Motivation and Emotion

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Cognition and Emotion

Reappraisal induces state that extracts optimism: Reciprocal relations between the act of emotion

regulation and motivational processes?

Journal: Cognition and Emotion

Manuscript ID: CEM-FA 69.14

Manuscript Type: Full Article

Date Submitted by the Author: 20-Feb-2014

Complete List of Authors: Siletti, Andrew; Framingham State University,

Keywords: Emotion Regulation, Optimism, Promotion

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Page 1 of 35 Cognition and Emotion

Running head: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 112345678910111213 Reappraisal induces state that extracts optimism: Reciprocal relations between the act of emotion1415 regulation and motivational processes?1617181920 Andrew Silletti2122 Email: Aj .sill etti @gm ail .com232425 Phone: 781-690-08672627 Framingham State University28293031323334353637383940414243

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Cognition and Emotion Page 2 of 35

MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 2123456789101112131415 Abstract1617

This investigation compared the effectiveness of online reappraisal and distraction in1920 regulating sadness with particular consideration to the motivational frame of instructions.2122 Reappraisal and distraction were similarly effective at regulating sadness but during subsequent232425 leisure viewing of an amusing clip, participants assigned to the reappraisal group increased in2627 optimism. This could indicate that the act of reappraising triggers associative relationships to2829 motivational processes that utilizes beneficial positive emotions. More generally, this suggests303132 that the act of emotion regulation could induce motivational states. Secondly, an emotion3334 regulation goal-content framework is proposed. It creates four classes of goal-content that vary3536

on the proposed dimensions of Self V. Other and Hedonic V. Instrumental. This framework can3839 be used for identification and, subsequent development, of emotion regulation goals for both4041 self-help and treatment purposes.4243

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Gordon, 2010; Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2010; Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Schweizer,

Sheppes & Gross, 2011). These facts underscores the value of research on motivational

influencing effective and ineffective emotion regulation. This investigation compares

emotion regulation techniques of reappraisal and distraction with particular consideration

motivational frame, examines how motivational tendencies alter emotional regulation


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 3123456789101112131415 Motivational considerations in emotion regulation: Frame, focus, and goal content161718 Emotion Regulation1920 An emotional response can be a combination of physiological reactiveness, experiential2122 changes, and behaviors (Gross, 1998). In general, emotions mobilize resources to act or respond,232425 are used for communication (Bradley, Codispoti, Cuthbert, & Lang, 2001), and can motivate2627 change (Lowenstein & Lerner, 2003). Emotions can engage various processes and provide2829 information (Mauss & Tamir, 2012). There are situations during which some emotions, for either303132 hedonic or instrumental reasons, are more helpful or desirable than others. For this reason,3334 people change aspects of the environment or parts of an emotional response to alter emotional3536

experience (Mauss & Tamir, 2012). The process through which aspects of environment or3839 emotional response are altered in an attempt to create a more desirable circumstance is called4041 emotion regulation (Aldao, 2013). A number of psychopathologies display emotion regulation424344 deficits and several treatment approaches target emotion regulation skills (Aldao & Dixon-

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appetitive motivations and defensive motivations. The inhibition of defensive reflexes

increased heart rate evidencing decreased vigilance, and the sustained heart rate

evidencing maintenance of vigilance point to appetitive motivations encouraging

with environmental stimuli for positive outcomes or rewards and defensive

encouraging caution and vigilant disengagement with environmental stimuli to prevent loss.


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 4123 elicitation, and proposes an emotion regulation goal content framework with practical456 applications.78 Underpinning Motivations910

Processing different emotional information can result in various physiological responses that1213 signal appetitive and defensive motivational underpinnings (Bradley et al., 2001). An appetitive1415 motivation compels engagement—and a defensive motivation compels disengagement—with the1617

source of emotional elicitation in experimental settings. Generally, appetitive motivation is1920 active in “approach” situations related to long-term adaptation and defensive motivations are2122 activated in response to perceived threats. Though distinct in style, both motivations seek to232425 accomplish goals.2627 Bradley et al. (2003) evidenced these underpinning motivations using various2829 physiological measurements. The most telling and relevant to this article is the measurement of303132 heart rate. Both pleasant stimuli and unpleasant stimuli initiated deceleration during initial3334 exposure to valenced stimuli. This is widely known as the orienting response. During orientation3536

the motivational relevance of information is gauged. After the initial heart deceleration—or3839 orienting—people’s heart rate varies depending on valence.4041 Pleasant stimuli cause an increased heart rate and an inhibition of defensive reflexes while424344 unpleasant stimuli sustain heart rate deceleration. These responses are thought to reflect

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emphasizes security and (or the absence of) negative outcomes. Conscious emotion regulation

a goal-oriented task and its initiation can be thought of as occurring when there is a

between a current state and a goal-state that can be resolved through emotion

Goals for conscious emotion regulation can be either hedonic or instrumental in

(Mauss & Tamir, 2012). Emotion regulation instructions are a central component to


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 5123 former—appetitive—seems to favor later elaborative processing while the latter—defensive—456 seems to favor early attentional processes.78 Motivation implies that a goal-state discrepant to the current state is desired. Without910

such a desire on an implicit or explicit level there would be no reason to have either appetitive or1213 defensive motivations. It can be said, then, that an appetitive motivation is purposed to achieve a1415 goal state through engagement and defensive motivation is purposed to achieve a goal state1617

through disengagement. These motivations are largely unconscious and automatic. The lines1920 between emotional processing, emotional generation, and emotional regulation are blurry (Gross,2122 Sheppes, & Urry, 2011). Emotional processing has been considered an emotion regulation232425 process (Gyruak , Gross, & Etkin, 2011) and undoubtedly influences conscious emotion2627 regulation. Appetitive and defensive motivations both influence and reflect emotional2829 processing. These fundamental motivations could be reflected and operate on a conscious level303132 under a different guise.3334 Shah and Higgins (1997) distinguish between two motivational foci: promotion and3536

prevention. These are conscious motivational orientations for goal pursuit. Similar to appetitive3839 motivations, a promotion focus emphasizes gains and engagement for goal-state pursuit and,4041 similar to defensive motivations, a prevention focus emphasizes avoiding loss for goal-state424344 pursuit. In other senses, promotion emphasizes utility and positive outcomes and prevention

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consider. This investigation used neutral frames to control for the potential of fit

Reappraisal and

People can regulate emotions using various techniques that target different aspects of

emotion (Sheppes & Gross, 2011). This investigation focuses on two cognitive

techniques: reappraisal and distraction. Reappraisal can use various tactics that include—


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 6123 regulation methodologies and are seldom given careful consideration. McRae, Ciesielski, and456 Gross (2012) did find that greater increases in positive affect and smaller decreases in skin78 conductance resulted compared to when instructions framed the goal as “increasing positive910

emotions” compared to “decreasing negative emotions”. In this case, the goal made a difference1213 to emotion regulation.1415 A person’s motivational preferences are based on previous regulation successes (Higgins et1617

al., 2001). Motivational preferences characterize a person’s regulatory focus and can be towards1920 a promotion orientation or towards a prevention orientation (Higgins, 1997). This focus can be2122 thought of as how a reason for goal pursuit is framed. A frame in a promotion focus emphasizes232425 gains, positive outcomes, and utility, and a frame in a prevention focus emphasizes negative2627 outcomes, and security (Higgins, 1997; Higgins et al., 2001; Leone, Perugini, & Bagozzi, 2005).2829 Shah and Higgins (1997) note that although people tend to have a predominant regulatory303132 focus (i.e., tend to be more promotive than preventative or vice versa) momentary regulatory3334 focus can be manipulated through framing. Further, a state of “fit” can occur when the frame of a3536

task matches a person’s preferred motivational orientation (Higgins, 2005). When “fit” occurs3839 engagement and task performance increases. Therefore, how a goal is framed is relevant to a4041 person’s motivational preference and task engagement. Conscious emotion regulation is a goal-424344 oriented task and the relationship of frame to a person’s motivational orientation is important to

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Meiran, This investigation compares the effectiveness of online reappraisal

distraction for regulating sadness. It is hypothesized that reappraisal will be less effective

regulating sadness than

Motivational Frame in the Context of Conscious Emotion

Influences of Regulatory Focus in a Different


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 7123 others— finding the possible positive outcomes of distressing emotional information,456 interpreting emotional information objectively through analytic process, and distancing through78 normalizing the emotional information (McRae, Cieslielski, & Gross, 2012). Distraction operates910

through diluting and blocking incoming emotional information by bringing unemotional or1213 positive information to mind (Sheppes & Meiran, 2008). The distinguishing difference between1415 reappraisal and distraction is that reappraisal requires engagement and elaborative processing,1617

while distraction does not engage with the emotional information and is thought to operate at an1920 early attentional selection stage.2122 Emotion regulation techniques can be deployed at different points in time relative to the232425 onset of an emotional response. Technique implementation that begins after the start of an2627 emotional response is called “online” emotion regulation (Sheppes & Gross, 2011). Sadness is a2829 slow accumulating emotion (Damasio, 1999; Sheppes & Meiran, 2007) and lends itself well to303132 investigating its regulation online because time can be used as a rough proxy of intensity3334 (Sheppes & Gross, 2011). The amount of sadness experienced increases with more exposure to a3536

sadness eliciting stimulus. Reappraisal and distraction are both effective when implemented at3839 the onset of an emotional response but appear to lead to contingent outcomes when initiated4041 online, with distraction leading to more favorable hedonic relief and reappraisal leading to better424344 memory formation (Sheppes & Meiran, 2007; Sheppes, Catran, & Meiran, 2008; Sheppes &

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of “reward replacement” or replacing loss with gains is activated by sadness (Leone et al.,

Pham, 2007). It is hypothesized that higher promotion focus tendencies will relate to

effective regulation of sadness and higher prevention focus tendencies will relate to less

regulation of

Ecological


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 8123 Mauss and Tamir (2012) note that certain emotions can both activate goals and can signal456 progress towards a goal. Leone et al. (2005) investigated whether the anticipation of different78 kinds of emotion favored a particular regulatory focus in the context of decision making. When910

agitation (i.e., anxiousness) emotions were anticipated, people with a predominant prevention1213 focus made more favorable action evaluations than those with a predominant promotion focused1415 perspective. When dejection (i.e., sadness) emotions were anticipated, people with a predominant1617

promotion focus made more favorable action evaluations makers than those with a predominant1920 prevention focus. This could reflect a form of implicit fit between participants’ predominant2122 regulatory focus and an implicit activated goal. In sum, Leone et al. (2005) found that different232425 anticipated emotions related to more or less favorable outcomes depending on motivational2627 orientations.2829 Though the influence of anticipated emotions to more or less favorable outcomes303132 depending on motivational orientations was investigated in a different context (e.g., decision3334 making), the anticipation of emotions is universal in emotion regulation research. If anticipated3536

emotions favored different motivational orientations in terms of more or less favorable outcomes3839 in that context, it is possible that anticipated emotions favor different motivational orientations in4041 the context of emotion regulation. Sadness, the main emotion used in this investigation, could424344 favor participants with higher tendencies towards a promotion focus because of the implicit goal

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This investigation took place at a university in Massachusetts. Participants were

through solicitation at the beginning of classes, flyers posted at the main college center, and

flyers that were distributed periodically in the cafeterias throughout the semester. Extra

was offered to psychology majors whose professors were willing to accept it. While it

common practice for psychology professors to accept offer credit given to students


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 9123 Another aim of this investigation is to integrate ecological reports of conscious emotion456 regulation into a framework for emotion regulation goal-content. To this end, participants were78 asked to report on which emotions they regulate the most and least, in what situations and910

contexts, and using what methods through reflective open-ended inquiry. Since the proposition is1213 more theoretical in nature (though practical in application), it is placed after a discussion of the1415 experimental results.161718 Overview of Investigative Aims192021 In sum, this I.R.B. approved investigation is aimed at comparing two cognitive emotion2223 regulation techniques with particular consideration to motivational frame, examining the2425 influences of motivational tendencies on effective emotion regulation of sadness, and proposing262728 a practical emotion regulation goal-content framework using participant responses and related2930 theoretical work. It is hypothesized that that reappraisal will be less effective at regulating3132

sadness than distraction, higher promotion focus tendencies will relate to more effective333435 regulation of sadness, and higher prevention focus tendencies will relate to less effective3637 regulation of sadness.3839404142 Methods4344 Participants

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and two men who participated were excluded from analyses to keep the sample as

as possible in the hopes of not diluting effects because of population

After these exclusions nine participants remained in the reappraisal group and

participants remained in the distraction group. The mean age for participants was 20.45 years

the standard deviation was 1.35


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 10123 participate in research experiments it is not policy. Therefore, it was made clear that extra credit456 was being offered but professors may or may not accept it. In addition, in accordance with78 common practice for the social sciences department at the university, an alternative assignment910

was offered that could be completed for extra-credit that required similar time and effort to1213 completing the experiment but did not require that data be collected from the student. No such1415 offers could be given to participants of other majors. Those students who are not psychology1617

majors chose to participate on a complete voluntary basis.1920 In total, 19 students, 17 women and two men, volunteered to participate in this2122 investigation. Assignment to groups was random. Eleven participants were assigned to the232425 reappraisal group and eight participants were assigned to the distraction group. Five of the2627 participants were freshman, three were sophomores, three were juniors, six were seniors, and two2829 were graduate students. Five participants were psychology majors, two were sociology, two were303132 business, two were criminology, two were english, one was fashion, one was undeclared, one3334 was modern language, one was a biology major, and the two graduate students were taking3536

courses in counseling psychology. The same informational flyer with contact information that3839 was posted around campus was handed out to students interested in participating. Students were4041 asked to send an email address with name, major, and general availability.424344 Since the sample size is so small, two older (middle aged and older adult) participants

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experiencing the emotion, state, or

Regulatory Focus Questionnaire

The R.F.Q. (Higgins et al., 2001) is an 11-item scale that uses 6 items to tap into

focus tendencies and 5 items to tap into prevention focus tendencies. Three items for

promotion focus are reverse-coded and 4 items for prevention focus are reverse coded.


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 11123 Informed Consent Process456 When participants arrived for the experiment they were oriented to the experimental78 equipment which included over the ear headphones, a laptop, and questionnaire packets. An910

informed consent was provided with information about the general tasks that would be1213 completed and the time of completion. It emphasized that there are no penalties for not1415 participating, participation is voluntary, and that they can stop their participation at any point for1617

any reason. The informed consent forms were separated from the data packets and the data1920 sheets were coded with participants IDs.2122 Emotions, State, and Attitude232425 Measurements of emotional experience were sampled before and after two emotional2627 clips using both emotional (e.g., pleasantness, amusement, sadness) and nonemotional items2829 (e.g., optimism, pessimism, interest, boredom). It was important to include both items that303132 inquired about “negative” emotions and “positive” emotions because the dimensional nature of3334 emotional experience allows emotions to vary with and without emotions of the opposite valence3536

(Mauss & Robinson, 2009). Interest and boredom were included because of the cognitive nature3839 of the emotion regulation techniques, and optimism and pessimism were included because of4041 tentative relationships to emotions. All items were placed on a scale between 0-10 with 10424344 indicating experiencing the emotion, state, or attitude to its greatest degree and 0 indicating not

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promotion orientation or towards a prevention orientation (Higgins, 1997). This focus can

thought of as how a reason for goal pursuit is framed. A frame in a promotion focus

gains, positive outcomes, and utility, and a frame in a prevention focus emphasizes

outcomes, and security (Higgins, 1997; Higgins et al., 2001; Leone, Perugini, & Bagozzi,


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 12123 items are on a 5-point Likert scale with “1” representing “never or seldom”, “3” representing456 “sometimes”, and “5” representing “very often”. Examples of items that reflect a promotion78 focus if rated high include, “How often have you accomplished things that got you “psyched” to910

work even harder” and “Do you often do well at different things that you try?”. Examples of1213 items that reflect prevention focus if rated high include, “How often did you obey rules and1415 regulations that were established by your parents?”, and “Not being careful enough has gotten1617

me into trouble at times” (this second item is reverse coded). The examples for promotion focus1920 emphasis thinking and reflection in terms of gains and positive outcomes while the prevention2122 focused examples emphasize preventing negative outcomes. Reliability analyses were performed232425 on the sub-scales. The promotion sub-scale produced α = .67 and the prevention sub-scale2627 produced α = .86. The questionnaire can be accessed at:282930 htt p:// www.col um bi a.edu/ cu/ ps ychol og y/ hi ggi ns/m easures.html .313233 Motivational Preferences and Task Framing3435 Shah and Higgins (1997) note that although people tend to have a predominant regulatory3637

focus (i.e., tend to be more promotion than preventative or vice versa) momentary regulatory

3940 focus can be manipulated, and regulatory fit can be induced, through framing. A person’s4142 motivational preferences are based on previous regulation successes (Higgins et al., 2001).434445 Motivational preferences characterize a person’s regulatory focus and can be towards a

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The first example provided for reappraisal is most parallel to a “situation based:

current circumstances” reappraisal. This kind of reinterpretation sees the image as more

than it is and does not consider future consequences. The second example provided

reappraisal is most parallel to “acceptance”. This tactic normalizes what is going on the image


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 13123 This factor of “frame” was considered when creating instructions for the emotion456 regulation. Specifically, it was important to make the frame neutral to motivational preference or78 at least similarly apparent. First, the introduction stated that “for a variety of reasons, sometimes910

people attempt to alter emotions” because being specific about a reason could activate a1213 motivation system. Participants were then provided a reason for the technique’s use and1415 provided examples for their assigned technique. The reason for emotion regulation provided1617

emphasizes both positive outcomes and negative outcomes. Below are the instructions and1920 examples for both emotion regulation techniques:212223 Reappraisal is an emotion regulation technique that people use to decrease negative2425 emotions/increase positive emotions. The image on the right is distressing to most people. To use262728 reappraisal, you can think about what is going on in a positive or objective way. A thought that2930 can be used to reappraise is “she is lucky to be alive because she looks like she’s in rough3132

shape”. A thought that could be used to interpret what is going on in the image objectively is333435 “this happens all the time; it is a normal part of life so there’s no reason to get worked up about3637 this particular incident”. It is important for the next portion of the experiment that you have an3839

understanding of and ability to use reappraisal. Please press spacebar when you feel that you4142 have an understanding of how to use reappraisal.4344

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Sadness

Video clips provide a dynamic emotional stimulus (Gross & Levenson, 1995;

Ray, & Gross, 2007; Shaefer, Nils, Sanchez, & Phillipot, 2010). A sad clip from Grey’s

was used in this investigation. Though this clip was not empirically validated prior to

experiment, it did increase sadness, F (1, 13) = 15.73, p<.01, η2=.55, with a large effect


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 14123 something that happens all the time and is a normal part of life. See McRae et al. (2012) for more456 information on the various tactics that can be utilized when implementing reappraisal.78910

Distraction is an emotion regulation technique that people use to decrease negative1213 emotions/increase positive emotions. The image on the right is distressing to most people. To use1415 distraction, you can think of things that are unemotional and not related to the picture. For1617

example, thinking about grocery shopping or making plans. Other examples include thinking1920 about numbers or shapes. It is important for the next portion of the experiment that you have an2122 understanding of and ability to use distraction. Please press spacebar when you feel that you232425 have an understanding of how to use distraction.262728 Previous literature conceptualizes distraction as operating through bringing independent2930 neutral thoughts to mind to dilute and block emotional information as it is processes in hopes of3132

altering its influences on experiential, physiological, and behavioral responding (Sheppes &333435 Meiran, 2007; Sheppes et al., 2008; Sheppes & Meiran, 2008; Sheppes & Gross, 2011). This was3637 considered when writing the explanation of distraction and creating the examples used in the3839

instructions.4142 Stimuli, Online Implementation, and Cont’d Framing Considerations4344 Stimuli and Instructions

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display on the center of the screen and, then, replace the text at the bottom of the screen. It

read, "Think about what you are seeing positively or objectively” and then “Continue

about what you are seeing positively or


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 15123 from its beginning (M=2.78, SE=.89) to its end (M=5.47, SE=.41) as it was intended to do.456 Other effects of note included decreased pleasantness , F (1, 13) =7.14, p<.05, η2=.34, from its78 beginning (M=5.75, SE=.97) to its end (M=.38, SE=.83), and decreased boredom, F (1, 13) =910

6.01, p<.05, η2=.32, from its beginning (M=2.06, SE=.58) to its end (M=.75, SE=.36).121314 Both video clips and experimental instructions were presented using a free Python-based1516 open-source psychological experimental software application called PsychoPy (Peirce, 2007;1718

Peirce, 2009). During the video clip, instructions not to regulate emotions appeared at the bottom2021 of the screen for 105 seconds ("Try to watch the clip carefully, and if any feelings would arise2223 allow them without blocking yourself from the film or from your experience”; Sheppes et al.,242526 2009). After this 105 second marker, core instructions for the emotion regulation technique2728 assigned were flashed on the center of the screen for 5 seconds, and replaced the do not regulate2930 instructions at the bottom of the screen for the remainder of the clip. Additionally, the313233 instructions appeared in the center of the screen every 15 seconds on the center of the screen3435 thereafter to remind participants to actively regulate their emotions using the assigned technique.3637

Again, the instructions were not made directional (i.e., increase positive emotions or decrease

3940 negative emotions) and are provided below:414243 Reappraisal: After some time you will be instructed to regulate your emotions using4445 reappraisal. The core instructions for how to regulate emotions using reappraisal will first,

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the amusing clip at their

Manipulation

R


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 16123 Distraction: After some time you will be instructed to regulate your emotions using456 distraction. The core instructions for how to regulate emotions using distraction will first,78 display on the center of the screen and, then, replace the text at the bottom of the screen. It will910

read, "Think about something unemotional and unrelated to what you are seeing” and then1213 “Continue thinking about something unemotional and unrelated to what you are seeing.”141516 It important to inform participants that they would have to report on their implementation1718 to ensure adherence to instructions to regulate and to inquire about how specifically participants192021 regulated their emotions (Aldao, 2013). To this end, participants were informed that “After the2223 video you will be instructed to report on how you implemented {distraction/reappraisal}.”242526 Amusement Clip2728 An amusing video was selected from a collection of validated as reliable elicitors of293031 amusement (Rottenberg, Ray, & Gross, 2007) to dissipate residual feelings of sadness from the3233 first clip and so that physiological strain that the participants assigned to utilize reappraisal might3435

have experienced could be undone (Fredrickson, Mancuso, Branigan, & Tugade, 2000). The film3738 clip is from Benny and Joon (1993), a Johnny Depp movie. Indeed this clip increased3940 amusement, F (1, 13) =8.99, p<.05,η2=.41 from its beginning (M=6.31, SE=.67) to its end414243 (M=7.81, SE=.70) and feelings of pleasantness, F (1, 13) = 9.97, p<.01, η2=.43, from its4445 beginning (M=6.29, SE=.78) to its end (M=8.06, SE=.69). Participants were instructed to view

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neutral contents and those that bring to mind more positive emotional distractions such

spending time with others and vacationing in Puerto Rico. While bringing to mind

emotional information did diverge from the instructions to think about something


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 17123 Most participants did use a technique akin to the examples provided for reappraisal.456 Participants utilizing reappraisal changed current circumstances through focusing on how a78 doctor and a nurse were helping a dying patient feel comforted and supported in his last moments910

when all hope was lost. The first example below represents the characteristic response:

12131415 “I thought of everything that the nurse was doing to feel compassion for him. She tried1617

and when all failed she lost hope, she was helping everyone cope in the situation”19202122 The second example below uses a combination of changing circumstances, similar to the232425 first example, and changing future consequences through the anticipation that he would be going2627 to a better place:2829303132 “I felt like he would be ok because he had people there that cared for him and he’d be3334 going to a better place.”3536

Distraction3839 Participants who were assigned distraction thought about spending time with others,4041 inanimate objects, mentally repeated words “like a mantra”, thought about planning, and brought424344 to mind imaginations such as thinking “of myself having a Pina Colada on beaches in Puerto4546 Rico”. In the broadest sense, these distractions can be divided into those that bring to mind

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(M=6.00, SE=1.03) to the end of the amusing clip (M=5.33,

Motivational Tendencies and Sadness

During the sadness clip, higher tendencies towards promotion related to increases

interest and sadness, but when controlling for tendencies for prevention, higher


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 18123 participants who used positive distraction were included in subsequent analyses because the456 specificity in tactics for technique implementation are not of focus in this investigation.78 Results910

The pre-stimuli reports of experience prior to the sad and amusing clip were compared to1213 ensure that, first, the groups did not differ prior to emotional elicitation and emotional regulation1415 and, second, to ensure that, if effects occurred during the first clip, that residual effects were1617

dissipated and groups were comparable prior to watching the amusing clip. No significant1920 differences emerged between groups.212223 Reappraisal and Distraction242526 Repeated measure A.N.O.V.A’s that placed emotion regulation group as the between-2728 participant factor, and time as the within-participant factor, examined changes in both emotional293031 (i.e., pleasantness, amusement, sadness) and nonemotional (i.e. optimism, pessimism, interest,3233 boredom) experience. No significant differences between reappraisal and distraction emerged for3435

regulating sadness. However, a large effect size approached significance and another was3738 significant during the amusing clip even though groups were not instructed to regulate emotions.394041 The reappraisal group gained optimism, F (1, 13) = 7.57, p<.05,η2=.37, from the4243

beginning of the amusing clip (M=6.50, SE=.84) to the end of the amusing clip (M=7.94,444546 SE=.89) and the distraction group decreased optimism from the beginning of the amusing clip

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reinterpreted using information provided from the clip (i.e., focusing on the doctors as

support to the patient instead of the implied outcome of death) which could have made the

of regulating emotions


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 19123 towards promotion related to increases in pleasantness, r (15) = .55, p<.05. Higher tendencies456 towards prevention related to more successful regulation of sadness (smaller increases in78 sadness) but when controlling for tendencies towards promotion, this relationship did not hold.91011 Discussion1213

Reappraisal and Distraction1516 Reappraisal and distraction were similarly effective at regulating sadness. In previous1718 investigations, it was posited that reappraisal required more effort to implement online because192021 emotional meaning established over the non-regulation period makes it more difficult to2223 reinterpret subsequent emotional information. While there is substantial evidence for this2425 (Sheppes & Meiran, 2007; Sheppes, Catran, & Meiran, 2008; Sheppes & Meiran, 2008), it is262728 localized to a context in which the stimuli elicits emotions of a particular weight.2930 In this investigation, a clip from the day-time drama Grey’s Anatomy was used. While the3132

clip did increase sadness as intended, it also elicited interest. The investigations that found333435 evidence for increased effort for implementing reappraisal online used a video clip from The3637 Real Story which is about “Holocaust survivors hospitalized in a mental institution after being3839

abandoned by their families and society” (Sheppes & Meiran, 2007). Unlike the clip in the4142 investigation here that appeared to be sad but somewhat engaging, the content of the clip from4344 The Real Story might be less so making it more difficult to engage with and easier to disengage454647 with via distraction. Further, in this investigation, participants who utilized reappraisal often

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defensive motivation more active a person would be less inclined to extract positive emotions

the form of optimism and instead focus merely on improving current hedonic


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 20123 The participants were instructed to view the amusing clip leisurely. Interestingly, while all456 participants increased pleasantness and positive emotion similarly, the reappraisal group78 optimism during viewing of the amusing clip. Sheppes et al. (2011) found that when prompted910

with low arousal emotional images people chose to utilize distraction more often than1213 reappraisal. The opposite was true for high arousal images. This implies that people—in1415 ecological contexts—prefer distraction in emotional situations that are highly arousing and prefer1617

reappraisal in emotional situations that are less arousing. Bradley et al. (2001) found that the1920 more arousing an image was the greater motivational relevance it had and the kind of2122 motivational activation depended on the valence of the stimuli. Sheppes et al.’s (2001) finding232425 can be framed from this perspective. The preferential choices were found in a context of highly2627 arousing and low arousal images implicating that defensive/preventative motivations were more2829 active during high, compared to low, arousing information (Bradley et al., 2001). Further, this303132 means that distraction was preferred when defensive/preventative motivations were stronger.3334 Assuming that this finding represents how arousal functions with regard to emotion3536

regulation choice in ecological settings then it can be said that distraction is utilized more often3839 when defensive/preventative motivations are active (in the context of highly arousing emotional4041 situations during which the regulation goal is focused on immediate circumstances). This means424344 that the technique of distraction is repeatedly associated with high defensive activation/high4546 preventive motivations. This act of distraction, then, could trigger defensive/preventative4748 motivations even in the context of less arousing stimuli because of associative processes. With

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particular relevance to the field of emotion regulation. The importance of cultivating

emotions and optimism is apparent from the broaden-and-build perspective which

positive emotions and optimism as crucial to expanding intellectual, emotional, and


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 21123 On the other hand reappraisal is repeatedly associated with positive more positive emotion456 and less negative emotion (Gross & John, 2007; Tamir et al., 2007), more adaptive interpersonal78 functioning (Gross, 1998; Goldin, McCrae, Ramel, & Gross, 2008), and greater psychological910

well-being (Aldao & Dixon-Gordon, 2010; Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2010; Aldao, Nolen-1213 Hoeksema, & Schweizer, 2010; John & Gross, 2004; Webb, Miles, & Sheeran, 2012). While1415 there are situations in which reappraisal is not associated with positive outcomes such as when1617

initiated online in the context of intensely negative stimuli (Sheppes & Meiran, 2007; Sheppes,1920 Catran, & Meiran, 2008; Sheppes & Meiran, 2008) on the whole it seems reasonable to infer that2122 most of the time reappraisal does relate to more positive outcomes than negative given the232425 myriad of research implicating its relationship to them. The repeated association of using2627 reappraisal to positive outcomes could create a trigger to promotive/appetitive motivation2829 systems and begins to explain how reappraisal led to increases in optimism during viewing of the303132 amusing clip. Again, the insight that implicit emotion regulation processes are probably always3334 active (Gyruak, Gross, & Etkin, 2011) which makes the line blurry between emotion generation3536

and emotion regulation (Gross et al., 2011) makes this reciprocal connection between3839 motivational processes and emotion gen-reg. processes strongly feasible. It is important to note4041 that the instructions in this investigation put focus on the act of emotion regulation itself and not424344 on emotion regulation goals. Putting focus on emotion regulation goals could complicate4546 associative relationships.4748 The potential for certain emotion regulation techniques inducing motivational states is of

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Motivational

The prediction that higher promotive focus would relate to more successful regulation

sadness was not supported. Higher promotive focus related to significant increases


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 22123 resources (Fredrickson, 1998). If the act of reappraising can induce a motivational state that456 emphasizes positive emotions and optimism then choosing to utilize reappraisal instead of78 distraction to regulate emotions might be favorable even at the cost of increased effort.910

Aldao (2013) notes that the time frame for effects (in general) in emotion regulation research1213 is important to consider. Although the motivational inducement point in this investigation cannot1415 be pinpointed with exactness because it cannot be known if the inducement occurred as soon as1617

reappraisal was engaged in, during engagement, or after engagement, in any of these cases the1920 effect of the induced motivational state lasted at least a few minutes. The relationship between2122 optimism and positive emotions is likely reciprocal and it is possible that once induced into a232425 promotion focused state that emphasizes the use of positive emotions for optimism, the state2627 propagates itself until some other event disrupts the reciprocal propagation.2829 Sheppes and Meiran (2008) found reappraisal to increase memory for emotional information303132 compared to distraction. The potential motivational inducement of a promotion focused state3334 emphasizing positive emotions and optimism which would implicate the potential for building3536

intellectual, emotional, and social resources (Fredrickson, 1998) and the increased memory3839 retention that reappraisal affords (Sheppes & Merian, 2008), makes the emotion regulation4041 technique of reappraisal more beneficial to utilize than distraction if both offer similar hedonic424344 benefits. Tentatively—in some situations—reappraisal might still be more beneficial to utilize in4546 the face of increased effort and less immediate hedonic relief because of the potential for long-4748 term benefits.

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This section of the article integrated ecological reports of emotion regulation

directly relevant theoretical work (Mauss & Tamir, 2012) and used ideas from

psychological theories (Higgins, 1987; Higgins, 1997; Higgins, 2000; Higgins et al., 2001)


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 23123 pleasantness during online sadness regulation. Though not research traditional significance456 (p’s<.10), higher promotive focus related to increases in interest and optimism. This relationship78 likely would have reached significance given a larger sample size. This further supports the910

notion of a promotion focused motivation extracting positive emotions and optimism. In1213 tangentially related research, people with a predominant promotion focus predicted personal1415 outcomes in an optimistic light and people with a predominant prevention focus predicted1617

personal outcomes in a pessimistic light (Hazlett, Molden, & Sackett, 2011).1920 When not controlling for the influence of promotion focused motivational tendencies, higher2122 prevention focused motivational tendencies related to smaller increases in sadness (more232425 successful), but this relationship did not hold when controlling for promotion focused2627 motivational tendencies. Instead, higher prevention focus motivational tendencies related to2829 increases in pleasantness. Assuming that motivational tendencies reflect the predominant303132 motivational frame used during emotion regulation—and because the frame of instructions were3334 controlled—this finding could implicate a prevention focused goal pursuit as beneficial when3536

regulating the specific emotion of sadness. Across the amusing clip higher promotion focused3839 motivational tendencies related to decreases in pessimism and this held when controlling for4041 prevention focused motivational tendencies. Taken together, though, these findings suggest that424344 motivational focus tendencies are important to consider in the context of changes in emotional4546 experience, and the influence of a motivational focus depends in part on competing tendencies.4748 An Emotion Regulation Goal Content Framework

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emotion regulation goal content can be either Self focused or Other focused. This dimension

be thought of as the Location of the emotion regulation content. Using participant

examples for each dimensional combination are provided

Self-


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 24123 construct a content framework for emotion regulation goals. Most relevant from Mauss and456 Tamir (2012) is that emotion regulation aims to accomplish both hedonic and instrumental goals,78 and that emotion regulation can occur in counter-intuitive directions (i.e., increasing negative910

emotions for some instrumental benefit). This idea forms the first dimension for emotion1213 regulation goal content. An emotion regulation goal can be Hedonic or Instrumental in nature.1415 This dimension can be thought of as the Function of the emotion regulation content.161718 The ideas derived from social-psychological theories (Higgins, 1987; Higgins, 1997;192021 Higgins, 2000; Higgins et al., 2001) primarily concern the idea that discrepancies are the main2223 considerations in generating motivation and that discrepancies can come in two basic forms.2425 Higgins (1987) proposed that self-discrepancies can be between multiple selves (different self-262728 concepts)—an “ought”, “ideal” and “actual” self—that are of a different nature. Generally, an2930 ought self is focused on the perceived expectations that others have for him or her, an ideal self3132

is what he or she strives to be, and an actual self is how he or she perceives him or herself to be.333435

A person’s actual self can be discrepant to his or her ought self or idealized self. What is3738 of note is that different discrepancies give rise to different emotions, and since emotions activate3940 different goals, and can motivate different things, discrepancies, in general, give rise to goal414243 pursuit. Further, a particularly important point is that a discrepant state can occur between the4445 actual self and the idealized self (a focus on the regulator) and between the actual self and an4647 ought self (a focus on the relationship between the regulator and others). It is proposed here that

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Positive emotion regulation with consideration of another’s hedonic state occurred.

example: “…if I am doing great and a loved one is not, I would lessen my mood” and “…I got

job over someone and I had to belittle my feelings of happiness”. These responses indicate

empathetic concern with situational factors and illustrates the importance of considering


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 25123 I want to feel different456 Negative emotions were regulated to relieve “unpleasant”, “stressful”, and “negative”78 states. Positive emotions were regulated less often but some participants did report engaging in910

activities to increase positive emotions (i.e., sharing with others, appreciation). The reason the1213 regulator altered emotional experience in this group of responses was to achieve certain hedonic1415 circumstances for himself or herself which makes goal-content Self-Hedonic.161718 Self-Instrumental192021 I want to feel different to act222324 Positive emotions were most regulated to fit into academic, work, and personal social2526 contexts and regulating positive emotions for specific performance related reasons—such as2728 preparing for an exam—were second most common. The former were non-specific and an293031 example of the latter is getting energized for a workout. Negative emotions were most regulated3233 for purposed communication. Specific reasons included to “make a point” or for “emphasis in an3435

argument”, communicate anger, elicit feelings of pity, and to discipline children. The reason the3738 regulator altered emotional experience in this group of responses was to achieve certain non-3940 hedonic circumstances for himself or herself making the goal-content Self-Instrumental.414243 Other-Hedonic444546 I want him or her to feel different

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want to feel different” is the

This framework could be used in the practice of identifying and developing emotion

goals. Take, the response of a participant who reported that “…if I am doing great and my

one is not, I would lessen my mood”. Although we might make the inference that he or


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 26123 in emotion regulation (Aldao, 2013). The reason the regulator altered emotional experience in456 this group of responses was to achieve certain hedonic circumstances for someone else making78 the goal-content Other-Hedonic.91011 Other-Instrumental121314 I want him/her to feel different so that he/she can act.151617 Positive emotions were most regulated to encourage others to do engage in—and to get1819 others excited about—activities. The implication in encouraging others or getting others excited2021 is that how another person involves themselves in a situation is the focus of the regulator. The222324 reason the regulator altered emotional experience in this group of responses was to achieve2526 certain non-hedonic circumstances for someone else making the goal-content Other-2728 Instrumental.293031

These four proposed dimensional combinations for what goal content is pursued naturally323334 leads to another relevant motivational aspect of goal-state pursuit: how a goal is pursued. The3536 neutral language of “act” was used because to frame it in terms of achieving or preventing3738

something is to impose the “how” onto the “what” of the goal. If goals are consciously initiated4041 then goal pursuit must have a “how”. This how reflects a person’s motivational focus for that4243 particular goal. For example, take the self-hedonic dimension. Two different goals are “I want to444546 feel better” and “I want to feel less bad”. Though different qualitative goals, the underpinning “I

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investigation can be used for both self-help and treatment purposes as a starting point

developing emotion regulation skills through emotion regulation goal identification

development. Further, doing so might have a concreteness benefit that could mitigate

and overgeneralized


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 27123 lessened his or her mood to better empathize for his or her spouse who was not doing well, that456 was not explicitly articulated. While that is neither a good nor a bad thing, it might be useful to78 recognize that regulation was initiated in the Other-Hedonic content domain. He or she initiated910

emotion regulation because he or she wanted his or her spouse to feel better or less bad. After1213 this goal is identified, then it could be reflected upon and developed so that when similar1415 situations are encountered in the future, emotion regulation can occur with more efficacy.161718 This framework has clinical applications. Dickson and Moberty (2013) found that people192021 experiencing major depressed were less specific about personal goals and vague about2223 explanations for goal attainment. In general, overgeneralized and abstract processing is thought2425 to contribute to depression. Mauss and Tamir (2012) note that stating goal intentions can262728 increase the efficacy of emotion regulation and a framework like the one above could be used as2930 a supplement in incorporating intentions into a persons’ emotion regulation repertoire. Watkins,3132

Baeyens, and Read (2009) found that concreteness training significantly decreased depressive333435 symptoms, decreased rumination, and increased concrete thinking. In a therapeutic setting, or3637 even when engaging in self-care, establishing specific and concrete goals could benefit people3839

experiencing depression.414243 Recognition and identification of, and subsequent development towards concrete and4445 specific, goals could be a driving factor to the efficacy of depression treatment. Indeed, C.B.T., a4647 particularly efficacious treatment for depression is goal oriented. The framework proposed in this

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above report of a participant reporting belittling feelings of happiness out of concern for his

her partner. If the emotion regulation goal of the situation is conceptually placed in the


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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 28123 Future Research456 There are at least two research avenues that can be pursued from this research. First,78 investigating whether or not the extent to which emotion regulation goals are articulated relates910

to effective emotion regulation in normal and clinical populations is important. It is possible that1213 various disorders function on the kind of goals pursued. In depression, vague, abstract, and1415 generalized goals are characteristic (Dickson & Moherty, 2013). In the case of depression, the1617

vague and abstract nature of goals could underpin ruminative processes. Stöber and Borkovec1920 (2002) found that prior to treatment clients with generalized anxiety disorder (G.A.D.) provided2122 less concrete descriptions of their worries compared to controls. After treatment, clients with232425 G.A.D. provided descriptions of similar concreteness to controls.2627 Anxious thoughts often come in fast unarticulated and worrisome droves. In Webb,2829 Gallo, Miles, Gollwitzer and Sheeran’s (2012) review, it is noted that goal-conflict has been303132 linked to ruminative processes. It is possible that a lack of goal development or lack of goal3334 selection could be involved in anxiety. Webb et al. (2012) also note that implementation3536

intentions (e.g., If this situation happens, I will do this) are effective for self-regulation in general3839 but application purposes have not been given much consideration in the context of emotion4041 regulation.424344 The emotion regulation goal content framework here—and the proposal that emotion4546 regulation goals are active or relevant in all situations during which emotion regulation can aid in4748 achieving a goal-state—can be used as a guide to forming implementation intentions. Take the

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MOTIVATION AND EMOTION REGULATION 29123 hedonic domain then this provides a frame through which implementation intentions can be456 formed. For example:78 In situations during which a person I care about is feeling sad, I will down regulate my910

positive feelings enough to empathize with them.1213 A person who experiences, for example, social anxiety when meeting new people could1415 benefit from this process. First, emotion regulation goal would be developed. Let us assume that1617

the person does not want to feel anxious when meeting new people. We ask then, “How come?”1920 Let us assume that the answer is because I want to be able to meet new friends. This falls into the2122 domain of self-instrumental. So, when encountering situations, this person wants to feel less232425 anxious so that he or she can meet new people. At this point the goal is established and case-by-2627 case implementation intentions can be developed. This kind of procedure has clear application2829 purposes for treating ruminative and worrisome cognitive processes.303132 Second, further investigation of whether or not emotion regulation techniques can induce3334 motivational states is important. If engaging in certain emotion regulation techniques induces a3536

motivational state then this has to be considered. It also could explain why disordered emotion3839 regulation tends to propagate itself in mood disorders.404142434445464748

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