VOLUNTARY GUIDES BACKGROUNDER Number 62 … 1... · VOLUNTARY GUIDES BACKGROUNDER Number 62 Issue...

VOLUNTARY GUIDES BACKGROUNDER Number 62 Issue #2 July 2012

A document prepared by the AWM in 1999 for use in the Discovery Room

See also BACKGROUNDER # 5 Issue # 4 January 2010 Parts 1 & 2 -Vietnam War 1962-1972

Peter Hugonnet

T H E D I S C O V E R Y R O O M

1

1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 1.1 French colonialism France occupied Vietnam in 1858 and by the 1890’s, had established Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos as protectorates. Together, these countries were known as French Indochina. Anti-French sentiment was strong, especially in Vietnam. Opposition was xenophobic and anti-Catholic, but after 1900, became increasingly nationalistic. Initially Nationalists sought independence by constitutional means, but as time passed, independence by revolution became inevitable. By the end of the 1930’s, a nationalistic movement led by Ho Chi Minh, who formed the Indochinese Communist Party in 1930, had been established. Ho Chi Minh came to symbolise the struggle for independent Vietnam. 1.2 Japanese Occupation After the Nazi invasion of France in 1940, Japan prepared to move into French Indochina, which in addition to being a rich source of rubber and rice, was seen as a stepping stone to the rest of South East Asia. By the end of 1941, Japan had occupied Indochina, but allowed (Vichy) French administrators to run the country. In March 1945, the Japanese took control of Indochina, proclaimed the independence of Vietnam and established Bao Dai as puppet emperor. 1.3 Viet Minh In 1941, Ho Chi Minh formed the Viet Minh, a communist led coalition of Vietnamese nationalists pledged to oust both the Japanese and the French. Organised by General Vo Nguyen Giap into a 10,000 strong guerilla army based in the mountains north of the Red River, the Viet Minh launched no major operations against the Japanese. Shortly after Japan surrendered and the Second World War ended, General Giap and his Viet Minh troops entered Hanoi. Bao Dai ‘abdicated’ and the Viet Minh formed government. By the end of August 1945 the Viet Minh controlled Vietnam. On 2 September 1945, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) was proclaimed by Ho Chi Minh. 1.4 Post-war occupation

Britain, USA, USSR and China agreed that after Japan’s defeat, Indochina would temporarily be occupied by (anti-Communist) Chinese Nationalist forces to north of the 16th parallel and by British troops to the south. In the south the British prepared for French return, and by early 1946 had destroyed most of the Viet Minh forces. But in the north, the Chinese Nationalists, who were far from sympathetic towards French return, offered no opposition to Ho’s forces. To appease the Chinese Nationalists’ anti-communist sentiment, Ho disbanded his communist party, but did not disband the Democratic Republic. In 1946 the Chinese Nationalists and the British withdrew their troops, leaving the French.


2

Geneva Agreement 1954

By late 1946, a war of independence between the Viet Minh and the colonial French was a reality. The first Indochina war, as it became known, broke out on 19 December 1946. After three years of war and with help from Chinese communists, the tide began to turn in favour of the Nationalists against the French. The decisive battle of Dien Ben Phu which lasted 55 days during March, April and May 1954, resulted in 7,900 Viet Minh and 13,000 French deaths. It was followed by a cease-fire on 7 May 1954. 1.5 Division of Vietnam The cease-fire agreement signed in Geneva on 21 July 1954, divided Vietnam into North and South at the 17th- parallel (rather than the 16th, as in 1945). Intended as a temporary measure, this division became permanent under America’s policy of Two Vietnams. 1.5.1 Diem and the Republic of Vietnam Ngo Dinh Diem, an ardent anti-communist and devout Catholic became Prime Minister of the Republic of South Vietnam on 7 July 1954. Diem alienated many South Vietnamese. His Catholicism upset powerful Buddhist sects while his cronyism and authoritarian ways alienated the military. His reforms failed to address discontent and lead to the development of a South Vietnamese communist movement, the roots of which lay in the remnants of the Viet Minh. 1.5.2 Viet Cong The National Liberation Front for South Vietnam (NLF), a coalition of some twenty South Vietnamese groups opposed to Diem’s regime, was formed in December 1960. Although the NLF included non-communists, Diem referred to them as Viet Nam Cong San meaning Vietnamese communists, as a term of abuse. This was abbreviated to Viet Cong. Its leadership was dominated by communists, including officials from the government in Hanoi. 1.5.3 Second Indochina War In what became known as the Second Indochina War, the Viet Cong entered into a sustained guerilla campaign and social revolution against the Diem regime. By 1962, the Diem Government was in crisis. In an effort to regain the initiative and strike at revolutionary roots by improving living standards among the rural population, Diem asked for non-specific Western support.

2 AUSTRALIAN AND AMERICAN MILITARY INVOLVEMENT

America had been providing financial support for the French during the Indochina conflict, but their commitment of personnel began in 1961. By the end of 1963 the first small number had increased several-fold. Their presence included combat support units, helicopter and fixed wing transport units, and special forces.


3

In 1962, Australia committed a small number (initially only 30, up to 200 later) of instructors in jungle warfare and technical areas such as signals and engineering. These were known as the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV), and were expressly forbidden to accompany South Vietnamese troops into combat. In June 1965 the first Australian combat troops arrived in Vietnam. This was the first Battalion of the Royal Australian Regiment (1RAR) and supporting units. 2.1.1 Reasons for Australian military involvement Within the context of the Cold War and the ‘domino theory’ of potential communist advances through Asia, the war in Vietnam was regarded by Australia during the early 1960s as an ‘invasion from the north’ (ie from communist China). This assessment was misleading. Australian forces in South Vietnam encountered in the NLF a well-established, well organised political and military organisation directed from North Vietnam. It had a 20 year history (pre-dating the communists’ control in China) of both guerilla operations and strong local support. It would not necessarily have provided comfort or support for wider communist imperialism. 2.1.2 Escalation in the conflict

After Diem’s death in a coup d’etat in October 1963, a succession of governments failed to check insurgency mounted by the NLF and its North Vietnamese backers. By 1964 the Saigon government was in danger of falling. In late 1964, American involvement escalated, and in March 1965 a bombing offensive was mounted against North Vietnam. By the end of the year 200,000 US troops had been deployed to South Vietnam. By 1968 this number had increased to 500,000. 2.2 Nature of Australian military commitment The first batallion of the Royal Australian Regiment (1RAR) became the third battalion of the American 173rd Airborne Brigade, in the province of Bien Hoa. It was maintained and supplied largely by the Americans, and saw heavy fighting, losing 23 men killed in action. In March 1966, 1RAR was replaced by a Task Force of two battalions made up of 5RAR and 6RAR and supporting arms and services, which together became known as 1st Australian Task Force or 1ATF. This Task Force was assigned its own area of operations in Phuoc Tuy province, was self-sufficient and mounted independent operations. The disposition of 1ATF was: • 1ATF base Nui Dat • National Command Saigon, Headquarters Australian Force Vietnam (HQ AFV) • Operational Command Long Binh, 30 km NE of Saigon, Headquarters II Field Force Vietnam (HQIIFFV) • Logistic support Vung Tau, 30 km SW of Nui Dat, 1st Australian Logistic Support Group (1ALSG), • Helicopter support Vung Tau, No. 9 Squadron RAAF with UH-1 helicopters The initial tasks of 1ATF were to: • force main VC units into jungle locations from which they would be ineffective • gain control over Route 15 and its use as a supply line • destroy the local guerilla organisation


4

A special Army civil affairs organisation, 1st Australian Civil Affairs Unit, operating within the Task Force, provided civil aid including: • building schools • resettling villagers • establishing water reticulation systems • providing education, medical and public health services • facilitating agricultural, building and construction projects The operations of 1ATF may be divided into three phases. • Mid-1966 to December 1967: Two battalions engaged the VC and weakened their grip on

Phuoc Tuy province.

• January 1968 to mid-1969: The Task Force was expanded to include a third infantry battalion, additional support arms and services, and a squadron of Centurion tanks. Most of the Task Force was periodically deployed outside Phuoc Tuy in large-scale operations with American and ARVN units.

• Mid-1969 to the Task Force withdrawal in December 1971: Enemy force numbers declined and the government’s position strengthened.

2.3 Australian Withdrawal

After the ‘Tet’ offensive in 1968, which was a tactical defeat but a propaganda victory for the NLF and NVA, America began withdrawing troops from Vietnam. As Australians increasingly doubted that the war could be won, conscription became a strong political issue. Anti-conscription protests and the American withdrawal increased pressure to withdraw Australian troops. The Australian withdrawal began in April 1970 and was largely complete by December 1971. The last Australians left Vietnam in July 1973.

3 NUI DAT 3.1 Location The location of the Australian Task Force base at Nui Dat depended on a number of factors. The Task Force’s long term aim was to break Viet Cong hold over the central region of Phuoc Tuy province, so the base had to be: • centrally located in the province, to better support operations • positioned to inhibit VC incursions into the main populated areas of Phuoc Tuy • able to resist Viet Cong forces of up to divisional size • soundly located tactically • out of mortar range of any small villages or hamlets • capable of accommodating 3,000 to 5,000 men • capable of accommodating a medium sized air-strip While Nui Dat did not meet all requirements, it offered minimal disruption to the lives of the local Vietnamese and had relatively short road communications to logistics support from Vung Tau and to the province headquarters.


5

3.2 Accommodation Some 5,000 Australians were based at Nui Dat, most of which was a former rubber plantation. They were accommodated in canvas tents in unit areas, each of which was surrounded by wire and had single secured entrances and exits. Where possible camp living areas were located under rubber trees that could provide shade and protection. Tents and tent flys were made of heavy duty canvas. Tent sides could be raised or lowered to provide extra room and to improve air flow. Tent flys afforded extra protection against the elements and had an insulating effect. Ropes strung through tents and attached to trees provided hanging space. Sand-bags, two deep and six to nine high surrounded each tent and provided some protection against mortars and rockets which were used occasionally against the base at Nui Dat. Some tents had L-shaped sand-bagged entrances for extra security. Sometimes corrugated metal was put around sand-bags to reduce exposure to the elements and the need for repairs. Floors in most tents were made of four wooden duck-boards, each about 1.5 metre square resting on footings made from shell cases. Areas beneath floors were havens for snakes, spiders and rats, all of which were potent deterrents to retrieving objects lost between the duck-boards. Tent entrances commonly featured boot scrapers made from cut down star pickets.

3.2.1 Tent contents Typically four men shared a tent, but lieutenants shared with other lieutenants and sergeants with sergeants. Officers of higher rank had tents to themselves. Men had their own beds with dark-green covered hard foam mattresses, sheets and pillows. Each bed had a mosquito- net, rigged in one of a variety of ways including tied to tent flaps or to specially built frames. Steel trunks or ‘soldier’s boxes’ lay at the ends of, or under beds. Invariably locked, they contained personal items such as radios, travelling clocks and writing materials, valuables like cameras, spare kit such as boots, fatigues and socks, civilian clothing and various items of food protected from vermin.

Waterproof fly

Mosquito net

Bed

Soldier’s trunk

Star-picket mat

Ammunition boxes used for storage

Duckboarding

Makeshift table and chairs


6

Tent at Nui Dat 1966. Note the bed enclosed by a mosquito net, the short-wave radio, and the thongs under the bed, used for protection against tinea in communal shower blocks. AWM P1353/44/24

Kit bags or duffle bags, often used for laundry, were usually kept under beds. Commonly troops washed their own underwear but other items, code numbered to ensure their safe return, were sent to Q-stores and thence to Baria for laundering.

Packing cases were used to make shelves next to the beds. These were used for storing weapons, boots, toiletries, family photographs etc, for easy access. Packing cases and boxes were often used as tables and chairs. Small portable ‘choofer’ stoves, heated by burning hexamine tablets, were used to make tea and coffee and to keep food hot.

3.3 On Patrol

Australian infantry, supported by armour (tanks), cavalry (armoured personnel carriers), artillery and field engineers, was involved primarily in two kinds of operation. These were ‘cordon and search’ and ‘search and destroy’ operations. Search and destroy operations were later refered to as ‘reconnaissance in force’. 3.3.1 Cordon and Search Cordon and search operations were modelled on the Malayan Emergency practice of sealing off villages from contact with the insurgents to whom they provided support. They also prevented the VC visiting villages for taxing, recruiting, or coercive purposes. They were: • mounted in surprise • started before dawn • usually completed within a single day • carried out in conjunction with local Vietnamese military and police authorities Troops with supporting arms surrounded villages to ‘flush out’ insurgents. Villagers were interrogated and had their identity cards checked. Frequently the 1st Australian Civil Affairs Unit undertook civic action at the same time, for example basic health-care among villagers. Once cordons had been set, villagers were instructed to go to designated assembly areas. While some troops searched, others acting as the cordons blocked would-be evaders. In addition to rounding up members of the Viet Cong, these operations located tunnel and chamber complexes in which weapons, food and enemy soldiers were hidden. Like the Malayan experience where they were a real factor in containing terrorist activity, the value of cordon and search operations in Vietnam was unquestionable.


7

3.3.2 Search and Destroy (Reconnaissance in Force) Search and destroy operations were forays into VC base areas, located in jungle-clad rocky hills or dense jungle, particularly in the north-west, east and south-east of the province. Guerillas vacate rather than hold their bases. Therefore these operations were usually undertaken by battalion or more strength, inserted into the target area by Iroquois helicopter, Armoured Personnel Carrier or on foot. They comprised: • locating base areas • attacking and destroying base areas • ambushing VC along trails linking base areas and population centres • locating caches of weapons and supplies • destroying caches of weapons and supplies 3.4 Non-operational days on return from operations When troops returned from (often lengthy periods on) patrol, their first non-operational days ‘inside the wire’ at Nui Dat were characterised by: • 0600 hours roll-call and paludrine parade* • breakfast of cereal, eggs, bacon, tomatoes, coffee, tea and locally made bread • 0800 hours parade and duties roster for such things as:

‘make and mend’ clothing and equipment tidying camp areas rewiring camp perimeters refilling sandbags replacing fire-bucket water with sand* removing empty cans*

• 1030 hours ‘smoko’ of tea, buns and scones • 1200 hours officer’s and OR’s messes open for recreation and non-alcoholic drinks • 1230 hours either hot or cold lunch • afternoon recreation including games, resting, letter-writing • 1600 hours brief showers under canvas buckets with rosette bottoms, the duration

determined by the volume of cold water added to 44 gallon drums in which it was heated to replace hot water used

• 1730 hours messes open for alcoholic drinks • 1800 hours evening meal • 1900 hours roll-call, paludrine parade* and daily mail delivery • evening recreation • 2300 hours lights out, bed check and mess closure by duty NCO Despite limitations on numbers of alcoholic drinks permitted, drunkenness was not uncommon. * Paludrine parade was the supervised compulsory ingestion of malaria suppressant tablets. Other methods to combat malaria included strict removal of accumulations of water to prevent mosquitoes breeding, as with fire buckets or empty cans, and wearing long sleeves and trousers during dusk and dawn when mosquitoes were most active.


8

3.5 Achievements of the Australian forces

It has been said that 1ATF experienced considerable success between its first major battle at Long Tan in August 1966 and its final action in September 1971. Certainly Australian forces inflicted heavy losses on local VC units in Phuoc Tuy province, particularly during 1969 and 1970. The operations in which Australians were engaged did not however involve taking or holding territory. This was the function of RVN forces. Civic Action undertaken by the Australians in Phuoc Tuy may well have succeeded in promoting goodwill towards the Australian Army but failed in its primary aim of winning the local people’s support for the Republic of Vietnam.

4 CONSCRIPTION IN AUSTRALIA 4.1 Introduction of overseas service for conscripts

Australia’s military forces were reduced in size after WWII, and further reduced during the 1950’s and 1960’s, leaving a diminished number of regular soldiers. The military offered few attractions as a career during a time of full employment. Recruitment numbers did not meet the Australian Defence Forces’ requirements. Exacerbating the shortfall in recruitment were: • Australia’s commitment to Vietnam • Indonesia's policy of confrontation with the Malaysian Federation • the possibility of direct conflict between Australia and Indonesia over a common border in

New Guinea These factors underpinned the Liberal Government’s ammendment of the existing National Service Act, to enable conscripts to serve overseas. National Service conscripts had to serve for two years, reduced to 18 months in August 1971. They were asked to ‘volunteer’ for overseas service, and nearly one in three did. Reasons included a desire to be involved with the fighting, and strong social and peer pressures. 4.2 Conscription ballots Conscription ballots were variously dubbed the ‘birthday ballot’, ‘Russian roulette’ and the ‘lottery of death’. Ballots were held twice a year, in secret, presided over by public servants and military officials. Marbles were drawn representing each day of the the six month period, and twenty-year-old males born on the days drawn were conscripted. The number of marbles drawn depended on government calculations about the number of male twenty-year-olds born on each date, and the number of conscripts required. By the end of the scheme, one in twelve eligible men had been called up. The method of choosing conscripts was criticised on many grounds, including that the dates drawn were not published (leading to suggestions of manipulation), and that the system was not universal.


9

Moratorium marchers on the steps of Parliament House Melbourne, 1970. AWM P0671/14/03

4.3 Men not conscripted Exemptions included: • Australian aborigines • ministers of religion and theological students • non-naturalised citizens • conscientious objectors (who risked jail instead) Temporary and permanent deferments from National Service could be obtained by: • apprentices • university students • married men • men able to show that military service would cause them or their families undue hardship • members of the Citizen Military Forces (CMF) 4.4 The Anti-War Movement in Australia There was little opposition to Australia's commitment of military instructors to South Vietnam in 1962. The later commitment of Australian combat troops and introduction of conscription, however, resulted in the development of an anti-war and anti-conscription movement. Some people who supported National Service as a concept objected to the selective eligibility. Others opposed consciption because of its connection with the wider politics of the Vietnam War. Anti-conscription and anti-war protesters came from a variety of social, economic and educational backgrounds, with varying degrees of radicalism. Later the movement became closely connected with the political left, and the ALP campaigned on a strong anti-war platform. Nevertheless, the exact political impact of anti-conscription and anti-war protests is unknown. It is debatable for example whether Australia withdrew its troops from Vietnam predominantly because of domestic political pressure, or simply because it was follwing the American lead. Both factors developed concurrently, and both influenced decisions. Moratorium marches attracted several hundred thousand protesters around Australia, but the movement overall was politically weak and divided. It did not have an official parliamentary presence, and did not achieve the degree of social or political impact of its American equivalent. It did however inspire resentment among the men and women fighting in Vietnam.


10

4.5 Australian losses Nearly 20,000 National Service conscripts served in Vietnam. This was slightly less than the approximate 21,300 regular Army members who served there (some on more than one tour). The number of deaths among these two groups was also roughly similar, slightly less among conscripts (200 to 242). A total of 508 Australians died while serving in Vietnam, from the three military Services, the Citizen Military Force (CMF) and civilian and philanthropic organisations. The newly elected Labor government abolished National Service on 5 December 1972.


11

5 APPENDIX 5.1 Statistics 5.1.1 Number of Australians who served in Vietnam, 23 May 1962 to 1 July 1973 Service Males Females Navy 12,376 nil Army (Regular Army, National Service and CMF)

41,388 47

Air Force 4,438 106 Philanthropic 28 - Civilian (SEATO aid, entertainers and war correspondents)

806 331

Total 59,036 484 Source: Mortality of Vietnam Veterans, 1997, Commonwealth Department of Veterans’ Affairs 5.1.2 Australian conscription Registered 804,000 CMF option 35,000 Called up 63,000 Vietnam service 19,383 5.1.3 Australians killed in Vietnam Navy 9 Army 478 Air Force 14 Civilian 7 Total 508 5.1.4 American and Vietnamese losses American lives lost: Approximately 60,000 Vietnamese lives lost: • 215,000 South Vietnamese military personnel • 415,000 South Vietnamese civilians • 1,075,000 North Vietnamese and Viet Cong In the ten years 1965-75 over 17 million Indochineses became refugees: • 11.7 million South Vietnamese • 2 million Laotians • 3.4 million Cambodians


12

5.2 Chronology of Australian Forces involvement in Vietnam 1962

• 3 August: thirty 30 advisers forming Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV) arrive in Vietnam to assist Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN)

1964

• 8 Jun: AATTV increased to 80 advisers to be employed in ARVN field units

• 6 Jul: first AATTV adviser killed in action

• 10 Nov: selective conscription of 20-year-old males introduced under National Service Act 1965

• Jan: AATTV increased to 100 officers and warrant officers

• 8 Mar: First American combat troops arrive in South Vietnam

• 29 Apr: Australian infantry battalion committed to Vietnam

• Jun: 1st Battalion Royal Australian Regiment (1RAR) and support forces totalling 1,100 men established at Bien Hoa to serve under operational control of the US 173 Airborne Brigade as its third battalion

• Sep: Morgan Gallup Poll: 56 per cent of Australians in favour of Australian involvement in Vietnam; 28 per cent in favour of withdrawal; 10 per cent undecided.

• Sep: 1RAR expanded to battalion group of 1,400 men with artillery battery, engineer troop, army aviation reconnaissance flight and logistic support elements.

1966

• April: Australian PM (Harold Holt) visits Vietnam. • 8 Mar: Australian commitment increased to an independent task force of two battalions

with combat and logistic support. • Jun: 1st Australian Task Force (1ATF), of 4,500 men including 500 National Servicemen,

established at Nui Dat in Phuoc Tuy province (currently Ba Ria/Vung Tau province). 1st Australian Logistic Support Group (l ALSG) established at the nearby port and airfield facility of Vung Tau

• 24 May: Pte Errol Wayne Noack becomes first Australian conscript to die in Vietnam • 12 Jun: Iroquois helicopter squadron provided to support 1ATF • 30 Jun: Prime Minister Holt announces Australia will go 'all the way with LBJ'. • 18 Jul: Conscientious objector William White refuses to report for National Service • 18 Aug Battle of Long Tan: D Company 6RAR, supported by artillery, beats off attacks by

a combined Viet Cong main force regiment and provincial battalion • 19 Nov: Morgan Gallup Poll: 63 per cent in favour of conscription; 37 per cent in favour

of sending conscripts to Vietnam • 22 Dec: Further commitments to Vietnam announced 1967

• Mar: RAN guided missile destroyer operates with US 7th Fleet in Gulf of Tonkin

• 19 Apr: RAAF squadron of Canberra bombers committed to Vietnam

• May: Morgan Gallup Poll: 62 per cent in favour of the war; 24 per cent in favour of Australian withdrawal; 14 per cent undecided


13

• 17 Oct: Australian commitment increased by a third battalion and a tank squadron

• Oct: RAN helicopters deployed with US Army 1968

• Jan: Australian Opposition Leader visits Vietnam

• 30 Jan: Tet Offensive starts

• 12 Feb: Australia declines to increase its Vietnam commitment

• May: National Service Act amended to impose two-year civil jail term for draft evaders

• May/Jun: 1ATF involved in battles defending Fire Support Bases Coral and Balmoral

• 9 Jun: Australian Prime Minister (John Gorton) visits Vietnam 1969

• Jan: Peak 8,300 Australians, (more than 7,000 Army personnel) deployed in Vietnam

• 25 Jan: Truce negotiations begin in Paris

• 8 Jun: Withdrawal of American forces begins

• August: Morgan Gallup Poll: 40 per cent in favour of continuing the war; 55 per cent in favour of Australian withdrawal; 6 per cent undecided

• 14 Oct: John Zarb, the first Australian found guilty of failing to comply with a call-up notice, convicted and sentenced to a two year jail term

1970

• 22 Apr: Reduction by one battalion of Australian forces in Vietnam announced

• 8 May: First Australian moratorium march (120,000 participants)

• 18 Sep: Second Australian moratorium march (100,000 participants, over 300 arrested) 1971

• 30 Mar: Withdrawal of 1,000 personnel during following three months announced

• 30 Jun: Third and final large anti-war rally, 110,000 demonstrate

• 8 Dec: Last major withdrawal of Australian troops from Vietnam 1972

• 5 Dec: National Service ended and imprisoned draft resisters released from prison by newly elected Labor Government

• 18 Dec: Last Australian troops (AATTV) withdraw from Vietnam leaving Australian Embassy guard

1973

• 11 Jan: Cessation of Australia’s military involvement proclaimed

• 26 Feb: Establishment of diplomatic relations announced with Democratic Republic of Vietnam (Hanoi), and retention of diplomatic recognition of Republic of Vietnam (Saigon)

• 29 Mar: Last US military forces leave Vietnam

• 1 July: Last Australian involvement terminated


14


15

6 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Dennis, P., Grey, J. et al (eds) The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History Oxford

University Press, Melbourne, 1995. Edwards, P. ‘Some Reflections on the Australian Commitment to the Vietnam War’ in Journal

of AWM, April 1992. Frost, F. Australia’s War in Vietnam Allen and Unwin, 1987. Grey, J. A Military History of Australia Cambridge University Press, 1990. McNeill, I. To Long Tan Allen and Unwin, 1993. McNeill, I. ‘An Outline of Australian Military Involvement in Vietnam July 1962 to Dec 1972’

(article, no further details). O’Neill, R. J. Vietnam Task Cassell, 1995. Woods, J. Vietnam and the Indochina Conflict McMillan, Auckland, 1990.

VOLUNTARY GUIDES BACKGROUNDER Number 62 … 1... · VOLUNTARY GUIDES BACKGROUNDER Number 62 Issue...

Documents

Transcript of VOLUNTARY GUIDES BACKGROUNDER Number 62 … 1... · VOLUNTARY GUIDES BACKGROUNDER Number 62 Issue...