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INDEX

access to justice, 121Accominotti, Oliver, 30accountancy, domestic regulation, 191aggression, 126Agreement on Safeguard, 90–1Agreement on Textiles and Clothing, 89–90agriculture

Agreement on Agriculture, 143, 179bilateral agreements, 144–5, 349–50food security, 144future, 181–3import quotas, 145patterns, 145regional agreements, 147–65

Africa, 159–62Americas, 150Andean Pact, 151–2ANZCERTA, 163ASEAN, 163–5Asia-Pacific, 163–5Baltic Free Trade Area, 149Benelux Union, 147–8, 148BLEU, 147CARICOM, 158–9CEEAC, 161CEFTA, 149Central American Common Market, 157–8characteristics, 144CUSFTA, 154East African Community, 161–2ECOWAS, 160EFTA, 149–50European Economic Area, 149European Union, 148–9future, 182–3GAFTA, 147LAFTA, 150–1MERCOSUR, 152–4NAFTA, 154–7

nineteenth century, 147SACU, 162Western Europe, 147–50

special treatment, 143–4rationale, 143

subsidies, 179–80, 180–1WTO and PTAs, 178–81

Doha Round, 181GATT (1947), 178–9Uruguay Round, 179–81

air transport, 199Albania, 275, 278Algeria, 170amici curiae, 228, 268, 395–6Andean Pact, 151–2Annecy Round, 34anti-dumping measures, PTA exception, 97–8Antigua and Barbuda, 158ANZCERTA, 163, 209, 350APEC, 182, 276, 285–6

characteristics, 55feasibility study, 55

arbitrationinvestor-state, 262–8

amicus briefs, 268appointment of arbitrators, 264–6consolidation of disputes, 267frivolous claims, 263number of arbitrators, 264prospects, 273scope of provisions, 263transparency of proceedings, 267–8

NAFTA, social issues, 356Argentina

agriculture, 153, 182LAFTA membership, 151MERCOSUR member, 11, 43, 152NAFTA and, 18Spain PTA, MFN treatment, 239

415

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Arrowsmith, Sue, 304, 305ASEAN

agriculture, 163–5Chinese PTAs

agriculture, 167, 181concluded agreements, 56negotiations, 59structures, 66–7

European Union and, 29, 56investment, scope, 222PTAs

Korea, 56, 73, 166new pattern, 55–6structures, 66–7

Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation. See APECAsian Development Bank, 54–5auctions, electronic auctions, 295–7, 306AUSFTA

agriculture, 165, 172, 177–8copyright, 311–12

technological protection measures, 314dispute settlement

choice of forum, 136conflict of treaties, 135, 376investor-state arbitration, 262

enforcement of IPRs, 339, 340expropriation, 249, 251–2fair and equitable treatment, 124, 240geographical indications, 323good faith, 130government procurement, 289

integrity requirements, 303–4participation conditions, 291, 292time limits, 293

indigenous rights, 351interpretation rules, 117, 393investment, 261

negative listing, 269MFN treatment, 235patents, 327, 333

test data, 329–30political objectives, 45services, 207, 271

AustraliaANZCERTA

agriculture, 163environmental exception, 350services, domestic regulation, 209

bilateral agreementsagriculture, 167ASEAN, 56

Singapore. See Singapore–Australia PTAsocial issues, 365

geographical indications, EU PTA, 317, 321multilateralism, 55Thailand PTA. See Thailand–Australia PTATrans-Pacific Strategic Economic

Partnership, 55US PTA. See AUSFTA

Austria, 42, 149, 283aviation, 199

Bahamas, 158Bahrain–US PTA

Bahrain as willing partner, 172copyright, 311enforcement of IPRs, 339, 340geographical indications, 323market access, 204patents, 327, 330, 336political objectives, 46social issues, 358–60

Baldwin, Richard, 54Balta Liman Treaty (1838), 48Baltic Free Trade Area, 149Barbados, 158Bartels, Lorand, 134Belgium, 147–8, 218Belize, 158Benelux Union, 147–8Benin, 160Berne Convention (1886), 31, 309Bhagwati, Jagdish, 19, 23bilateral agreements. See preferential trade

agreementsBismarck, Otto von, 33, 39Blank, Annet, 304BLEU, 147Bolivia, 46, 151, 152, 172border measures

meaning, 103–4PTA exception and, 97

Bosnia, 275, 278Botswana, 162Brazil

agriculture, 153, 182economic ties, 182effect of MERCOSUR on, 17–18LAFTA membership, 151MERCOSUR membership, 11, 43, 152South Africa PTA, 167

British Virgin Islands, 158

416 INDEX






BruneiASEAN membership, 55, 66, 164Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic

Partnership, 4, 55, 70, 360–1Brussels Sugar Convention (1902), 31Bulgaria, government procurement, 275Burkina Faso, 160Burundi, 161, 162Bush, George W., 50, 328

Cadot, Olivier, 25–6CAFTA–DR–US

agriculture, 176–7copyright, 311depositary, 75dispute settlement

amici curiae, 395appeals, 273appointment process, 390challenging proposed measures, 385conflict of norms, 376expert advice, 394form of requests, 386government procurement, 302investor-state arbitration, 267, 273recommendations, 397third party rights, 73timetables, 392

effect on EU policy, 48enforcement of IPRs, 339entry into force, 76–7expropriation, 249, 253fair and equitable treatment, 240geographical indications, 323investment

definition, 221negative listing, 269TRIMS-Plus commitments, 261

MFN treatment, 235national treatment, 72, 231negotiations, 57origins, 4overlapping treaties, 71, 72patents, 327, 330, 333, 335

side letters, 337services, 207–8, 271social issues, 358–60structure, 64–5

Calvo doctrine, 216, 248Cambodia, ASEAN membership, 55, 66, 164Cameroon, 161

CanadaSee also NAFTACanada–Automotive Industry, 110, 262Canada–Periodicals, 347–8Chile PTA. See Canada–Chile PTACosta Rica PTA. See Costa Rica–Canada

PTAsCUSFTA

agriculture, 154cultural exception, 350MFN treatment, 240negotiations, 171

FTAA and, 182geographical indications, EU PTA, 318indigenous rights, 351Korea PTA, agriculture, 166public procurement, 299rules of origin and, 106social issues, 345, 356, 364

Canada–Chile PTAdefinition of enterprise, 224definition of investment, 221environmental conflict of treaties, 353expropriation, 248, 251, 252fair and equitable treatment, 241, 243investment, 261

negative listing, 269investor-state arbitration, 263, 264MFN treatment, 235, 238services, 199social issues, 356

Cancun Meeting, failure, 37, 54Caribbean

See also CARICOMCaribbean Basin Initiative (CBI), 177Lome Convention, 159US trade, 159

CARICOMagriculture, 158–9Costa Rica PTA, social issues, 364DR PTA, social exceptions, 352EU negotiations, 171market access, 202

CARIFTA, 158Cartagena Agreement (1969), 151Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 134CEEAC, 161, 171CEMAC, 171Central African Republic, 161Central American Common Market, 157–8Central European Free Trade Area, 149

INDEX 417






Chad, 161Chang, Won, 17–18Chile

Andean Pact membership, 151, 152Canada PTA. See Canada–Chile PTAChina PTA, social issues, 364Costa Rica PTA

conflict of treaties, 353dispute settlement, causes of action, 385government procurement, 304social issues, 364

EFTA PTAagriculture, 166dispute settlement

amici curiae, 396causes of action, 385compensation, 407consultations, 372suspension of concessions, 408

EU–Chile Association Agreementdefinition of establishment, 222depositary, 75dispute settlement

Association Committee, 373choice of forum, 380compensation, 407panel selection, 372remedies, 413suspension of concessions, 408

environmental exception, 349geographical indications, 317, 320,

321hub and spoke agreement, 62services, 271social issues, 361

NAFTA and, 18nationalisation of copper industry, 217PTAs

agriculture, 167Japan, 166Korea. See Chile–Korea PTAMexico, conflict of treaties, 353United States. See US–Chile PTA

Trans-Pacific Strategic EconomicPartnership

membership, 4negotiations, 55overlapping treaties, 70social issues, 360–1

Chile–Korea PTAagriculture, 166

definition of investment, 221dispute settlement

appointment process, 391conflict of norms, 132, 376–7implementation, 399, 400, 402investor-state arbitration, 263, 264sequencing issues, 404suspension of concessions, 409

expropriation, 248, 250financial services, 199investment, 261MFN treatment, 235pre-establishment investment, 225services, 271social issues, 364telecommunications, 213

ChinaASEAN PTAs

agriculture, 167, 181concluded agreements, 56negotiations, 59structures, 66–7

European Union and, 29Opium Wars, 48Pakistan PTA

conflict of treaties, 354social exceptions, 346

PTAsagriculture, 166–7Chile PTA, social issues, 364foreign policy objectives, 46–7New Zealand, 167nineteenth century, 48South Africa, 167

regional challenge, 46services trade, 184

ColombiaAndean Pact membership, 151, 152drug trafficking and US, 46US PTA

agriculture, 165copyright, 311enforcement of IPRs, 339, 340geographical indications, 323negotiations, 172patents, 328, 330, 333, 338social issues, 358–60

COMESA, 162, 171, 221comity, 138Committee on Regional Trade

Agreements, 112

418 INDEX






Commonwealth of Independent States, 350, 352Comoros, 162compensation

expropriation, 251–2non-compliance with dispute decisions,

406–7competition, dispute settlement, 381competitive liberalisation, 172compulsory licensing, 332, 334–6computer programs

interoperability, 313technological protection measures, 312–15

confidential information, GATS, 191conflict of treaties, 131–9, 352–4Congo (DRC), 161, 247copyright

TRIPS, 309–10TRIPS-Plus provisions, 309–15

extension of term, 309–12technological protection measures, 312–15

Correa, Carlos, 329Costa Rica

CACM membership, 157CAFTA membership, 176Canada PTA. See Costa Rica–Canada PTAsCARICOM PTA, social issues, 364Chile PTA

causes of action, 385conflict of treaties, 353government procurement, 304social issues, 364

trade, 158Costa Rica–Canada PTAs

dispute settlementadministration, 372challenging proposed measures, 386choice of forum, 380–1compliance procedures, 402conflict of norms, 375, 377environmental conflicts, 353implementation, 373, 401

social issues, 356Cote d’Ivoire, 160Cotonou Agreement, 44, 361, 363Cottier, Thomas, 300countervailing measures, 97–8crimes against humanity, 126criminal law, enforcement of IPRs, 338–41Croatia, government procurement, 275cultural exceptions

NAFTA, 347

PTA clauses, 350currency, compensation for expropriation,

251–2customary international law

access to justice, 121exhaustion of local remedies, 127–30expropriation, 248PTAs and, 120

interpretation rules, 393non-interpretative impact on PTAs,

124–31PTA contribution to custom, 120–4

state practice and opinio juris, 120–4Vienna Convention, 69, 116, 120, 236–7, 253,

393WTO law and, 118

Customs Union of West African States, 160customs unions

See also preferential trade agreementsdefinition, 85, 102, 105Deutscher Zollverein (1834), 40, 41free trade agreements and, 5, 11GATS definition, 92–3GATT definition, 92interpretation. See interpretation rulesPTA exception, 85, 93

external duties, 108–9Cyprus, agriculture, 170Czech Republic, 112

Dam, Kenneth, 23Denmark, 149developing countries

agriculture, 143Generalised System of Preferences, 11international debts, 219neo-colonialism, 217patents, 328power imbalances, 49–50special and differential treatment, 85

diplomatic protection, 216discrimination

See also MFN treatment; national treatmentelimination goal, 81–2expropriation, 249–50government procurement, 277

choice of instruments, 277–9value for money and, 279, 295

PTA exception. See PTA exceptionPTAs and, 34, 81WTO provisions, 227, 228–30

INDEX 419






dispute settlementadministration, 368

PTAs, 370–1role of administrative bodies, 371–3WTO, 369–70

complaint procedure, 382–8appeals, 385–6formalities, 386–7GATT, 383–4initiating, 382–3mediation, 383panel selection, 388–91private counsel, 387–8types of complaints, 383–5

fragmentation of international law and, 114government procurement, 300–3implementation, 397–414

compliance disputes, 401–5early phase, 398non-compliance remedies, 405–14notifications and surveillance, 400–1sequencing problem, 403–5time, 399–400WTO, 397–8

interpretation rules. See interpretation rulesnon-compliance remedies, 405–14

appropriate measures, 413–14compensation, 406–7monetary assessments, 411post-retaliation proceedings, 414special remedies, 411–13suspension of concessions, 408–10

non-violation complaints, 384panel procedures, 391–7

expert advice, 394interim reports, 392–3recommendations, 397timetables, 392transparency, 394–7voting, 396–7working procedures, 392

panel selection, 388–91appointment process, 390blocking appointment process, 390–1qualifications, 389–90rosters and lists, 389

PTA exception, 112–13PTAs, 72–5

administration, 370–1choice of forum, 74–5, 378–81complaint procedure, 382–8

conflict of norms, 374–8exclusion of private actions, 382implementation, 397–414multiple complaints, 74non-compliance remedies, 405–14panel procedures, 391–7panel selection, 388–91relations with other treaties, 373–82role of administrative bodies, 371–3third party rights, 73–4

relations with other treaties, 373–82choice of forum, 378–81conflicting norms, 374–8exclusion of private actions, 382WTO, 373–6

WTO, 367administration, 369–70amici curiae, 395, 396choice of forum, 137compensation, 406compliance disputes, 401–2consensus, 369formalities of requests, 386good faith, 130implementation, 397–8lacunae, 414overlapping disputes, 138panel timetables, 392private counsel, 387qualification of panellists, 390relations with PTA obligations, 373–6sequencing problem, 403–4, 404–5third party rights, 73working procedures, 392

Djibouti, 162Dodge, William, 129Doha Declaration

environmental protection, 344TRIPS and Health, 330, 334, 337, 338

Doha Roundagriculture, 181stalling, 6, 52, 115

Dolzer, Rudolf, 256domestic regulation

GATS, 191–2, 211–12recognition, 192services, 209–12

international standards, 212necessity, 209, 211–12

Dominica, 158Dominican Republic, 165, 352

420 INDEX






See also CAFTA–DR–USdue process, expropriation, 250Dunkel, Arthur, 33

East African Community, 161–2Economic Commission for Latin America

(ECLA), 150Economic Community of the Great Lakes, 161economics

non-discrimination and, 227politics or economics, 37–42

domino effect of PTAs, 40–2economic varnish, 37–40PTAs as foreign policy instruments,

42–50PTAs and

external trade terms, 17–18geographic proximity, 18–20internal terms of trade, 15–17politics or economics, 37–42revenue transfer effects, 15–17trade creation and diversion, 12–15, 38trade diversion, 21, 40–2welfare analysis, 12–18

welfare-improving PTAsdesigning, 20–1PTA exception and, 21–6

WTO and welfare-improving PTAs, 21–6external trade barriers, 22–4internal trade barriers, 21–2non-trade issues, 26rules of origin, 24–6

ECOWAS, 160, 171Ecuador, 46, 151, 152, 172EFTA

Chile PTAagriculture, 167dispute settlement

amici curiae, 396causes of action, 385compensation, 407consultations, 372suspension of concessions, 408

geographic proximity, 53Korea PTA

agriculture, 166institutions, 197services, 196, 198

PTAsagriculture, 149–50conflict of treaties, 354

Croatia, government procurement, 275enforcement of IPRs, 338–9environmental exceptions, 349geographical indications, 315government procurement, 275hub and spoke agreements, 64Mexico, domestic regulation, 210negotiations, 56, 59social issues, 345, 351, 363, 365

Singapore PTAconflict of treaties, 353depositary, 75dispute settlement, 391scope, 64services, 198

Egypt, 162, 350El Salvador, 157, 158, 176electronic auctions, 295–7, 306encryption, 313environmental protection

Doha Declaration, 344government procurement and, 295NAFTA,PTAs and, 26, 348–50trade and, 342, 343US–Shrimps, 349

Equatorial Guinea, 161Estevadeordal, Antoni, 25–6Ethiopia, 162European Court of Human Rights,

proportionality, 257, 260European Court of Justice, proportionality,

349–50European Economic Area, 149European Union

African trade, 159agriculture

bilateral agreements, 165–6, 168–71, 181Common Agricultural Policy, 148–9, 179EPAs, 171Mediterranean Partnership Agreements,

170Article XXIV GATT and, 11ASEAN and, 29, 56Chile Association Agreement

definition of establishment, 222depositary, 75dispute settlement

Association Committee, 373choice of forum, 380compensation, 407

INDEX 421






European Union (cont.)panel selection, 372remedies, 413suspension of concessions, 408

environmental exception, 349geographical indications, 317, 320, 321scope, 62services, 271social issues, 361

Community Preference, 148copyright, length of term, 310Cotonou Agreement, 44, 168, 361, 363Doha Declaration and, 344enlargement, 18

external duties and, 107foreign policy, 44–5Generalised System of Preferences, 44geographic proximity, 53geographical indications

policy, 35, 48, 316–17PTAs, 317–22US Wine Agreement, 321–2

Global Europe, 28, 35Israel PTA, 170

dispute settlement, 371, 372, 413Lome Convention, 159, 361MERCOSUR PTA

failure of negotiations, 67, 165, 168political objectives, 43prospects, 183

Mexico PTAsdispute settlement, 388, 406environmental exception, 349financial services, 213geographical indications, 317negotiations, 168rationale, 41social issues, 361

neighbourhood policy, 44origins, political objectives, 44PTAs

ACP countries, 49agriculture, 165–6, 168–71, 181Caribbean, 48environmental exceptions, 349–50hub and spoke pattern, 53–4, 62–4India, 29, 167Korea, 29, 166Mediterranean Partnership Agreements,

170, 361motivations, 28–9

negotiation process, 59, 60priorities, 29race for power with US, 42–3social issues, 345, 351, 361–3structures, 62–4WTO-Plus agreements, 35–6

public procurement, 281–5electronic auctions, 296–7Sintesi case, 282–4

Regional Development Fund, 51remedies, 413–14Singapore issues, 35, 48social issues, 361–3

co-operation, 362–3human rights clause, 346, 361–2

South Africa PTAdispute settlement, 371, 380geographical indications, 317, 320social issues, 351, 361, 363

WTO complaints, US–GovernmentProcurement, 298

WTO representation, 44Evenett, Simon, 29, 48exhaustion of local remedies, 127–30expert advice, 394expropriation

bilateral investment treaties, 247–60compensation, 251–2direct expropriation, 253–4due process, 250early treaties, 216indirect expropriation, 254–60

character of government actions, 259economic impact of government action,

256–8police powers exception, 259–60prospects, 271–2reasonable expectations, 258–9

lawfulness, 248–9nineteenth-century remedies, 216–18non-discrimination, 249–50public purpose, 249

fair and equitable treatmentcustomary standards, 242–3international law, 243–4investment, 240–1NAFTA, 242–3, 243–4, 272stand alone commitment, 244–6

fair trial, 121–4Faroe Islands, 94

422 INDEX






financial servicesdispute settlement, choice of forum, 381exclusion from PTAs, 199GATS, 195

Finland, 149Flandreau, Marc, 30foreign direct investment, definition, 221–2France

agriculture, 148Cobden-Chevalier Treaty (1860), 30, 39, 41early bilateral treaties, 218EC origins, 44Meline Tariff, 33

free trade agreements. See preferential tradeagreements

friendship, commerce and navigation treaties,216, 217, 245, 246

FTAA, 55, 182–3, 335–6

Gabon, 160, 161GAFTA, 50, 147Gambia, 160GATS

See also servicesadditional commitments, 194Article V exception, 82, 110–11

Canada–Automotive Industry, 110conditions, 110–11external restrictions, 111notifications, 195

commercial presence, 188, 219confidential information, 191definitions

commercial presence, 188juridical persons of another Member, 187measures, 186–7natural persons of another Member, 187trade in services, 187

domestic regulation, 191–2, 211–12exceptions, 192

government activities, 200further negotiations, 189generally, 185–95like services, 189, 194, 227market access, 204MFN treatment, 71, 189–90national treatment, 193–4, 201–3positive listing, 269, 270recognition of domestic regulation, 192scope of application, 186–8sectoral commitments, 194–5

specific commitments, 192–4market access, 193national treatment, 193–4positive listing, 192–3

structure, 186transparency, 190–1, 206

GATT (1947)agriculture, 178–9dispute settlement, 367non-discrimination principle, 11objective, 31origins, 33–4

GATT (1994)Article XX exceptions. See public policy

exceptionsMFN treatment, 71national treatment, like products, 227,

228–30PTA exception. See PTA exception

Generalised System of Preferences, 11Geneva Round, 34genocide, 126geographical indications

EU policy, 35, 48, 316–17EU PTAs, 317–22

exceptions, 319–21generic terms, 315, 320homonymous names, 319trademarks, 315, 316, 320, 322–5TRIPS, 315, 316–17, 323TRIPS-Plus commitments, 315–25US policy, 316–17US PTAs, 322

geopolitics, 42–7Georgia, 352Germany

agriculture, 148Brazilian trade, 18Deutscher Zollverein (1834), 40, 41, 42early bilateral treaties, 218EC origins, 44fair and equitable treatment, 245nineteenth-century protectionism, 39

Ghana, 160good faith, 117, 130–1, 258government procurement

APEC Principles, 285–6contract awards, 294–7

electronic auctions, 295–7, 306environmental considerations, 295most advantageous tenders, 294–5

INDEX 423






government procurement (cont.)ranking evaluation criteria, 295

discrimination, 277dispute settlement, 381European Union, 281–5

electronic auctions, 296–7Sintesi case, 282–4

GDP share, 277GPA-Plus commitments, 303–4international regulation, rationale, 277–86non-discrimination

instruments, 277–9MFN treatment, 277–9national treatment, 278–9, 303value for money and, 279, 295, 305

preferential trade agreements, 274exclusion, 200GPA influence, 275–6, 304typical provisions, 286–304

reciprocity, 278–86, 286Trondheim case, 300–1WTO Agreement (GPA)

contract awards, 294–7dispute settlement, 300–3flexibility, 284, 287influence on PTAs, 275–6, 304invitations to participate, 287–9participation conditions, 289–92procurement methods, 287public policy exceptions, 298–300revision, 276time limits, 288, 292–4transparency, 284, 296

Great Depression, 11Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA), 50,

147Greece, 170, 283Grenada, 158Grotius, Hugo, 31Guatemala, 157, 158, 176Guinea, 160Guinea-Bissau, 160Gulf Cooperation Council, 29, 56, 57gunboat diplomacy, 216Guyana, 158

Hanseatic League, 31Harrison, Benjamin, 33Honduras, 157, 158, 176Hong Kong, 184Hsu, Locknie, 118

hub and spoke pattern, 52, 53–4, 55, 64Hull, Cordell, 33, 217Hull rule, 217, 248human rights

EU human rights clause, 346, 361–2market access restrictions and, 343

ICSIDamicus briefs, 268appointment of arbitrators, 264–6establishment, 218MFN treatment, 237–40number of arbitrators, 264transparency of proceedings, 267–8

IMF, establishment, 217India

labour standards, 344PTAs

agriculture, 167, 181ASEAN, 56environmental exception, 350European Union, 29, 167Japan, 167Nepal, 350political objectives, 47South Africa, 167

services trade, 184Singapore CECA

definition of enterprise, 224expropriation, 248, 249, 253fair and equitable treatment, 241investment, 226, 261investor-state arbitration, 263, 264, 267MFN treatment, 235national treatment, 226, 231services, 271

Sri Lanka PTAdispute settlement, 372environmental exception, 350

indigenous rights, 351Indonesia, 47, 55, 66, 163–4information technology, 184institutions

NAFTA, 156plurilateral agreements, 75–6

intellectual propertycopyright. See copyrightcriminal law, 338–41enforcement, PTAs, 338–41GIs. See geographical indicationspatents. See patents

424 INDEX






interest, compensation for expropriation,252

interim agreements, 86International Court of Justice

customary law, 120exhaustion of local remedies, 128FCN disputes, 217sources of law, 115, 128, 131

general principles, 130–1, 138International Labour Organisation

core standards, 358, 359, 364, 365fundamental principles, 357Preamble, 343WTO and, 344–5

international lawSee also customary international lawconflict of treaties, 131–9

social exceptions, 352–4exhaustion of local remedies, 127–30fragmentation, 114good faith principle, 117, 130–1interpretation of PTAs and, 116–20

good faith, 117state practice, 117WTO law relevance, 118–20

investment. See investmentjus cogens, 126–7NAFTA interface, 121–4sources, 115

general principles, 130–1, 138treaties, definition, 116

International Law CommissionMFN treatment, 235state responsibility, 127

international trade law, diversity, 4, 81–2International Trade Organisation, 217, 244interpretation rules

conflict of treaties, 131–9overlapping disputes, 135–9substantive conflicts, 131–5Vienna Convention, 69, 132

customary international law, 120contribution of PTAs to, 120–4non-interpretative impact on PTAs,

124–31good faith, 117, 130–1methodology, 116–20PTA rules, 393–4state practice, 117Vienna Convention, 116–18WTO law, relevance, 118–20

investmentarbitration. See arbitrationdefinitions, 220–6

direct and indirect investment, 222foreign direct investment, 221–2investment, 221investors, 223–4ownership and control, 222–3portfolio investment, 221–2pre-/post-establishment, 225–6

denial of benefits, 226dispute settlement, choice of forum, 381expropriation. See expropriationfair and equitable treatment, 240–1

customary standards, 242–3international law, 243–4stand alone commitment, 244–6

full protection and security, 246–7international law, history, 216–20MFN treatment, 225–6, 234–40

ejusdem generis rule, 235–40temporal scope, 240

national treatment, 225–6, 227–34less favourable treatment, 231–2like circumstances, 227–31public policy exceptions, 232–4

negative and positive listing, 269–70OECD MAI, 219–20performance requirements, 260–2prospects, 271–3services investment, 270–1structure of investment chapters, 268–71WTO negotiations, 220, 272–3

Iran, nationalisation of US assets, 217Iraq war, 45Israel

agriculture, 170Canada PTA, social issues, 356EU association agreement, 170

dispute settlement, 371, 372, 413Mexico PTA, government procurement, 302United States PTA

disputes, 368political importance, 45, 171

Italy, 148, 218, 239, 282–4

Jamaica, 158Japan

Brazilian trade, 18energy security, 47Mexico PTA

INDEX 425






Japan (cont.)agriculture, 166dispute settlement, 377, 380domestic regulation, 211transparency of services, 209

multilateralism, 55PTAs

agriculture, 166ASEAN, 56India, 167Indonesia, 47nineteenth-century, 48Philippines, 166political objectives, 47Singapore. See Japan–Singapore EPAsocial issues, 345, 363, 365

Thailand EPAagriculture, 166enforcement of IPRs, 339

WTO complaints, US–GovernmentProcurement, 298

Japan–Singapore EPAagriculture, 36definitions

investors, 224ownership and control, 223

dispute settlementcompliance procedures, 402conflict of norms, 376, 378implementation, 400investor-state arbitration, 263, 264,

266, 267qualification of panellists, 389suspension of concessions, 408

expropriation, 251, 252fair and equitable treatment, 245investment, 261

ratchet mechanism, 269MFN treatment, 235services, 271

JordanPTAs

Egypt, environmental exception, 350European Union, 170Italy, MFN treatment, 239Singapore, national treatment, 203

US PTAagriculture, 165copyright, 311, 313enforcement of IPRs, 339geographical indications, 323

patents, 327, 335politics, 171social issues, 353, 357–8, 359WTO-Plus agreement, 35

juridical persons, 187, 198, 224jus cogens, 126–7

Kemp, Murray, 20, 23Kenya, 161, 162, 167Keynes, John Maynard, 39know how, 335Korea

Brazilian trade, 18EFTA–FTA

agriculture, 166institutions, 197services, 196, 198

GATT complaints, 87PTAs

agriculture, 166ASEAN, 56, 73, 166Canadian negotiations, 166Chile. See Chile–Korea PTAEuropean Union, 29, 166nineteenth-century, 48Singapore. See Korea–Singapore PTASouth Africa, 167

US PTAcopyright, 311detail, 341enforcement of IPRs, 339–40, 340geographical indications, 323, 324negotiations, 172, 178, 359patents, 327, 330, 333, 338technological protection measures, 314

Korea–Singapore PTAagriculture, 166amici curiae, 395dispute settlement, 370

appointment process, 391causes of action, 384conflict of norms, 376, 377implementation, 399investor-state arbitration, 262, 264, 267recommendations, 397sequencing issues, 404transparency, 395

expropriation, 248, 252fair and equitable treatment, 240, 242investment, 261

negative listing, 269

426 INDEX






MFN treatment, 235services, 271

Krishna, Pravin, 20–1, 23Kuwait, US PTA, 165Kwak, Hyung, 137Kyrgystan, 352

labour standards, 26, 344LAFTA, agriculture, 150–1Lamy, Pascal, 43Laos, 55, 66, 164Lebanon, EU association agreement, 170Lesotho, 162lex posterior, 132–3, 134–5lex specialis derogat legi generali, 135Liberia, 160Libya, 162, 217likeness

GATS, like services, 189, 194, 227GATT, like products, 227, 228–30investment, like circumstances, 227–31

Lima Protocol (1976), 151Linarelli, John, 280, 299List, Friedrich, 39, 40Lome Convention, 159, 361Luxembourg, 147–8

McCrudden, Christopher, 299Macedonia, 275McMillan, John, 23mailbox companies, 198Malawi, 162Malaysia, 55, 66, 164, 172Mali, 160Mandelson, Peter, 56Marceau, Gabrielle, 137, 304market access

ASEAN, 66GATS, 193, 204human rights and, 343NAFTA, agriculture, 155preferential trade agreements, 58–9services, PTAs, 203–5

marketplace measures, 97, 104, 105–6Marshall Plan, 51Mauritania, 160Mauritius, 162Meade, James, 38mediation, 383MERCOSUR

agriculture, 152–4

Article XXIV GATT and, 11economic welfare and, 15, 17–18EU PTA

negotiations, 56, 67, 165, 168political objectives, 43priority, 29prospects, 183

objectives, 152–3South Africa PTA, 167

MexicoSee also NAFTAecological decree, 260EU PTAs

dispute settlement, 388, 406environmental exception, 349financial services, 213geographical indications, 317, 318, 319NAFTA effect, 41negotiations, 168social issues, 361

Japan PTAagriculture, 166dispute settlement, 377, 380domestic regulation, 211transparency of services, 209

LAFTA membership, 151politics and NAFTA, 40PTAs

Chile, conflict of treaties, 353EFTA, domestic regulation, 210Israel, government procurement, 302United States, 46, 171

MFN treatmentcircumvention by PTAs, 34exception. See PTA exceptionFCN treaties, 216GATS, 189–90

like services, 189GATT, 11, 71government procurement, 277–9investment, 225–6, 234–40

ejusdem generis rule, 235–40temporal scope, 240

moral hazard, 235origin of clause, 33overlapping treaties, 71–2TRIPS, 308WTO tool, 81

Mill, John Stuart, 32Monnet, Jean, 44Montserrat, 158

INDEX 427






Moroccoagriculture, 170EU association agreement, 170Turkey PTA, dispute settlement

implementation, 398remedies, 406

US PTAagriculture, 165copyright, 310, 311dispute settlement, conflict of norms, 376enforcement of IPRs, 339, 340patents, 327, 330, 333, 335, 336political objectives, 45social issues, 358–60willing partner, 172

multilateralismagriculture, special treatment, 143exception not rule, 30–7history, 3, 31–4

Myanmar, 55, 66, 164, 298

NAFTAagriculture, 154–7Canada–US liberalisation, 156compensation, 127cultural exception, 347dialectic review, 124dispute settlement

amici curiae, 228blocking appointment process, 390exhaustion of local remedies, 128–30government-to-government disputes,

368investor-state arbitration, 262–3, 267overlapping disputes, 136–7

expansion, 18expropriation, 254fair and equitable treatment, 241, 242–3,

243–4, 272geographic proximity, 53governing law, 124government procurement

dispute settlement, 301non-discrimination, 277

green box policy, 155increasing role, 124institutional mechanisms, 156interpretation rules, 117

conflict of treaties, 132, 353GATT relevance, 119good faith principle, 130–1

influence on WTO, 119–31interface with international law, 121–4,

129–30national treatment, 119other treaties, 118

investmentdefinition, 221expropriation, 271

market access, agriculture, 155Mexican politics, 40Mexico–US liberalisation, 156–7MFN treatment, 235, 240national treatment, 68

incorporation of GATT provision, 119less favourable treatment, 231, 232like circumstances, 228, 230–1

origins, 4PTA exception and, 11

safeguard measures, 87, 90–1US–Line Pipe Safeguards, 96

public policy exceptions, 232–3, 233–4environment, 348

services, 196, 200domestic regulation, 210, 211market access, 204–5national treatment, 201, 202–3technical barriers to trade, 211third-party nationals, 199

social issues, 346, 365conflict of treaties, 353positive regulation, 355–6

structure, 61tariff phase-outs, 66WTO-Plus agreement, 35

Namibia, 162Napoleon III, 39national treatment

FCN treaties, 216GATS, 193–4, 201–3

like services, 194GATT

less favourable treatment, 231–2like products, 227, 228–30

government procurement, 278–9, 303investment, 225–6, 227–34

less favourable treatment, 231–2like circumstances, 227–31public policy exceptions, 232–4

services, 201–3nationality, investors, 223–4natural persons, investors, 223–4

428 INDEX






necessityTBT Agreement, 299WTO exception and, 87–9

neo-colonialism, 217Nepal–India PTA, 350Netherlands, 147–8, 218New Zealand

ANZCERTAagriculture, 163environmental exception, 350services, domestic regulation, 209

multilateralism, 55PTA exception and, 93PTAs, 167

ASEAN, 56China, 167social issues, 360–1, 364Thailand. See Thailand–New Zealand PTA

Singapore CEPAdispute settlement, 370

conflict of norms, 375, 376implementation, 400qualification of panellists, 389

government procurement, 286, 302–3Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic

Partnershipenvironment, 349indigenous rights, 351irrelevance of geography, 4negotiations, 55overlapping treaties, 70social issues, 360–1

US policy and, 45Nicaragua, 157, 158, 176Niger, West African Customs Union, 160Nigeria, 160, 167non-discrimination. See discriminationnon-trade issues, 26, 343–5non-violation complaints, 384Norway, 94, 300–1

OECDfailed multilateral investment agreement,

219–20investment codes, 218–19MNE Declaration, 232

Ohyama, Michihiro, 20Oman–US PTA

copyright, 311enforcement of IPRs, 339, 340geographical indications, 323, 324

negotiations, 172patents, 327, 330, 333, 336

side letter, 337opinio juris, 120–4Organisation of East Caribbean States, 158origins. See rules of originOttoman Empire, 48

PakistanChina PTA, 346, 354labour standards, 344

Palestinian Authority, EU associationagreement, 170

Panagariya, Arvind, 16, 19, 20–1, 23Panama

Taiwan PTA, conflict of treaties, 353US PTA

agriculture, 165copyright, 311enforcement of IPRs, 339geographical indications, 323negotiations, 172, 359patents, 328, 330, 333

Paraguay, 11, 152, 153Paris Convention (1883), 31patents

compulsory licensing, 334–6extension of terms, 326–8flexibilities, 336–8generic drugs, 330–1, 333–4protection of test data, 328–32regulatory approval and patent status, 333–4side letters, 336–8TRIPS. See TRIPSUS TRIPS-Plus agreements, 325–38

Pauwelyn, Joost, 114, 125, 127, 137Permanent Court of International Justice

compensation, 127expropriation, 257

PeruAndean Pact membership, 151, 152drug trafficking and US, 46US PTA

agriculture, 165copyright, 311enforcement of IPRs, 339, 340geographical indications, 323negotiations, 172patents, 328, 330, 333, 338social issues, 358–60

Philippines, 55, 66, 164, 166

INDEX 429






plurilateral PTAsdepositaries, 75dispute settlement, 72–5

choice of forum, 74–5multiple complaints, 74third party rights, 73–4

entry into force provisions, 76–7institutions, 75–6market access, 58–9negotiations

issues, 57–77process, 58–60request and offer process, 59

new generation, 52–7prior PTAs overlapping, 69–72trends, 54–7

overlapping treaties, 69–72MFN treatment, 71–2

structures, 60–9mixing and matching models, 67–9models, 61–5variation of models, 66–7

technical trade barriers, 69traditional PTAs, 53–4

police powers exception, 259–60politics

agriculture, 143protectionism v free trade, 37–42

domino effect, 40–2economic varnish, 37–40

PTAs as foreign policy instruments, 42–50objectives, 42–7power imbalances, 47–50

portfolio investment, definition, 221–2Portugal, 170power imbalances, 47–50, 144Prebisch, Paul, 150preferential trade agreements

agriculture, 144–5customary law and, 120

contribution of PTAs to, 120–4non-interpretative impact on PTAs,

124–31deep and shallow integration, 38–9definition of free trade agreement, 85discriminatory instruments, 34, 81dispute settlement. See dispute settlementdomino effect, 40–2flexibility, 36foreign policy instruments, 42–50history, 31–4

nineteenth-century trade, 32interpretation. See interpretation rulesinvestment. See investmentmotivations, 28–30, 42–7multilateralism and, 34–7new generation, 52–7notifications to WTO, 82, 112, 195plurilateral. See plurilateral PTAspolitical objectives, 42–7

or economic drives, 37–42power imbalances, 47–50

proliferation, 11–12, 43public procurement. See government

procurementregional. See regional agreementsrethinking paradigm, 28–30return, 3–4services. See servicessocial issues. See social issues‘spaghetti bowl,’ 41

arbitral rulings, 74building block scenario, 57disputes, 368investment, 272–3

structures, 60–9terminology, 5trade diversion, 21, 40–2traditional PTAs, 53–4welfare analysis, 12–18welfare-improving PTAs

designing, 20–1external trade barriers, 22–4internal trade barriers, 21–2non-trade issues, 26PTA exception and, 21–6rules of origin, 24–6

WTO exception. See PTA exceptionPrimo Braga, Carlos, 48professional services, 213proportionality, 257, 260, 349–50Prussia, 42PTA exception

agriculture, 180conditions

border regulations, 97case law, 96elimination of duties and restrictions,

96–8external restrictions, 102–10generally, 82, 85, 88–9, 92–110marketplace regulations, 97

430 INDEX






permitted internal restrictions, 98–102safeguard measures, 98SPS measures, 97trade remedy measures, 97–8, 99trade thresholds, 93–6, 100, 145Turkey–Textiles, 96US–Line Pipe Safeguards, 96

conflict of treaties, 133controversy, 82–3duties and commercial regulations

border measures, 103–4marketplace measures, 104, 105–6meaning, 103–6

Enabling Clause, 82existing schemes, 31, 34external restrictions

assessment methodology, 108–9border measures, 103–4conditions, 102–10customs unions, 108–9free-trade areas, 109–10marketplace measures, 104, 105–6meaning of duties and commercial

regulations, 103–6more restrictive duties, 102–3, 108–10SPS standards, 106substantial harmonisation, 102, 106–7TBT standards, 106Turkey–Textiles, 107

GATS Article V, 82, 110–11Canada–Automotive Industry, 110conditions, 110–11external restrictions, 111notifications, 195

GATT Article XXIV, 11, 21, 23, 31,83–92

legal challenges, 111Committee on Regional Trade

Agreements, 112dispute settlement, 112–13

objectives, 38, 40permitted internal restrictions, 98–102

GATT general exceptions, 100–1insubstantial trade portions, 98–9security interests, 100trade remedy measures, 99Turkey–Textiles, 99–100

scope of GATT exception, 83–92Agreement on Safeguards, 90–1Agreement on Textiles and Clothing,

89–90

Agreements covered, 89–92case law, 82customs unions, 85exception as defence, 83free trade agreements, 85interim agreements, 86measures covered, 86–9necessity test, 87–9objectives, 83–5PTAs covered, 85–6RTA Understanding, 84safeguard measures, 87, 88SPS Agreement, 91TBT Agreement, 91Turkey–Textiles, 84, 87–8, 89–90

social issues and, 347–8welfare-improving PTAs and, 21–6

public international law. See international lawpublic policy exceptions

chapeau conditions, PTA modifications,351–2

GATTguidance to PTAs, 233–4non-arbitrariness, 230

government procurement, 298–300investment, 232–4NAFTA, 232–3, 233–4PTA clauses, 346–8

cultural exception, 350environment, 348–50indigenous rights, 351modification of GATT conditions,

351–2social issues, 348

WTO leeway, 346public procurement. See government

procurement

quotas, agriculture, 145

reciprocityconcept, 32–4government procurement, 278–86, 286power imbalances, 47–50

regional agreementsSee also plurilateral PTAs; preferential trade

agreementsagriculture, 144, 147–65

future, 182–3characteristics, 144Committee on Regional Trade Agreements,

112

INDEX 431






regional agreements (cont.)geographic proximity, 18–20, 53history, 3loose agreements, 4multilateralism and, 34–7political objectives, 42–7traditional PTAs, 53–4WTO Committee on Regional Trade

Agreements, 38WTO exception. See PTA exception

relative margin of preference, 145res judicata, 138–9rules of origin

necessity, 144PTA exception and, 95welfare-improving PTAs, 21, 24–6

Russia, EU priority, 29Rwanda, 161, 162

SACU, 57, 172safeguard measures, 87, 88, 90–1, 97, 98St. Kitts and Nevis, 158St. Lucia, 158St. Vincent and Grenadines, 158Sally, Razeen, 47Sao Tome, 161Schuman, Robert, 44Seattle Conference, 3security

investment protection, 246–7PTA exception and, 100

Senegal, 160services

GATS. See GATSglobal market share, 184liberalisation of trade, 185, 214preferential trade agreements

beneficiaries, 197–9domestic regulation, 209–12excluded services, 199–200generally, 195–213government services, 200–1institutions, 197investment in services, 270–1juridical persons, 198market access, 203–5modes of supply, 196–7national treatment, 201–3natural persons, 198professional services, 213scope of application, 195–201

sectoral commitments, 212–13transparency, 206–9

Shany, Yuval, 137Sierra Leone, 160Singapore

ASEAN and, 55, 66, 163–4EFTA PTA

conflict of treaties, 353depositary, 75dispute settlement, 391scope, 64services, 198

food supply, 164India CECA

arbitration, 263, 264, 267definition of enterprise, 224expropriation, 248, 249, 253fair and equitable treatment, 241investment, 226, 261MFN treatment, 235national treatment, 226, 231services, 271

New Zealand CEPAdispute settlement, 370

conflict of norms, 375, 376implementation, 400qualification of panellists, 389

government procurement, 286, 302–3PTAs

Australia. See Singapore–Australia PTAdispute settlement, conflict of norms, 376domestic regulation, 210foreign policy objectives, 47Japan. See Japan–Singapore EPAJordan, national treatment, 203Korea. See Korea–Singapore PTASouth Africa, 167United States. See US–Singapore PTA

services trade, 184Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic

Partnershipirrelevance of geography, 4negotiations, 55overlapping treaties, 70social issues, 360–1

Singapore–Australia PTAdispute settlement

causes of action, 385compliance procedures, 403conflict of norms, 376requests, 387

432 INDEX






sequencing issues, 404fair and equitable treatment, 241natural persons, 198services, 198, 201

Singapore Declaration (1996)investment, 220labour standards, 344–5, 365

Singapore issues, 35, 48Slovakia, 112social dumping, 343social issues

PTA clauses, 345–64conflict of treaties, 352–4cultural exception, 350environment, 348–50future, 364–6indigenous rights, 351modification of GATT conditions, 351–2positive regulation, 354–64

right to regulate, 346–8WTO and, 342–3

social justice movement, 365Somalia, 162South Africa

agriculture, PTAs, 167–8Black Economic Empowerment, 363EU PTAs

dispute settlement, 371, 380geographical indications, 317, 320social issues, 351, 363

public procurement, 299SACU membership, 162

South Africa Customs Union (SACU), 162Southern African Development Coordination

Community (SADC), 162, 171Southern African Development Coordination

Conference (SADCC), 162Soviet Union, 217, 219Spaak Report (1956), 148‘spaghetti bowl,’ 41, 57, 74, 272–3, 368Spain, 42, 170, 239SPS Agreement

dispute settlement, choice of forum, 381international standards, 212WTO exception, 91

SPS measures, PTA exception and, 97, 106Sri Lanka

India PTA, 350, 372labour standards, 344

standardisation, services, 212state practice, 117, 120–4

state responsibility, ILC Articles, 127subsidies, exclusion from PTAs, 200sustainable development, 343–4, 346, 364Suwa-Eisenman, Akiko, 25–6Swaziland, 162Sweden, 149, 245Switzerland

agriculture, EFTA, 149early bilateral treaties, 218fair and equitable treatment, 245geographical indications, EU PTA, 317, 320,

321technological protection measures, 315

Syria, Treaty of Balta Liman (1838), 48

Taiwan, 46, 353Tanzania, 161, 162TBT Agreement

necessity, 299WTO exception, 91

technical trade barriersNAFTA services, 211plurilateral PTAs, 69PTA exception and, 106

technological protection measures, 312–15telecommunications

dispute settlement, 378GATS Reference Paper, 194

ThailandSee also Thailand–Australia PTAASEAN membership, 55, 66, 164China PTA, 167Japan PTA, 166, 339New Zealand PTA. See Thailand–New

Zealand PTAUS PTA negotiations, 172

Thailand–Australia PTAdispute settlement

choice of forum, 379compensation, 406–7compliance procedures, 402conflict of treaties, 354investor-state arbitration, 267suspension of concessions, 409, 410

fair and equitable treatment, 241, 245incorporation of GATT provisions, 119investment

definition, 222definition of ownership and control, 223national treatment, 225positive listing, 269

INDEX 433






Thailand–Australia PTA (cont.)services, 198, 271transparency, 207

Thailand–New Zealand PTAcommencement, 167cultural exception, 350dispute settlement

appointment process, 391choice of forum, 379compensation, 406–7compliance procedures, 402suspension of concessions, 409, 410transparency, 395

indigenous rights, 351social issues, 360–1transparency of services, 206, 207

Trachtman, Joel, 125–6, 127trade barriers

external barriers, 22–4internal barriers, 21–2technical barriers, 69, 106, 211

trade diversion, 12–15, 21, 40–2trademarks, geographical indications, 315, 316,

320, 322–5Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership

depositary, 75dispute settlement, third party rights, 73ethos, 55indigenous rights, 351irrelevance of geography, 4negotiations, request and offer process, 59overlapping treaties, 70social issues, 360–1structure, 61

transition economies, 3transparency

arbitral proceedings, 267–8dispute settlement, 394–7

amici curiae, 395–6open hearings, 394publishing submissions, 395

GATS, 190–1, 206government procurement

electronic auctions, 296European Union, 282GPA, 284

services, PTAs, 206–9Trepte, Peter-Armin, 279, 280TRIMS, 219, 261–2Trinidad and Tobago, 158Trionfetti, Frederico, 277, 280

TRIPScopyright, 309–10enforcement provisions, 338geographical indications, 315, 316–17, 323harmonisation approach, 308impact, 308–9investment and, 219MFN treatment, 308patents

compulsory licensing, 332, 334term, 326–7test data, 329, 331

technological protection measures and, 312TRIPS-Plus provisions

copyright, 309–15geographical indications, 315–25meaning, 309patents, 325–38

Tunisia, 170Turkey

EU customs union, 168government procurement, MFN treatment,

278Morocco PTA, dispute settlement, 398, 406

Turks and Caicos Islands, 158

Uganda, 161, 162UNCITRAL

amicus briefs, 268appointment of arbitrators, 264–6number of arbitrators, 264revision, 306transparency of proceedings, 267–8

UNESCO Convention on Cultural Diversity,134

United Arab Emirates, 172United Kingdom

Cobden-Chevalier Treaty (1860), 30, 39, 41Corn Law repeal, 32early bilateral treaties, 3, 48, 218economic case for joining EC, 41EFTA, agriculture, 149government procurement, 305Hanseatic Treaty, 31imperialism, 48nineteenth-century unilateral liberalisation,

32Treaty of Balta Liman (1838), 48

United NationsCharter of Economic Rights and Duties of

States, 218

434 INDEX






expropriation and compensation, 218New Economic Order, 218sovereignty over natural resources, 218

United Statesagricultural trade, 179, 182Andean Trade Preference Act, 46Brazilian trade, 18Caribbean trade, 159copyright chapters, 310–11

critique, 311–12, 314–15length of term, 310–12technological protection measures, 313–15

CUSFTAagriculture, 154cultural exception, 350MFN treatment, 240negotiations, 171

dispute settlement chaptersadministration, 371administrative bodies, 373amici curiae, 395annual monetary compensation, 406–7,

411choice of forum, 381conflict of norms, 376, 377implementation, 399number of panellists, 388post-retaliation proceedings, 414special remedies, 411–13transparency, 395types of complaints, 384

environmental protection, conflict oftreaties, 353

expropriation, 259, 271FNC treaties, 216, 217, 245, 246geographical indications

EU Wine Agreement, 318, 321–2policy, 316–17PTAs, 322WTO disputes, 317

GSP program, 49, 177Iraq war, 45Marshall Plan, 51patents, 325–38

compulsory licensing, 334–6extension of term, 326–8side letters, 336–8test data, 328–32

protectionismnineteenth-century, 33Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, 33

PTAsSee also specific countriesagriculture, 165, 171–8, 181Australia. See AUSFTACAFTA. See CAFTA–DR–USChile. See US–Chile PTAcompetitive liberalisation, 172conflict of treaties, 353early treaties, 218enforcement of IPRs, 339–41environmental and labour standards, 48inter-war period, 3justifications, 37NAFTA. See NAFTApolitical objectives, 29–30, 45–6, 50political pressures, 36presidential powers, 40race for power with EU, 42–3Singapore. See US–Singapore PTAsocial issues, 345, 357–60, 364, 365TRIPS-Plus agreements, 48, 309, 325–38WTO-Plus agreements, 35–6

public procurement, public policyexception, 298

reciprocity approach, 33–4safeguard measures

PTA exception and, 87, 88, 90–1US–Line Pipe Safeguards, 91, 96

war on terror, 45Uruguay, 11, 152, 153US–Chile PTA

agriculture, 165, 172, 177copyright

length of term, 311technological protection measures, 313,

314dispute settlement

choice of forum, 380investor-state arbitration, 263, 264, 267

enforcement of IPRs, 339expropriation, 248, 249, 251–5, 257–8,

259–60fair and equitable treatment, 240, 242geographical indications, 323investment, 261

definition, 221definition of enterprise, 224nationality of investors, 223

MFN treatment, 235, 238, 240national treatment, 231patents, 327, 335

INDEX 435






US–Chile PTA (cont.)social issues, 358–60

US–Singapore PTAagriculture, 165copyright

extension of term, 310, 311technological protection measures, 314

dispute settlementconflict of norms, 376investor-state arbitration, 263

enforcement of IPRs, 339environmental protection, 133expropriation, 248, 249, 253fair and equitable treatment, 240–1geographical indications, 323, 325market access, 205MFN treatment, 235, 238national treatment, 202–3, 231parallel imports, 336patents, 327, 330, 333, 335protection and security, 247–60services, 271social issues, 358–60willing partners, 172WTO-Plus agreement, 35

Venezuela, 151, 152Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

application, 116conflict of treaties, 69, 132, 352, 354customary international law, 69, 116, 120,

236–7, 253, 393depositaries, 75interpretation of PTAs, 116–18jus cogens, 126lex posterior, 132–3, 134–5

Vietnam, ASEAN membership, 55, 66, 164Viner, Jacob, 12–13, 15, 18, 37, 38

Wan, Henry, 20, 23war crimes, 126Washington Consensus, 219Weiler, Todd, 119–31, 130Weiner, Allen, 259welfare. See economicsWest African Customs Union, 160West African Economic Community, 160Winters, Alan, 17–18WIPO treaties, 312–13World Bank, 217, 338World Commission on the Social Dimension

of Globalisation, 342WTOSee also specific agreementsagriculture and PTAs, 178–81customary international law and, 118dispute settlement. See dispute settlementinterpretation of agreements, 83interpretation of PTAs and WTO law,

118–20investment negotiations, 220, 272–3non-discrimination provisions, 227, 228–30non-trade issues and, 343–5notification of PTAs to, 82, 112, 195objectives, 342PTA exception. See PTA exceptionsustainable development, 343–4

Yeats, Alexander, 15

Zaire. See Congo (DRC)Zambia, 162Zamora, Stephen, 121Zimbabwe, 162Zoellick, Robert, 36

436 INDEX






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