, 240, 243, 255soldiers. See also casualties, prisoners of

war, recruitment, tirailleurs, womencombatants

African, xxi, 3, 4, 7, 18, 19, 21, 22inequitable service conditions, 12, 15,

82, 132insubordination, 17and veneral disease, 19, 344viewed as expendable, 130

African American, 267, 402, 412, 413,415, 416, 417

in Africa, 417, 403, 405, 412, 419,506

in Eritrea, 266–67in Liberia, 342, 404, 410

Algerian, 437American, 260, 343, 405, 407East African, 8–9, 10, 11, 12. See also

Kenya African Rifles,French African, 4, 5, 11, 13, 17, 18, 19,

21, 101, 328, 332–36, 376, 446–47army reforms, 337–38discrimination against, 324, 325in metropolitan France and Middle

East, 9, 324participation in liberation of France, 9,

324Guinea, 17, 327, 460Kenyan, 125, 130, 130, 133, 140

disability, 137, 143South African. See Directorate of

Non-European Army Services,Native Military Corps, UnionDefence Force

Somalia, 33, 242, 259, 385nn13, 389, 463,469, 472

Somaliland, 305British, 5, 27, 310Italian, 388

Somaliland Camel Corps, 5Somji, Jaffer, 252Somme, 324Somoye, Oladipo, 154Sorunke, Emanuel, 153South Africa. See also Afrikaner(s),

apartheid, Directorate ofNon-European Army Services,Native Military Corps, racialsegregation, recruitment, UnionDefence Force






Index 535

contribution of minerals to war, 47, 64,66

industrial development, 64–66ISCOR parastatal, 64objections to arming and training

Africans, 11relaxation of segregation, 65, 71strategic position, 64workers in multiracial war-related

employment, 64–66, 73South African Communist Party, 66South African Native Military Labour

Service, 8South Atlantic military command, 32South Game Reserve, 37South Pacific, 172South West Township (SOWETO), 65–66Southeast Asia, 11, 12, 19, 21, 182

Japanese control of, 27, 31, 38, 156, 167,171, 174, 205, 238, 205, 278

rubber estates, 180, 181Southeast Asia Command, 12Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), 33, 37, 56,

61, 84, 232. See also food, forcedlabor, maize, mineral production,rubber, soldiers

Soviet sphere of influence, 3Soviet Union, 78, 171, 221, 384, 432Spain, 4, 29, 35, 220, 398

neutrality, 26, 220, 221, 224, 501Spanish Civil War, 38, 224, 225Spence, C. F., 225, 228, 231Spitfires Fund, 344sport, 303, 308–09, 320, 321Springbok, 321Springbok Army of Sportsmen, 303, 308Squatters, South Africa, 87Stereotypes, 12, 72, 133, 297, 317, 318Stevenson, Sir Hubert Craddock, governor

of Sierra Leone, 193n38Stoler, Ann, 107, 331Stooke, George Beresford, 161strategic war materials, 30, 57, 64, 66, 167,

172, 220, 238, 251, 362strikes, 39, 43, 49–51, 49n19, 53, 56, 59,

66, 288–89, 292, 293, 302, 505and indigenous associations, 49n22,

50Gold Coast cocoa farmers, 40, 40n74in Britain, 298n72in British Caribbean, 44, 288, 292,

294–95

in Enugu (Nigeria), 49n22, 67, 280in Eritrea, 263n25in FWA/AOF, 39, 67, 112n6, 120, 123,

300, 504in Northern Rhodesian copperbelt, 44,

44n6, 50, 288, 292in Sierra Leone, 183, 194–95, 194n40,

196, 199in South Africa, 39, 66in Sudan, 39, 476, 477, 502Kenya general strike (1947), 39, 504Nigerian general strike (1945), 39, 60,

293, 296, 300prohibition of, 52, 54, 57, 181right to strike, 52, 57, 58, 59, 293, 295Ugandan general strike (1945), 482, 485,

490, 495, 497Strobl, Ingrid, 398, 399submarines, 11, 171, 221, 233Sudan, 266, 383, 396, 403

Italian invasion, 27, 33, 55Italian occupation of Kassala, 468–71,

478protest, 55, 502, 504economic conditions, 39, 465, 477nationalists, 41, 42, 478military experience, 5, 478–79war theater, 42, 55, 214, 242, 462,

463–67popular response to WWII, 467–68,

471–78Sudan Defense Force (SDF), 464, 465, 466,

467, 470, 473, 474, 479Sudan Interior Mission (SIM), 359–82Sudan Railways (SR), 463Sudanese railway workers, 39, 476Sudanese Women’s Union (SWU), 477Suez Canal, 7, 26, 243, 249, 401Sugar, 25, 153n30, 225, 231, 239, 241,

467Sultan, ʿAbd al-Majid, 469Sumatra, 180Suremain, Henri de, 219Suret-Canale, Jean, 459Swaziland, 8, 10, 72Sweden, 34Switzerland, 389Symes, Sir Stewart, governor general of

Sudan, 467Syria, 4, 9, 11, 97, 324

tabors, 93n14, 95, 97






536 Index

Takla-Yawaryat, Bejerond, Ethiopianambassador to France andSwitzerland, 389

Takoradi (Gold Coast), 278, 339, 342, 343,344, 346, 353, 355, 463, 503

Takoradi Route, 55, 342n12Tanganyika, 63, 83, 248. See also forced

labor, King’s African Rifles, rubber,timber, women

British takeover from Germans, 240exports, 33, 61, 247, 254forest reserves, 239, 240, 243, 245,

246–49, 251, 253, 255–56forestry development, 238–56sawmills, 243–44

tanks, 8, 54, 65, 96, 319, 387, 389, 464,465, 466

Tarascon, 333taungya (forest farming). See forest farmingTawa anticolonial movement, Angola, 230tax(es), 35, 57, 64, 112, 118, 177, 184, 187,

216, 227, 249, 250, 328, 363, 373in Abeokuta (Nigeria), 148, 149n7, 163,

164in Guinea, 443, 445, 451, 452, 457, 458in Uganda, 481, 486, 486n17, 487, 488,

489, 490income, 60, 149poll tax, 142, 149refusal to pay, 63, 452, 453revolt, 85n76, 148, 164

taxation, 28, 29, 41, 47, 150Tchioula, Mr., 215Tea, 225, 267

plantations, 226, 227Tel Aviv (Israel), 243Tenants Representative Body (TRB), 477Territorial Assembly elections (Guinea),

456textiles, 30, 155, 239, 241. See also

indigo-dyed clothPortuguese, 35, 214

Thiaroye revolt, 17, 329, 335, 338, 436, 44Thomas, Martin, 422, 430n36Thorburn, Sir James (Governor of the Gold

Coast), 341, 350Throup, David, 152Tigrai People’s Liberation Front, 384n3Tigre (Eritrea), 388timber, 25, 32–33, 63, 200, 202, 203, 231,

238, 240, 241–45, 247, 248for construction, 239, 241, 246, 255, 256

European market for, 255military, 253

tin, 33, 57, 278, 505tin mines, 57tirailleurs marocains, 4, 96Tirailleurs Senegalais, 326n8, 422, 428,

433, 437, 438, 444, 446and French women and wives, 329–37demobilization, 447casualty rate, 21execution by Germans, 446transformation of view of colonial

situation, 338, 429, 442and Vichy France, 4, 12, 20, 22, 46, 113,

114, 117name change to “soldats africains”, 338,

368, 446, 448, 449impact of war on later political

participation, 449tires, 63, 167, 169, 171, 173, 204, 498Tobruk (Libya), 8, 71, 305, 315, 319–20Toby, Jean-Francois, governor of Niger,

364, 370, 372, 379Togo, 453Toukoto (French Soudan), 119, 123, 124,

125Toulon (France), 448tourism, 311trade goods, 174, 176, 366Trades Union Congress (Britain), 53, 289trade unions

legalization, 290, 505in FWA, 460British policy, 51, 53, 53n34, 289n42,

290n47in Nigeria, 291, 293, 296

traders, 177, 193, 226, 351, 352, 502.See also women

traffic in women and children, Nigeria toGold Coast, 339, 346, 347, 348, 351

legislation against, 352, 354training, military

African American, 405, 407, 413, 417in FWA, 116, 123in South Africa, 11, 76, 81, 303, 308,

309–10, 314, 322in Sudan, 462, 466in the Gold Coast, 339, 342, 343

training, technical and vocational, 54, 128,134, 135, 136, 233, 292, 492

Trans-African Air Ferry Route, 54trans-Saharan railway, 431






Index 537

Trans-Siberian Railway, 171travel, 83, 124, 125, 131, 153, 311, 348,

380, 407, 450free train, 126routes, 374to evangelize, 365travel document, 353

Treaty of Friendship and Non-Aggression(1940), 220

trees, 240, 243–49, 489. See alsohardwoods, rubber, softwoods

Asian, 170camphor, 243cedar, 243cocoa, 235coconut, 229eucalyptus, 240, 246ironwood (Cassia siamea), 246Isoberlina, 243miombo (Brachystegia spp), 243, 245,

253, 256mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis), 243,

244mvule (Milicia excels), 243mahogany (Khaya spp.), 243pines, 240podocarpus (Podocarpus usambarensis),

243teak, 241, 256Tripolitania (Libya), 272, 385Tuhami, Badr al-, 473Twenty-fifth Station Hospital (Liberia),

407, 408, 410Twenty-seventh Quartermaster Regiment,

405

U-boats, 222, 233, 406Udi district (northern Igboland), 283Uganda. See coffee, cotton, demobilization,

development, education, Fascism,Italian(s), land, loyalty, missionaries,nationalism, police, recruitment,strikes, tax(es), veterans, women inUganda, World War II

Ujamaa socialism, 240Uniforms, xx, 7, 9, 74, 75, 107, 112, 206,

320, 394, 395, 448, 473, 497(Figure25.2)

Unilever, 180Union Carbide, 34Union Defence Force (UDF), 6, 14, 18, 71,

72, 73, 86, 309, 314, 315, 321

Union Mines Development Corporation, 34Union Miniere, 34Union of South Africa. See South AfricaUnion Defence Force (South Africa), 6, 71,

303United Africa Company (UAC), 40, 154United Kingdom, 34, 40, 58, 132, 204, 205,

260, 267, 351United Nations trusts, 453United States, 359, 377, 401. See also

Roberts Field (Liberia)Military presence in Africa, 183, 187,

403, 405, 406United States, Combined Chiefs of Staff,

184, 197universalism, French rhetoric of, 454Upper Guinea, 452, 455, 459Upper Nile, 464, 467Upper Volta, 443uranium, 33, 34–35, 47, 66urban poor, 49, 58, 288, 463urbanization, 20, 187, 239, 282, 289, 348,

502, 503Usambara (Tanganyika), 181

vanadium, 47Vargo, Marc, 398venereal disease, 18, 268, 339, 409, 415,

449in the Gold Coast, 18, 268, 340, 341–44,

347, 347n31, 349, 353–55, 355n63,356, 503

Versailles, 436veterans, 20, 21, 22, 23, 128, 132, 401

African Americans, 407, 417–18, 506in FWA, 142, 338, 422, 438, 442grievances, 22, 42, 338, 444, 454–56,

458, 460n49, 501–02impact of relationships with white

women, 436n61protest against chiefs, 443, 456–58revolt against military authorities, 447right to vote, 454role in nationalism and RDA, 443, 445,

445n5, 447, 449, 453, 454, 455,460, 461

in Kenya, 23, 127, 129disabled, 21, 22, 23, 131, 134, 135–41,

142, 143in Sierra Leone, 198in South Africa, 310in Sudan, 462, 479






538 Index

veterans (cont.)in the Gold Coast, 23, 502in Uganda, 484n7, 487, 492–93, 498World War I, 421, 432

Veterans of Foreign Wars, 142Vichy France. See also forced labor,

indigenat, rubberAllied fear of alliances with Japan and

Germany, 168, 173–74, 222belief on importance of French empire,

360–61civil war in Gabon between Vichy

administration and Free France, 217,219

discredited, 376distrust of SIM mission in Niger, 359,

361–63, 364–75, 376, 377economic policy, 168, 169, 364fear of negative impact of soldiers’ war

experience, 325FWA support for, 4, 168in British West Africa and AEF, 403labor polices, 113–17policy regarding wives of FWA soldiers,

325Viera Machado, Francisco (Portuguese

minister for the colonies), 221, 230Vigoureux, Armand, 210–12Vikindu (Tanganyika), 246, 247, 248, 249,

252Vikindu Forest, 246–47village-group, 283violence, 17, 35, 51, 59, 217, 267, 293,

319, 413, 423, 426, 483, 486n15Vittel (France), 334, 335

Wad Medani (Sudan), 467Wadi Halfa (Sudan), 467Wage(s), 49, 53, 181, 184

agitation for higher wages, 444, 460, 476cuts during Depression, 47bargaining, 52demand for equal pay, 45, 455family, 300, 505lack of incentive for French West Africans

to seek wage employment, 451“guaranteed decent wage”, 114higher wages, 59, 66, 116, 119, 125effectiveness of strikes in getting higher

wages, 505in Sierra Leone, 186, 194, 195, 196, 198,

199

in Tanganyika, 244, 245concept of “just wage”, 299low wages as colonial policy, 15, 16, 48,

55, 57, 58, 65, 183Free French soldiers’ grievance over delay

in payment of, 17, 448reforms, 60, 290

impact of urbanization, xx, 50wartime controls, 185

Wage(s) in Enugu (Nigeria), 157, 280, 281,282

and acquisition of symbols of modernity,288

and intergenerational conflict, 282, 284coal miners’ valorization of, 285redefinition of masculinity, 284, 287, 300grievances, 294, 295, 298, 299living wage, 301

wage-fixing boards, 52Wakamba, 38wakili (chief in Vikindu), 246Wallace-Johnson, Isaac Theophilus Akunna,

51, 52, 194, 194. See also WestAfrican Youth League

War Department (United States), 402, 408War Department Amalgamated Workers

Union (WDAWU), 194War Office (Great Britain), 5, 135, 159,

185, 186, 272, 273, 344Washington (District of Columbia), 34,

169, 170, 204, 41Wehrmacht (“poor army”), 168West Africa, 10, 26, 51, 52, 54, 186, 282,

290, 299, 325, 339, 355, 435, 463,504

African American newspaper focus on,401

changing strategic role, 24, 278, 340economy, 40, 56food, 36, 150, 158Gaullist takeover of, 364German colonial interests in, 424source of tropical products, 57war effort in, 153wartime realities, 277

West African Cocoa Control Board, 57West African Frontier Force (WAFF), 13, 51West African labor conferences, 290West Africa magazine, 346West African Pilot, 61West African Produce Control Board, 40,

57






Index 539

West African War Council, 186, 298West African Youth League (WAYL), 51,

188West Indies riots, 288Westcott, Nicholas, 28Weygand, General Maxime, French

commander-in-chief in North Africa,432

white bosses, 44, 55, 277, 296“white man’s war”, 80, 88White Nile, 463White, Owen, 331, 332n28White, Walter, chief secretary, NAACP,

415, 417whites, 74, 80, 81, 88, 183, 196–97, 215,

216, 413, 457Wiesbaden German Commission (OKW),

94, 95, 96, 97Wild Rubber Order, 177wildlife (game), 252–53Win-the-War Fund (Nigeria), 154Woizero, Ethiopian female title, 391, 392,

393Woldeyes, Woizero Zenebech, Ethiopian

patriot combatant, 391, 394, 396wolfram, 220, 221Woman’s Voice, 477women, xx, xxi, 3, 42, 46, 48, 56, 61, 129,

143, 281. See also Army NurseCorps, forced labor, prostitution

African American nurses, 407and export production, 31, 63, 148and forced labor, 35, 449, 451Berber, 106noncombantant roles, 25, 397sexual relations of African American

soldiers with African women, 409,410, 411, 412, 415

sexual relations of European men withEritrean women, 261, 269

traders, xxi, 52, 60, 198, 248, 290,290n45

in Abeokuta (Nigeria), 149, 155, 157,160, 161, 162–63, 164, 165

In Freetown, 192, 192n18urban, xx, xxi, 42, 461, 503white, 267, 314, 322, 331, 398, 436,

436n61, 503French, 18, 324, 325–32, 332n28, 336,

337, 338, 436, 503wives or concubines? Definition of role in

family, 300

Women combatants, xx, 399, 400Ethiopian Patriots, 390–99in French resistance, 94in Ethiopia, 384, 400in Sudan, 476

Women in Abeokuta (Nigeria)1947 tax revolt, 148, 164and wartime economy, 155–57domination in foodstuffs and textile

trade, 149new women’s associations, 136, 163,

164struggle for rice, 158–61, 162tax revolt, 162–63, 165taxation, 148, 149, 163

Women in Freetown (Sierra Leone), 58,184, 188, 188n12, 191

market women, 186, 192, 192n28Women in Sudan, 474, 476, 477Women in Tanganyika, 248, 254

and rubber industry, 207, 210, 239forest farmers, 239, 246, 247

Women in South Africa, 65, 120, 307,321

squatter movement, 65, 74Women in Uganda, 486, 490n35women’s villages, Liberia, 410Women’s War of 1929, 283workers, 43, 44, 45, 48, 50–56, 64, 121,

277. See also coal miners, labor,workplace

colonial mythology of, 45, 48, 280colonial policy toward, 290, 293, 297,

505concept of, 281grievances, 49n19, 59, 65, 203, 448in rubber industry, 205miners (except coal), 50, 66, 202,

213mobilization during WWII, 459–60protest, 276, 295–97, 504railway, 39, 42, 50, 55, 59, 67, 241, 293,

295, 300, 476, 504, 505transport, 47, 54, 67, 504

workforce, 15, 45, 48, 51, 128, 214, 281,298

diversification of, 58, 65in Enugu coal mines, 283, 284, 288,

291plantation, 63, 235–36reproduction of, 49, 52“stabilizing a workforce”, 203






540 Index

worker protest(s), 56, 64, 278, 290, 301,504. See also strikes

in Enugu coal mines, 295–301working class

colonial African, 47, 57, 58, 59, 65, 281,282, 289, 293, 476, 505

British, 44, 281, 290consciousness, 48, 49, 55definition, 46, 292ethic, 276Nigerian, 293, 295, 301

workplacecolonial, 48, 49, 53, 276, 278brutality, 44, 51, 61, 296desertion from, 452, 459, 460grievances, 60, 504perception of “just treatment”, 299racial discrimination, 55, 61, 277, 278,

279, 294, 296reconceptualization of socioeconomic

roles, 281World War I, 29–30n22, 93, 93n11, 131,

133, 241, 284, 301, 468, 472, 486,490

French deployment of African soldiers,324, 329

impact on Igbo domestic slavery, 284n23POWs, 432

World War II, 12, 17, 25, 26, 35, 384, 401Africa’s strategic importance, 24, 31, 35,

403, 501as watershed, xx, 418changing perceptions of colonial rulers,

338the “good war”, 15

historiography, xviii–xxi, xxii, 25,462

impact on US Civil Rights Movement,417

in Egypt, 33, 37, 55, 242, 305, 311, 318,403, 414, 462, 463, 465

in Kenya, 128, 129, 134, 137, 141in Morocco, 89–108in Sudan, 462–79in Uganda, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 486,

488, 490, 498planning, 45, 242policies, xxi, 41, 54, 58socioeconomic impact, 35, 65, 120, 125,

142, 340, 349

Yaju `Aydein (popular war song in Sudan),474

Yates, Thomas, 276, 277, 296, 299yewist arbegna (a category of combatant),

383Yoruba News, The, 154Yugoslavia, 398

Zambesia Company, 226Zambezia province (Mozambique), 227,

228, 232Zambia, 47, 177Zaramo farmers, 246Zeleki, Kegnaznach Admasu, 396Zeret caves, 397Zewde, Bahru, 389Zik Group of nationalist papers, 298Zikist movement, 281Zulu, 83, 84–86, 85n76, 309, 315






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