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Chapter 32-Australia and New Zealand

Geography Matters...

Australia and New Zealand have rich cultural heritages influenced by indigenous peoples, English settlers, and more recent immigrants.

The subregion faces many challenges. Environmental threats include climate change, deforestation, and the introduction of invasive plant and animal species which have no natural predators. The countries of Australia and New Zealand are making strides in addressing both cultural and environmental issues, but more work is needed. With the help of individuals, companies, organizations, and governments, change is moving forward.LESSON 1-Physical Geography of Australia and New Zealand

ESSENTIAL QUESTION How do physical systems and human systems shape a place?

IT MATTERS BECAUSE

Australia and New Zealand are part of the diverse South Pacific region, which includes sandy beaches, snow-capped mountains, volcanoes, stunning reefs, grasslands, and deserts. Among these varied physical features are unique species of wildlife that attract tourists and scientists alike.  

Landforms  

GUIDING QUESTION How do the landforms of Australia and New Zealand influence the economies of these countries?  

Like an island, Australia is surrounded by water. However, geographers classify Australia as a continent because of its massive size. Australia lies between the Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean in the Southern Hemisphere, and it has a largely flat terrain.

A chain of hills and mountains known as the Great Dividing Range interrupts the level landscape. The peaks of the range stretch along the eastern coast from the Cape York Peninsula to the island of Tasmania. The Western Plateau, a low area of flat land in central and western Australia, covers almost two-thirds of the continent. Few people live in the Western Plateau. It is made up of three deserts: the Great Sandy, the Gibson, and the Great Victoria Deserts. These areas are collectively called the Outback. Many Australians also call these sparsely inhabited areas the bush

South of Great Victoria Desert is the Nullarbor Plain. The name is from the Latin nullus arbor, meaning “no tree.” On the southern edge of this dry, treeless landscape, giant cliffs tower above the Great Australian Bight, a part of the Indian Ocean. The Western Plateau and the Great Dividing Range are separated by the Central Lowlands. This area of arid grassland and desert stretches across the east-central part of Australia. The large expanses of dry regions make most of Australia unsuitable for agriculture. As a result, it relies upon the extraction of mineral resources for much of its industry and exports.

New Zealand is about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southeast of Australia. It is primarily two islands: North Island and South Island. Both islands are dotted with sandy beaches, emerald hillsides,

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and snow-tipped mountains. North Island’s northern region includes golden beaches, ancient forests, and rich soils. A central plateau of volcanic stone features hot springs and several active volcanoes. Mount Ruapehu (roo•uh•PAY•hoo), North Island’s highest point, is an active volcano.

The snowy peaks of the Southern Alps run along South Island’s western edge. New Zealand’s highest peak, Mount Cook, rises to 12,349 feet (3,764 m). Glaciers are responsible for carving out many of New Zealand’s lakes and rivers. New Zealand also contains sunken mountains like those in the Marlborough Sounds and Fiordland that have sunk into the sea. Rugged cliffs, deep fjords, and coastal caves dot the western coast. The Canterbury Plains, New Zealand’s flattest and most fertile land, lie on the eastern coast where livestock and agriculture flourish.

New Zealand has atolls, or ring-shaped islands formed by the buildup of coral reefs on the rim of submerged volcanoes. In the New Zealand territory of Tokelau, the Atafu atoll has 19 islets that rise to 15 feet (5 m) above sea level and enclose a lagoon. There is also a caldera, or large volcanic crater. Reporoa, a caldera on New Zealand’s North Island in the Taupo volcanic zone, formed about 230,000 years ago. The last activity recorded was in 2005. Lagoons are shallow lakes that are at times connected to a river, another lake, or the sea. New Zealand has mainly coastal lagoons. These inland bodies of water are important to the survival of certain species of flora and fauna.

READING PROGRESS CHECK

Identifying What three deserts make up Australia’s Outback?

Water Systems 

GUIDING QUESTION What is the effect of water on life in Australia and New Zealand?  

Although surrounded by water, Australia is the driest inhabited continent on Earth. Freshwater is unevenly distributed, unreliable, and seasonal. Seventy percent of Australia is described as arid or semi-arid with limited precipitation.

In Australia, rivers and lakes in the Central Lowlands fill with water after heavy rainfall. Because rains are infrequent, most rivers and lakes remain dry much of the year. In the southeast, however, the Murray River and the Darling River supply water that supports irrigated farming. A large amount of pressurized underground water, known as the Great Artesian Basin, lies beneath the lowlands. The water that gushes from these artesian wells, or wells from which pressurized water flows to the surface, is too salty for humans or crops. Ranchers use it to water livestock, however.

Australia’s main water problem is that people and water are not located in the same place. Most of the rainfall is in the tropical north of Australia. However, the population is growing along the east coast and across most of southern Australia. Today these areas receive less rainfall than they did 50 years ago.

In contrast, New Zealand has an abundance of freshwater. It is ranked fourth out of 30 countries that belong to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) for its per-capita renewable freshwater resource. Both North Island and South Island are bisected by hills and mountains covered with snow. These mountains support fast-flowing, snow-fed rivers and

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streams. Fifty-one percent of New Zealand’s total length of rivers and streams are catchments, or places where water is collected. These catchments have predominantly natural land cover such as native bush, alpine rock, and clumps of grass. The remainder of New Zealand’s rivers have been modified by agriculture, plantation forestry, or urban development.

Australia and New Zealand have striking landscapes with mountains, rock formations, coral reefs, abundant sea life, and beaches. Although they are isolated geographically, tourism is a growing part of the subregion’s economies. In Australia, many people live close enough to a beach to visit it regularly. Some people go to the beach for sun and surfing. Others go to parasail, fish, snorkel, scuba dive, and comb the beaches for shells. People come from around the world to visit the Great Barrier Reef, the world’s largest coral reef. New Zealanders and visitors to the country also enjoy recreational use of coastal beaches, rivers, and lakes. As in Australia, many people go to the beach for sun and surfing. But in Auckland, New Zealand’s most populous city, it seems that everyone sails. Perfect sailing beaches can be found only 15 minutes from the central business district.

READING PROGRESS CHECKExplaining How is water from the Great Artesian Basin used for agriculture?

Climates, Biomes, and Resources 

GUIDING QUESTION How do the climates of Australia and New Zealand affect the biomes and resources of each?  

The climates of Australia and New Zealand differ by region. In Australia, which is about two-thirds the size of the United States, the climate varies widely from temperate zones to desert regions. New Zealand’s climate varies from warm subtropical to cool temperate climates.

Australia’s climate includes tropical wet/dry and humid subtropical climates in the north and northeast; deserts in the interior; and midlatitude temperate areas along the eastern, southern, and southwestern coasts. Differences in rainfall cause these significant changes in climate and vegetation. The Outback covers almost two-thirds of Australia. The Indian and Pacific Oceans surround Australia, and the winds coming off the water create erratic shifts from one extreme to the other.

Australia also has a tropical savanna across its low latitude areas in the north. During the dry season, the savanna is prone to wildfires. In the rainy season, the rain falls in heavy bursts accompanied by thunderstorms and monsoons. The wet season lasts from December to March.

Marsupials—such as the kangaroo, koala, and agile wallaby—dominate the savanna. They owe their survival to Australia’s early isolation after the breakup of the early supercontinent Gondwana (which later collided with other landmasses to form Pangaea). Before more advanced mammals could move in to Australia and replace the marsupials, the landmass separated from Antarctica and India.

Australia also has more than 900 wetlands that provide a natural source of water and protection against floods. They also support a variety of animals such as the giant barred frog and the ringtail possum, as well as migratory birds. The Australian government and several nonprofit organizations work to protect the wetlands.

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Along Australia’s northeastern coast lies the Great Barrier Reef. Its habitat hosts multitudes of creatures. It has been shrinking by a rate of about 20 percent every 100 years. The United Nations has designated it a World Heritage Site.

Its name suggests a single reef, but the Great Barrier Reef is actually a string of about 2,900 small reefs. Formed from coral, the limestone skeletons of a tiny sea animal, it stretches for 1,250 miles (2,000 km).

Much of New Zealand has a marine west coast climate. Ocean winds warm the land in winter and cool it in summer. Temperatures range from 65°F to 85°F (18°C to 29°C) in summer and 35°F to 55°F (2°C to 13°C) in winter.

Differences in geography also cause variations in climate. Mountainous areas exposed to western winds generally receive more rainfall than other areas. While the country as a whole averages 25 to 60 inches (64 to 152 cm) of rain annually, the Southern Alps on South Island have an average annual rainfall of 315 inches (800 cm).

New Zealand’s isolation gives rise to unique plant life. Almost 90 percent of the country’s indigenous plants are only found there. Manuka, a small shrub, carpets land where prehistoric volcanic eruptions destroyed ancient forests. To address erosion in deforested areas, several tree species have been imported.

The natural resources of both Australia and New Zealand enrich the economies of both countries. Water resources provide fishing and a means of transportation and trade. Only 6 percent of Australia’s land is arable, but farmers grow wheat, barley, fruit, and sugarcane. In the more arid regions, ranchers raise cattle, sheep, and chickens. Aboriginal land rights have been an ongoing debate in the country.

New Zealand’s fertile volcanic soil greatly benefits its economy. Agriculture accounts for 12 percent of the economy. About half of the land supports crops and livestock. New Zealand’s sheep and wool products dominate exports, and its forests yield valuable timber. The country’s rivers and dams produce abundant hydroelectric power. New Zealand also uses geothermal energy, created by water heated underground in volcanic fields, to generate power.

Australia and New Zealand have abundant mineral resources. Deposits of gold and silver as well as other minerals can be found in both countries. Mining is an important industry. One-fourth of the world’s bauxite, used in aluminum production, is in Australia. The country also has some of the world’s highest quality opals as well as deposits of coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, and gold. Nickel and petroleum are found mainly in western offshore sites.

New Zealand’s main minerals include coal, gold, silver, iron, limestone, clay, dolomite, pumice, salt, serpentinite, zeolite, and bentonite. However, one of its most prized minerals is pounamu. Pounamu is a type of jade or greenstone that is treasured for its beauty and its spiritual significance by the Maori.

READING PROGRESS CHECKDescribing What are some natural resources in Australia and New Zealand?

LESSON 2-Human Geography of Australia and New Zealand

ESSENTIAL QUESTION How do physical systems and human systems shape a place?

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IT MATTERS BECAUSE

Long isolated from most of the rest of the world, Australia and New Zealand gave rise to unique indigenous cultures and wildlife. The Aborigines were the first human inhabitants of the subregion. Later, British colonists brought their culture and traditions,  introducing European influences.

History and Government  

GUIDING QUESTION How did migration and geography influence the history and governments of Australia and New Zealand?  

The indigenous peoples and the settlers who arrived as part of the colonization of Australia and New Zealand have made them culturally diverse countries. These distinct groups of inhabitants have contributed to the rich cultural fabric of Australia and New Zealand and have shaped the modern countries of today.

The early inhabitants of Australia, the Aborigines, have the world’s oldest surviving culture. The first of these nomadic hunters and gatherers is believed to have arrived in Australia about 40,000 to 60,000 years ago from Southeast Asia. Scientists believe that they migrated to the area over land bridges during the Ice Age, when ocean levels that were much lower than today had exposed land on the continental shelves. These early Aborigines led a nomadic life and used well-traveled routes to reach water and seasonal food sources. Family groups called clans traveled together within their territories, carrying what they needed to survive, such as baskets, bowls, spears, and sticks for digging. To hunt, Aboriginal men used a heavy throwing stick, called a boomerang, which soars and curves in flight. Women and children gathered plants and seeds.

Migration was accompanied by increased trade among the islands of the South Pacific. Sometime between about A.D. 900 and the 1300s, the Maorileft eastern Polynesia and settled the islands of New Zealand. Maori farmers lived in villages and grew traditional root crops such as taro and yams, which they had brought from their Polynesian homeland.

European Exploration and Settlement 

Europeans began exploring the South Pacific in the 1500s. Captain James Cook, a British sailor, arrived in Tahiti in 1769. He then sailed southwest and, in October 1769, reached New Zealand. Over the next six months, Cook charted all of New Zealand’s coasts. He decided to take a different route home. He crossed the Tasman Sea westward instead of going east around Cape Horn. In 1770 Cook came upon the southeast coast of Australia. He claimed the lands of New Zealand and Australia for Great Britain.

In 1788 Great Britain began to use Australia as a penal colony for convicts from overcrowded British prisons. By the early 1850s, free British settlers were establishing settlements along the east coast. Sheep were introduced and settlers profited from exporting wool to Britain. Another source of wealth was gold, discovered in the 1850s. Escaped convicts known as bushrangers, however, made life for the free settlers difficult. Bushrangers supported themselves by stealing from free settlers. To combat the problem, strict laws were put in effect.

During the same time, the British and other Europeans established settlements in New Zealand, which offered fishing and rich soil for farming. By the end of the 1800s, raising livestock, primarily sheep, had become a major part of the economy.

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The arrival of Europeans in Australia had a disastrous impact on indigenous peoples. Many were forcibly removed from their land and denied basic rights. They resisted the Europeans, and conflicts were common. Violence and European diseases steadily reduced the Aboriginal population. In the mid-1800s, authorities placed many Aborigines on reserves, or separate areas.

In New Zealand, British settlement brought hardship to the Maori as well. In 1840 Britain and Maori groups of North Island signed the Treaty of Waitangi. The treaty purported to protect the rights of the Maori, but was used as a basis for British annexation of North Island. The Maori mounted an armed resistance against British rule that lasted for 15 years, but ended up losing most of their land.

Independence 

In 1901 the Australian colonies decided to form a federation known as the Commonwealth of Australia. The new country was a dominion, a largely self-governing country within the British Empire. Its government blended a U.S.-style federal system with a British-style parliamentary democracy.

New Zealand became self-governing as a colony in 1853. The colony’s Parliament permitted voting to men who owned property. This requirement effectively disqualified most Maori from voting since they did not own property. In 1867 New Zealand passed the Maori Representation Act, which ensured that the Maori were represented in Parliament. In 1893 New Zealand became the first country in the world to legally recognize women’s right to vote, including Maori women. In 1907 New Zealand became a self-governing dominion using a British parliamentary system. Beginning in 1975 the voting laws changed, permitting Maori and people of European descent to vote in the same elections.

Both Australia and New Zealand are constitutional monarchies with parliamentary systems. They have written constitutions. The head of state, a largely ceremonial role, is the British monarch. The people elect members of a parliament. The leader of the political party with the majority of votes for parliament is the prime minister, or head of the government. A movement in Australia known as republicanism hopes to establish a republican form of government in which the British monarch would not be head of state. Instead, officials of the state would be citizens who are directly or indirectly elected or appointed.

READING PROGRESS CHECKSequencing When did the first inhabitants of Australia and New Zealand arrive?

Population Patterns 

GUIDING QUESTION How have migration and an aging population affected Australia’s and New Zealand’s population patterns?  

Both New Zealand and Australia are multicultural countries. Immigrants from around the world move to both countries to make a new life. Over 7 million people have migrated to Australia since 1945. Of today’s population, 44 percent were either born or have a parent who was born in another country. As a result, many languages are spoken in the country, although English is the dominant language. In New Zealand, most early immigrants were British with some Dutch immigrants arriving in the 1950s. By the mid-1970s policy changes began to make New Zealand

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a more welcoming place for other immigrants. From the 1980s to today, Pacific Islanders, Asians, Africans, and immigrants from the Middle East have immigrated and now call New Zealand home.

Numerous groups make up the indigenous Aborigines of Australia. One such group is the Arrente, who have lived in central Australia for about 20,000 years. Another group is the Palawa, who have lived on the island of Tasmania for about 32,000 years. After years of harsh treatment and isolation in the Outback and other isolated areas, the Aborigines are now demanding more opportunities. In 1967 the Australian government finally recognized the Aborigines as citizens. Today, about two percent of the population is Aborigine. Growing numbers of Aborigines, particularly youth, are moving to cities.

Approximately 7 percent of New Zealand’s population is Maori. The majority of the country’s population is descended from British settlers. Asians and Pacific Islanders, attracted by the growing economy, have increased the diversity of New Zealand’s society.

Australia’s physical geography affects the distribution of its people. Few people live in the dry central plateaus and deserts of the interior. Most people in Australia live along the southeastern, eastern, and southwestern coasts. These areas have mild climates, fertile soils, and access to the sea. The largest Australian cities are Sydney and Melbourne. Both have more than 4 million residents and both are major commercial ports.

About 85 percent of the inhabitants of New Zealand live in urban areas, mostly located along the coast. New Zealand’s ports of Auckland, Christchurch, and Wellington are the country’s largest cities. Both Wellington, the capital, and Auckland are located on North Island, where about 75 percent of all New Zealanders live.

The aging population of Australia and New Zealand is of growing concern for the governments of both countries. In Australia, the government expects record increases in the number of people ages 65 and over between now and the year 2021. By 2051, models indicate that between 24 and 26 percent of the population is expected to be over the age of 65. Even though New Zealand’s population is aging, its birthrates have increased. As a result, the total number of young people is increasing.

An aging population means that there will be more and more people in need of long-term health care and other assistance. Without an increase in the birthrate, the ratio of persons in the labor force will decline in relation to the number of retired persons. Thus, the government and people of Australia may have to make economic choices in the future. Spending on retirement support, education, or infrastructure are among those choices. Young immigrants from countries such as Great Britain, Taiwan, China, and South Korea are also affecting the population dynamics of Australia.

READING PROGRESS CHECK

Analyzing What are the concerns about the aging population in Australia and New Zealand?

Society and Culture Today 

GUIDING QUESTION How have immigration and migration shaped society and culture in Australia and New Zealand?  

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The people of Australia and New Zealand feel a strong national identity toward their countries. Australia and New Zealand blend both European and indigenous elements in their cultures. In recent years, Asian influences have also increased in the region. While daily life in much of Australia and New Zealand may resemble that in Western countries, there is diversity in lifestyles across the subregion.

English is the major language spoken in both Australia and New Zealand. Australian English, called Strine, has a unique vocabulary made up of Aboriginal words, terms used by early settlers, and slang created by modern Australians.

Because of the rather large population of Maori in New Zealand, Maori is also spoken in certain places. Two percent of Australians—the Aborigines—speak Aboriginal languages. Aborigines also speak pidgin English.

Most Australians and New Zealanders, especially those in cities, have access to quality medical care and other social services. The rugged terrain and isolation of some parts of Australia can make access to health care difficult. However, modern technology allows doctors to reach and treat patients through the use of two-way radios, mobile clinics, computer displays, and by air ambulance.

Aborigines and Maori have historically received lower levels of health care, education, and government benefits. Many Aborigines are poor and suffer from malnutrition and unemployment. In recent years, the governments and private organizations of both countries have been working to make up for past injustices. The courts have recognized the claims of the Aborigine and Maori peoples to government assistance, land, and natural resources.

Both Australia and New Zealand provide free compulsory education. Literacy rates are over 99 percent, and many students attend universities. Students in Australia’s remote Outback receive and submit work using the Internet, mail, and two-way radios.

Today Aborigines are also known as the First Australians, though they lost their land and were marginalized by European settlement. The Australian government tried to suppress the Aborigines’ culture to make them more English by removing Aboriginal children from their homes and placing them with foster parents or in boarding schools. The children were not allowed contact with their families. These children are known as the Stolen Generations. About 100,000 Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children were removed from their families between 1910 and 1971.

There have been recent improvements in relations between Aborigines and Australians of European descent. In 2008 Australian prime minister Kevin Rudd apologized to the Aborigines for policies and laws of previous governments that were responsible for the Stolen Generations. In the same year, a documentary presented the history of the Aborigines from 1778 through 1993. It showed the experiences of Aborigines during the British settlement of Australia.

In New Zealand, relations between the Maori and the Europeans were on a more equal basis. However, the Maori were still disadvantaged. In the 1970s and 1980s, the Maori become more politically active. They sought the return of land and compensation from the British government for the loss of access to natural resources. These were items promised to the Maori with the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. By 1998, the Maori had achieved substantial compensation from the government of New Zealand. Eventually, the government also apologized for the injustices inflicted on the Maori.

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For many years, both the Aborigines and the Maori suffered racism from British settlers. With increased integration into the national identity of each country and a better understanding of the cultures that make up these national identities, some think that racism will become a thing of the past.

Australians and New Zealanders have strong family ties. Most people in Australia live in a nuclear family of parents and children, but some live as extended families. In New Zealand, families are also made up of mainly parents and children. The Maori tradition has strong ties with extended families. The word for extended family in the Maori language is whānau.

Australian women are active in both working at home and in jobs outside the home. Women work both full and part time while they have young children. Many women have balanced full-time work with caring for a family. Between 1996 and 2005, working mothers with a child under five increased from 46 percent to 52 percent. This suggests more women are in full-and part-time work.

In New Zealand, the role of women has shifted to greater opportunities. After high school, some women find jobs in offices, or in shops, the health services, and as teachers. Others go on to study at a university. Some women may choose to stay home as wives and mothers.

Australians and New Zealanders traditionally used the arts—art, music, dance, and storytelling—to pass on knowledge from generation to generation. Aborigines recorded their past in rock paintings and used songs to share information about watering holes and landmarks. Maori artisans developed skills in canoe making, basketry, and woodcarving.

Movies have been filmed in New Zealand, including The Lord of the Rings  trilogy. New Zealand has an innovative and world-renowned film industry. It is also the birthplace of several famous directors and actors including Peter Jackson, Anna Paquin, and Russell Crowe. Australian actors include Cate Blanchett, Hugh Jackman, and Nicole Kidman.

READING PROGRESS CHECKAnalyzing How might racism become a thing of the past in Australia and New Zealand?

Economic Activities 

GUIDING QUESTION What are the characteristics of the economies of Australia and New Zealand?  

Australia and New Zealand have a close economic relationship. They have signed trade agreements such as the Australia–New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement (ANZCERTA) of 1983. The objective of these agreements is to improve their economic relationship by eliminating trade barriers.

Australia has a diverse economy. This includes agriculture, mining, steel, industrial and transportation equipment, food processing, and chemicals. The country also has natural resources such as gold, iron ore, copper, coal, and uranium that invite foreign investments and are a significant portion of the country’s exports. Australia also exports energy and food. Agricultural products include wheat, barley, sugarcane, fruit, cattle, sheep, and poultry.

New Zealand’s main industries are food processing, wood and paper products, textiles, machinery, transportation equipment, banking and insurance, tourism, and mining. Agriculture is a significant part of New Zealand’s economy. Agricultural products include wool, dairy

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products, lamb and mutton, beef, fish, wheat, barley, potatoes, pulses, fruit, and vegetables. New Zealand also has many natural resources. These include natural gas, iron ore, sand, coal, timber, hydropower, gold, and limestone. New Zealand is a significant exporter of dairy products, meat, wool, wood products, fish, and machinery.

Both countries have large service sectors. About 75 percent of people in Australia and 71 percent of the people in New Zealand work in services ranging from government agencies to banking and tourism. Service industries are major contributors to the economies of both countries and increase their gross domestic product (GDP). Australia is ranked nineteenth in the world by GDP and New Zealand is ranked sixty-fifth.

READING PROGRESS CHECK

Evaluating What economic activities can be found in Australia and New Zealand?

LESSON 3-People and Their Environment: Australia and New Zealand

ESSENTIAL QUESTION How do physical systems and human systems shape a place?

IT MATTERS BECAUSE

Australia and New Zealand have strikingly beautiful landscapes. Both countries are also rich in natural resources. However, overuse and misuse have created some threats to the natural habitats in this subregion, which both countries are trying to correct. Government, national and international organizations, and individuals are working toward new ways  to protect and preserve their environment

Managing Resources  

GUIDING QUESTION What environmental impact did European practices of land management have in Australia and New Zealand?  

The remote geographic locations and challenging environments of Australia and New Zealand influence how people earn their living. Agriculture is by far the most significant economic activity. As you have read, for example, Australia and New Zealand export large quantities of farm products. Australia is the world’s leading producer of wool. However, the lack of rainfall in Australia makes agriculture challenging.

Although less than 5 percent of Australians work in agriculture, much of the country’s vast land area is devoted to raising livestock. Because of the generally dry climate, animals need large areas to find enough vegetation to eat. As a result, some Australian ranches, called stations, are huge. They can be as large as 6,000 square miles (15,540 sq. km), roughly the size of Connecticut. The impact of long-term livestock grazing in Australia can be the degradation of many of the natural ecosystems in the country.

Due to Australia’s dry climate, less than 10 percent of its land is arable, or suitable for growing crops. Irrigation, fertilizers, and modern technology help Australian farmers make more productive use of the land.

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In New Zealand, more than half of the land is used for agriculture. In addition to grazing, animals are fed copra, or dried coconut meat, which is mainly imported from countries such as Fiji and Papua New Guinea. Ranchers, known as graziers in New Zealand, raise sheep, cattle, and red deer. The country has nearly 20 times more livestock than people. Unlike Australia, New Zealand has some of the most fertile soil in the region. This allows farmers to grow wheat, barley, potatoes, and fruits.

Although new plants and animals have helped both countries develop strong agricultural industries, the impact to the region has been detrimental in some cases. In Australia, native plants and animals were well adapted, or fitted, to life on an isolated continent. Since European settlement, these native plants and animals have had to compete for habitat, food, and shelter with exotic plants and animals that were introduced into the environment from other places. For example, 24 European rabbits were introduced to Australia in 1859 for hunting purposes. But rabbits had few natural predators in Australia, so by 1926, there were about 10 billion rabbits in the country. These animals destroyed native plants, exposing the soil to wind and water. The resulting soil erosion caused so much damage that some farms were abandoned. Feral foxes are also a problem. They have caused the decline of several species of native animals, and they prey on newborn lambs.

The introduction of exotic plants in Australia has also created problems. While some of these exotic plants were introduced intentionally, most were introduced accidentally. Many of them have become weeds. For example, the prickly pear was introduced in the 1900s to establish a cochineal dye industry. The prickly pear soon became an invasive species, turning 15,000 square miles (40,000 sq. km) of farmland into a sea of weeds. The weed was eventually eradicated.

Introduced species have also harmed native species in New Zealand. Feral cats and dogs have made New Zealand’s native kiwi, a flightless bird, an endangered species. Weasels and ferrets introduced to control rabbits have killed native birds.

READING PROGRESS CHECKExplaining How do people in Australia and New Zealand use the land?

Human Impact 

GUIDING QUESTION How has land use in Australia and New Zealand affected their respective environments?  

Another issue of concern is the protection of forest, soil, and freshwater resources. In Australia, many forests have been cleared for farms and grazing lands. In New Zealand, forests are also converted to pastureland for livestock. Between 2000 and 2010, some 74,000 acres (30,000 ha) of forest were converted to pasture. This leaves little protection against soil erosion. Deforestation also causes soil salinity as well as increased risk of fire and floods. However, pasture continues to dominate New Zealand land use.

In Australia, soil erosion is compounded by overgrazing in arid areas and by the country’s worst drought in over a century. Soil conservation in the region is closely linked to reducing deforestation. Australia and New Zealand are aware of the problems and are developing plans to use forest resources while reducing damage to the environment.

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Land use has significantly modified the physical and chemical nature of rivers in both countries. This has caused unforeseen consequences. For example, drought, salt, irrigation, and agricultural runoff threaten Australia’s freshwater sources.

The fertile Murray-Darling River Basin is one of the world’s largest drainage basins. However, the use of water for irrigation and the increasing needs of growing city populations have dramatically reduced the rivers’ flows. Large areas within the basin are also at risk from increasing soil salinity. One of the major causes of increasing salinity has been the replacement of native vegetation—which has deep root structures—with pastures and non-native shallow-rooted crops. Deep root structures prevent rainwater from reaching deep underground and causing salt to rise to the surface soil and water. In increased soil salinity, plants are unable to grow. Salinity causes building foundations, fences, and roads to crumble. Water salinity causes water to be too salty for consumption by humans and wildlife.

Agricultural runoff, chemical fertilizers, and organic waste also threaten the oceans that surround the subregion. Toxic waste, in particular, endangers Australia’s Great Barrier Reef and other coral reefs. Tourists, boaters, divers, oil shale mining, and rising water temperatures increasingly stress these coral environments.

Some scientists argue that increases in Earth’s temperatures could be devastating. If polar ice caps melt, ocean levels will rise. This would cause extensive flooding. Rising ocean temperatures also affect certain types of plankton and algae that grow in warm waters, causing overgrowth and the choking out of other life forms. The breakdown of the relationship between coral and the algae that provide it with nutrients causes coral bleaching. Scientists in the region are studying global warming and are hoping to discover causes, predict consequences, and provide solutions.

Pollution also affects marine life. This is especially true for the tiny organisms that make up coral reefs. Algae—on which these organisms thrive—and plankton are key parts of the ocean’s food web. A food web refers to the interlinking chains of predators and their food sources in an ecosystem. As these tiny living things are destroyed, larger plants and animals that rely on them for food also die off.

READING PROGRESS CHECKExplaining How does human activity impact the land and waters of Australia and New Zealand?

Addressing the Issues 

GUIDING QUESTION How are groups, governments, and other organizations addressing environmental issues in Australia and New Zealand?  

Australia and New Zealand are facing tough environmental issues. Both governmental and nongovernmental organizations are working to reduce these problems. Some efforts are intended to reverse some of the environmental damage in both countries.

The Australian government has reacted to these concerns by enacting environmental laws and initiatives. It has also created organizations and education programs to combat the problems. Australia’s environmental minister is responsible for managing these issues. The government created the Natural Heritage Trust in 1997. Now known as Caring for our Country, its mission is to help restore and conserve Australia’s environmental and natural resources. It provides funding

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for environmental activities at community, regional, state, and national levels.

Caring for our Country funds various projects. Some help to protect and restore the habitat of threatened animal species. Other projects aim to reverse the decline of Australia’s native vegetation. Another important area is preventing or controlling the introduction and spread of feral animals, aquatic pests, weeds, and other biological threats to biodiversity. The restoration and protection of freshwater, marine, and river ecosystems are also important to the organization.

The Australian Government Envirofund delivers funding to projects at the local level. This fund was formed to assist individuals and community groups undertaking small projects aimed at sustainable resource use and protecting biodiversity. At the regional level, governmental programs distribute money to national resource management regions (NRMs). There are 56 NRMs in Australia that support communities, farmers, and land managers to protect Australia’s natural environment and increase sustainability of the country’s ecosystems. At the national and state level, projects cover national priorities that cross local and regional boundaries.

Nongovernmental organizations also work to improve the environment in Australia. For example, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) works to conserve the country’s biodiversity by providing practical solutions to the continent’s greatest environmental threats. They have been successful in improving the protection of the Great Barrier Reef by persuading the government of Australia to increase its commitment to protect this vast ecosystem. WWF has also successfully campaigned against land clearing in Queensland, Australia. In 2007 the Australian government revoked all permits for broad-scale clearing in the state. WWF continues to work with local communities and in partnership with government and industry to encourage effective conservation policies.

The WWF is also working in New Zealand to fund projects to help the environment. For example, the WWF partnered with the Tindall Foundation on the Habitat Protection Fund in 2000. Since its launch, it has partnered with volunteer groups on over 400 projects to protect areas of high conservation significance in their communities. The WWF and the Tindall Foundation are also working with the Environmental Education Action Fund. This fund supports and promotes environmental education through actions for schools and communities across New Zealand. The Conservation Innovation Fund finances activities that demonstrate innovation and conservation of the environment.

New Zealand’s government is also making efforts to solve environmental problems. In 1991 it passed the Resource Management Act. Its aim is to promote the sustainable management of natural resources. One solution is through reforestation to reduce soil erosion. Efforts to reforest the exotic forests of Kaingaroa between Rotorua and Taupo began in the late 1920s. Over the last 30 years, further planting has been encouraged in order to stabilize eroding farmland. Increased log prices and improved harvesting techniques have also encouraged reforestation.

The government of New Zealand also works with the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. Its goal is to improve the economic value and sustainable management of its aquatic resources and environments. The Institute works to increase understanding of the climate and the atmosphere. It hopes that additional understanding will increase resilience to weather and climate hazards. This will improve the safety of New Zealanders.

READING PROGRESS CHECK

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Evaluating How are Australians and New Zealanders addressing environmental problems?

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