open house Vol.39 No.1.pdfCognitive Mapping. Ashraf M. Salama, Ahood Al-Maimani, and Fatma Khalfani...
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BOARD OF EDITORS The journal of an association of institutes concerned with the quality of built environment. The publishing framework is shaped around the forces which act on built environment, which maintain, change and transform it. The content consists of articles which deal with these issues and in particular with responsive, self-sustaining and re-usable environ- ments which have the capacity to respond to change, provide user choice and value for money. www.openhouse-int.com open house open house Dr.Iftekhar Ahmed, RMIT University, Australia. Dr. Zainab F. Ali, University of Damman, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Robert Brown, University of Westminster, London, Great Britain. Prof.Marta Calzolaretti, Housing Lab, Sapienza Universita di Roma, Italy. Dr. German T. Cruz, Ball State University Muncie, USA. Carla Corbin, Department of Landscape Architecture, Ball State University, USA. Ype Cuperus, Delft University of Technology Delft, The Netherlands. Dr. Ayona Datta, University of Leeds, UK. Dr.Md Nasir Daud, University of Malaya, Malaysia. Forbes Davidson, Institute of Housing & Urban Development Studies, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Diane Diacon, Building and Social Housing Foundation, Coalville, Great Britain. Prof. Yurdanur Dulgeroglu-Yuksel, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey. Prof. Jin-Ho Park, Inha University, Korea Prof. Avi Friedman, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Dr. Ahmed Abu Al Haija, Philadelphia University, Eng. & Arch. Dep.t, Jordan. Prof. Keith Hilton, Mansle, France. Dr. Karim Hadjri, University of Central lan- cashire, UK. Prof. Nabeel Hamdi, Professor Emeritus, Oxford Brookes University, UK. Dr. Sebnem Önal Hoskara, Eastern Mediterranean University, Northern Cyprus. Prof Anthony D C Hyland, Consultant in Architectural Conservation and Heritage Management, Durham, UK Dr. Mahmud Mohd Jusan, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). Ripin Kalra, University of Westminster, and . (WSPimc), London. Dr. Stephen Kendall, Ball State University Muncie, Indiana, USA. Prof. Bob Koester, Ball State University Muncie, USA. Prof. Roderick J. Lawrence, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland. Dr. Fuad Mallick, BRAC University, Bangladesh. Prof. Andrea Martin-Chavez, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana, Mexico. Dr. Magda Mostafa, Associate Professor, The American University in Cairo, Egypt Babar Mumtaz, DPU, University College London, London, UK. Geoffery Payne, GPA Associates London, UK Dr. Sule Tasli Pektas, Bilkent University, Turkey. Prof. Gulsun Saglamer, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey. Dr. Mark Napier, Urban LandMark, Pretoria, South Africa. Dr. Masa Noguchi, MEARU, Mackintosh School of Architecture, UK. Prof. Ibrahim Numan, Fatih Sultan Mehmet University, Turkey. Dr. Yara Saifi, Al Quds University, Jerusalem, Palestine. Prof. Paola Somma, University of Venice, Italy. Prof. Jia Beisi, University of Hong Kong. Dr. Peter Kellett, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Great Britain. Dr. Omar Khattab, University of Kuwait. Dr. Levente Mályusz, Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME), Hungary. Prof. Amos Rapoport, University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee, USA. Prof. Seiji Sawada, Meiji University, Tokyo, Japan. Dr. Florian Steinberg, Asian Development Bank, The Philippines. Dr. Quazi M Mahtab uz Zaman, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, UK Prof. H. J Visscher, OTB, Delft Univertsity of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands. Patrick Wakely, Professor Emeritus, University College London, UK. Dr. Christine Wamsler, University of Manchester, UK and University of Lund, Sweden. : Yonca Hurol, Eastern Mediterranean University, Mersin 10, Turkey. : Esra Can, Emre Akbil, Eastern Mediterranean University Mersin 10 - Turkey. [email protected] : C. Punton, P.O Box 74, Gateshead,Tyne & Wear, NE9 5UZ, Great Britain. [email protected] : The Urban International Press, P.O Box 74, Gateshead, Tyne and Wear NE9 5UZ, Great Britain. : Printed by Eastern Mediterranean University Print House, Gazimagusa, Mersin 10, Turkey : By courtesy of Velina Mirincheva, Florian Wiedmann and Ashraf M. Salama in “The Spatial Development Potentials of Business Districts in Doha:” Figure 2 Page18. : Emmanuel Tibung Chenyi, Eastern Mediteranian University, Mersin 10, Turkey. [email protected] Technical Editing Cover Design Subscriptions Published by Printing Cover Image Web Manager & DTP Work Aims Open House International The Open House International Association (OHIA) aims to communicate, disseminate and exchange housing and planning information. The focus of this exchange is on tools, methods and processes which enable the various professional disciplines to understand the dynamics of housing and so contribute more effectively to it. To achieve its aims, the OHIA organizes and co-ordi- nates a number of activities which include the publication of a quarterly journal, and, in the near future, an interna- tional seminar and an annual competition. The Association has the more general aim of seeking to improve the quality of built environment through encour- aging a greater sharing of decision-making by ordinary people and to help develop the necessary institutional frameworks which will support the local initiatives of peo- ple in the building process. The journal of an association of institutes and individuals concerned with housing, design and development in the built environment. Theories, tools and practice with spe- cial emphasis on the local scale. Delft University of Technology Department of Housing Quality and Process Innovation OTB Research Institute of Housing, Urban and Mobility Studies Jaffalaan 9, 2628 BX Delft, The Netherlands (Henk Visscher) [email protected] www.otb.tudelft.nl McGill University School of Architecture, Macdonald Harrington Building Centre for Minimum Cost Housing Studies, 815, Sherbrook Street West. Montreal, PQ. Canada H3A 2K6. (Avi Friedman)[email protected] www.homes.mcgill.ca Ball State University College of Architecture & Planning, Muncie, Indiana, 47306, USA. (Stephen Kendall) [email protected] www.bsu.edu/cap The Development Planning Unit University College London. 34, Tavistock Square London WC1H 9EZ. (Caren Levy) [email protected] www.ucl.ac.uk/dpu HousingLab Dipartimento di Architettura, Ateneo Federato delle Scienze Umane delle Arti e dell'Ambiente, SAPIENZA Università di Roma, Roma, Italy. (Marta Calzolaretti) [email protected] http:w3.uniroma1.it/housinglab The Glasgow School of Art Mackintosh School of Archirecture MEARU, 176 Renfrew Street Glasgow G3 6RQ. Great Britain (Masa Noguchi) [email protected] www.gsa.ac.uk Budapest University of Technology & Econ. (BME) Faculty of Architecture Budapest, Muegyetem rkp. 3. 1111 Hungary. (Levente Malyusz) [email protected] www.bme.hu Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) Resource Development Division, Perpustakaan Sultanah Zanariah, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) 81310 Skudai Johor, Malaysia. (Anuar Talib) [email protected] http://portal.psz.utm.my/psz/ Philadelphia University, Engineering & Architecture Department, Faculty of Engineering, P.O Box 1, Jordan. (Ahmed Abu Al-Haija) [email protected] www.philadelphia.edu.jo/content/view/448/590/ University of Malaya, Faculty of Built Environment, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. (Md Nasir Daud) [email protected] http://www.fbe.um.edu.my Ajman University of Science & Technology Ajman, P. O. Box 346, UAE. United Arab Emirates (Jihad Awad) [email protected] www.ajman.ac.ae/austweb/index87ec.html?catid=46&langid=2 Qatar University Qatar University Library, Aquisitons Department, P.O Box 2713, Doha, Qatar. (Amrita Mckinney) [email protected] www.qu.edu.qa BRAC University, Department of Architecture, Dhaka, Bangladesh, (Fuad H Mallick) [email protected] www.bracu.ac.bd Universidad Del Rosario, Calle 14 No. 6-25, Bogotá, Colombia. (Janneth Espitia) [email protected] www.urosario.edu.co Birzeit University Main Library Ramallah, West Bank, P.O.Box: "14", Birzeit, Palestine(Taghgreed Shihadeh) [email protected] www.birzeit.edu Inha University, Department of Architecture, Inha University, Incheon, Korea. (Jin-Ho Park) [email protected] www.d-lab.k Director & Editor-in-Chief Nicholas Wilkinson, RIBA, Eastern Mediterranean University, Northern Cyprus.DPU Associate, University College London, UK. [email protected] Collaborating Editor Dr. Ashraf M. Salama, Dept. of Architecture & Urban Planning, Qatar University, Qatar. Email: [email protected] Web Editor Emmanuel Tibung Chenyi Eastern Mediterranean Univ. Dept of Arch. Via mersin 10. TR Email:[email protected]
Transcript of open house Vol.39 No.1.pdfCognitive Mapping. Ashraf M. Salama, Ahood Al-Maimani, and Fatma Khalfani...
BOARD OF EDITORS
The journal of an association of institutes concerned with the quality of built environment.The publishing framework is shaped around the forces which act on built environment,which maintain, change and transform it. The content consists of articles which deal withthese issues and in particular with responsive, self-sustaining and re-usable environ-ments which have the capacity to respond to change, provide user choice and value formoney.
w w w . o p e n h o u s e - i n t . c o m openhouse
openhouse
Dr.Iftekhar Ahmed, RMIT University, Australia.
Dr. Zainab F. Ali, University of Damman, Saudi
Arabia.
Dr. Robert Brown, University of Westminster,
London, Great Britain.
Prof.Marta Calzolaretti, Housing Lab, Sapienza
Universita di Roma, Italy.
Dr. German T. Cruz, Ball State University
Muncie, USA.
Carla Corbin, Department of Landscape
Architecture, Ball State University, USA.
Ype Cuperus, Delft University of Technology
Delft, The Netherlands.
Dr. Ayona Datta, University of Leeds, UK.
Dr.Md Nasir Daud, University of Malaya,
Malaysia.
Forbes Davidson, Institute of Housing & Urban
Development Studies, Rotterdam, The
Netherlands.
Diane Diacon, Building and Social Housing
Foundation, Coalville, Great Britain.
Prof. Yurdanur Dulgeroglu-Yuksel,Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey.
Prof. Jin-Ho Park, Inha University, Korea
Prof. Avi Friedman, McGill University, Montreal,
Canada.
Dr. Ahmed Abu Al Haija, Philadelphia
University, Eng. & Arch. Dep.t, Jordan.
Prof. Keith Hilton, Mansle, France.
Dr. Karim Hadjri, University of Central lan-
cashire, UK.
Prof. Nabeel Hamdi, Professor Emeritus,
Oxford Brookes University, UK.
Dr. Sebnem Önal Hoskara, Eastern
Mediterranean University, Northern Cyprus.
Prof Anthony D C Hyland,Consultant in Architectural Conservation
and Heritage Management, Durham, UK
Dr. Mahmud Mohd Jusan, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia (UTM).
Ripin Kalra, University of Westminster, and .
(WSPimc), London.
Dr. Stephen Kendall, Ball State
University Muncie, Indiana, USA.
Prof. Bob Koester, Ball State University Muncie,
USA.
Prof. Roderick J. Lawrence, University of
Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
Dr. Fuad Mallick, BRAC University, Bangladesh.
Prof. Andrea Martin-Chavez, Universidad
Autonoma Metropolitana, Mexico.
Dr. Magda Mostafa, Associate Professor, The
American University in Cairo, Egypt
Babar Mumtaz, DPU, University College
London, London, UK.
Geoffery Payne, GPA Associates London, UK
Dr. Sule Tasli Pektas, Bilkent University, Turkey.
Prof. Gulsun Saglamer, Istanbul Technical
University, Istanbul, Turkey.
Dr. Mark Napier, Urban LandMark, Pretoria,
South Africa.
Dr. Masa Noguchi, MEARU, Mackintosh School
of Architecture, UK.
Prof. Ibrahim Numan, Fatih Sultan Mehmet
University, Turkey.
Dr. Yara Saifi, Al Quds University, Jerusalem,
Palestine.
Prof. Paola Somma, University of Venice, Italy.
Prof. Jia Beisi, University of Hong Kong.
Dr. Peter Kellett, University of Newcastle upon
Tyne, Great Britain.
Dr. Omar Khattab, University of Kuwait.
Dr. Levente Mályusz, Budapest University of
Technology and Economics (BME), Hungary.
Prof. Amos Rapoport, University of Wisconsin
at Milwaukee, USA.
Prof. Seiji Sawada, Meiji University, Tokyo,
Japan.
Dr. Florian Steinberg, Asian Development
Bank, The Philippines.
Dr. Quazi M Mahtab uz Zaman,
Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, UK
Prof. H. J Visscher, OTB, Delft Univertsity of
Technology, Delft, The Netherlands.
Patrick Wakely, Professor Emeritus, University
College London, UK.
Dr. Christine Wamsler, University of
Manchester, UK and University of Lund,
Sweden.
: Yonca Hurol, Eastern Mediterranean University, Mersin 10, Turkey.: Esra Can, Emre Akbil, Eastern Mediterranean University Mersin 10 - Turkey. [email protected]: C. Punton, P.O Box 74, Gateshead,Tyne & Wear, NE9 5UZ, Great Britain. [email protected]: The Urban International Press, P.O Box 74, Gateshead, Tyne and Wear NE9 5UZ, Great Britain.: Printed by Eastern Mediterranean University Print House, Gazimagusa, Mersin 10, Turkey: By courtesy of Velina Mirincheva, Florian Wiedmann and Ashraf M. Salama in “The Spatial Development
Potentials of Business Districts in Doha:” Figure 2 Page18.: Emmanuel Tibung Chenyi, Eastern Mediteranian University, Mersin 10, Turkey. [email protected]
Technical EditingCover DesignSubscriptionsPublished byPrintingCover Image
Web Manager &DTP Work
Aims
Open House International
The Open House International Association (OHIA) aims
to communicate, disseminate and exchange housing and
planning information. The focus of this exchange is on
tools, methods and processes which enable the various
professional disciplines to understand the dynamics of
housing and so contribute more effectively to it.
To achieve its aims, the OHIA organizes and co-ordi-
nates a number of activities which include the publication
of a quarterly journal, and, in the near future, an interna-
tional seminar and an annual competition. The
Association has the more general aim of seeking to
improve the quality of built environment through encour-
aging a greater sharing of decision-making by ordinary
people and to help develop the necessary institutional
frameworks which will support the local initiatives of peo-
ple in the building process.
The journal of an association of institutes and individuals
concerned with housing, design and development in the
built environment. Theories, tools and practice with spe-
cial emphasis on the local scale.
Delft University of TechnologyDepartment of Housing Quality and Process Innovation OTB
Research Institute of Housing, Urban and Mobility Studies
Jaffalaan 9, 2628 BX Delft, The Netherlands
(Henk Visscher) [email protected] www.otb.tudelft.nl
McGill UniversitySchool of Architecture, Macdonald Harrington Building
Centre for Minimum Cost Housing Studies, 815, Sherbrook
Street West. Montreal, PQ. Canada H3A 2K6.
(Avi Friedman)[email protected]
www.homes.mcgill.ca
Ball State UniversityCollege of Architecture & Planning, Muncie, Indiana, 47306,
USA. (Stephen Kendall) [email protected]
www.bsu.edu/cap
The Development Planning UnitUniversity College London. 34, Tavistock Square London
WC1H 9EZ. (Caren Levy) [email protected]
www.ucl.ac.uk/dpu
HousingLabDipartimento di Architettura, Ateneo Federato delle Scienze
Umane delle Arti e dell'Ambiente, SAPIENZA Università di
Roma, Roma, Italy. (Marta Calzolaretti)
[email protected] http:w3.uniroma1.it/housinglab
The Glasgow School of ArtMackintosh School of Archirecture MEARU, 176 Renfrew
Street Glasgow G3 6RQ. Great Britain
(Masa Noguchi) [email protected]
www.gsa.ac.uk
Budapest University of Technology & Econ. (BME)Faculty of Architecture Budapest, Muegyetem rkp. 3.
1111 Hungary. (Levente Malyusz) [email protected]
www.bme.hu
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM)Resource Development Division, Perpustakaan Sultanah
Zanariah, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) 81310 Skudai
Johor, Malaysia. (Anuar Talib) [email protected]
http://portal.psz.utm.my/psz/
Philadelphia University,Engineering & Architecture Department, Faculty of
Engineering, P.O Box 1, Jordan. (Ahmed Abu Al-Haija)
www.philadelphia.edu.jo/content/view/448/590/
University of Malaya,Faculty of Built Environment, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
(Md Nasir Daud) [email protected]
http://www.fbe.um.edu.my
Ajman University of Science & TechnologyAjman, P. O. Box 346, UAE. United Arab Emirates
(Jihad Awad) [email protected]
www.ajman.ac.ae/austweb/index87ec.html?catid=46&langid=2
Qatar UniversityQatar University Library, Aquisitons Department,
P.O Box 2713, Doha, Qatar. (Amrita Mckinney)
[email protected] www.qu.edu.qa
BRAC University,Department of Architecture, Dhaka, Bangladesh,
(Fuad H Mallick) [email protected] www.bracu.ac.bd
Universidad Del Rosario, Calle 14 No. 6-25, Bogotá, Colombia. (Janneth Espitia)
[email protected] www.urosario.edu.co
Birzeit University Main LibraryRamallah, West Bank, P.O.Box: "14", Birzeit,
Palestine(Taghgreed Shihadeh) [email protected]
www.birzeit.edu
Inha University, Department of Architecture, Inha University,
Incheon, Korea. (Jin-Ho Park) [email protected]
www.d-lab.k
Director & Editor-in-Chief
Nicholas Wilkinson, RIBA, Eastern Mediterranean University,
Northern Cyprus.DPU Associate,
University College London, UK.
Collaborating Editor
Dr. Ashraf M. Salama,Dept. of Architecture &
Urban Planning, Qatar
University, Qatar.
Email: [email protected]
Web Editor
Emmanuel Tibung ChenyiEastern Mediterranean Univ.
Dept of Arch. Via mersin 10. TR
Email:[email protected]
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Contents
EDITORIAL: Nicholas Wilkinson
SUSTAINABLE URBANISM: MOVING PAST NEO-MODERNIST & NEO-TRADITIONALIST HOUSING STRATEGIES
Alazar G Ejigu & Tigran Haas*
SUSTAİNABLE ARCHITECTURE IN RURAL YAYLA SETTLEMENTSSıdıka Çetin, Ayse Betul Gokarslan
THE LAYERED DEPENDENCY STRUCTURE MATRIX FOR MANAGING COLLABORATIVE DESIGN PROCESSES
Şule Taşlı Pektaş
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF COURTYARD HOUSING USING FENG SHUI
Afet Çeliker, Banu Tevfikler Çavuşoğlu, Zehra Öngül
DEMOLITION VERSUS DECONSTRUCTION: IMPACTS OF FENESTRATION DISPOSAL IN BUILDING RENOVATION PROJECTS
Soofia Tahira Elias-Ozkan
A REVIEW OF LOFTS AS HOUSING IN ISTANBULSerpil Özker
HOUSING COOPERATIVES IN THE PALESTINIAN TERRITORIES:DEVELOPMENT AND CURRENT PRACTICE
Shadi Sami Ghadban
ATTITUDES TOWARDS URBAN OPEN SPACES: EQUATING HUMAN NEEDS ON OPEN SPACE PLANNING
Melasutra Md Dali, Safiah Muhammad Yusoff, Puteri Haryati Ibrahim
LANDSCAPE AND SUSTAINABILITY: THREE RESIDENTIAL COLLEGE BUILDINGS IN THE TROPICS
Adi Ainurzaman Jamaludin, Nila Keumala, Ati Rosemary Mohd Ariffi , Hazreena Hussein
Open House International has been selected for coverage by EBSCO Publishing, the ELSEVIER Bibliographic DatabaseScopus and all products of THOMSON ISI index bases, SSCI, A&HCI,CC/S&BS and CC/A&H The journal is also list-ed on the following Architectural index lists: RIBA, ARCLIB, AVERY and EKISTICS. Open House International is onlinefor subscribers and gives limited access for non-subscribers at www.openhouse-int.com
NEXT ISSUE: VOL. 39.NO.2 2014: THEME ISSUE IMPROVING ENERGY EFFICIENCY INTHE EXISTING HOUSING STOCK: POLICIES, PROCESSES AND PEOPLE.
Guest Editor: Prof.Dr. ir. Henk J.Visscher, Chair:Housing Quality & Process Innovation, OTBResearch Institute of the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology. The Netherlands.
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open house in te rnat iona l march 2014 vo l .39 no.1OPEN ISSUE: Covering Climate-Adaptive Behaviours, Collaborative Design, Courtyard House, Feng Shui, Deconstruction, Housing Co-operatives, UrbanPlanning, Low Carbon Cities Frameworks, Loft Conversions, Sustainable Urbanism.Editor: Nicholas Wilkinson RIBA,AA Dipl. Eastern Mediterranean University, Faculty of Architecture, Gazimagusa, Mersin 10, Turkey. E-Mail: [email protected]
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Previous Issues
Guest Editors:Prof. Ashraf M. Salama & Dr. Florian Wiedmann Department of Architecture and Urban Planning,College of Engineering, Qatar University, Doha,Qatar E-mail: [email protected]
Guest Editor: Dr. Masa Noguchi. MEARU (R&DZEMCH Group), Mackintosh School of Architecture,The Glasgow School of Art, UK
Editorial: Ashraf M. Salama and Florian WiedmannManufacturing The Image Of Doha: From the Public Face of Architecture to thePrinted Media. Ashraf M. Salama The Spatial Development Potentials of Business Districts In Doha: The Case of theWest Bay. Velina Mirincheva, Florian Wiedmann and Ashraf M. SalamaUrban Reconfiguration and Revitalisation: Public Mega Projects in Doha'sHistoric Centre. Florian Wiedmann, Velina Mirincheva and Ashraf M. SalamaUnderstanding Inhabitants' Spatial Experience of the City Of Doha throughCognitive Mapping. Ashraf M. Salama, Ahood Al-Maimani, and Fatma KhalfaniExperiential Assessment of Urban Open Spaces in Doha. Ashraf M. Salama, Fatma Khalfani, and Ahood Al-MaimaniFrom Souqs to Emporiums: The Urban Transformation of Abu Dhabi.Yasser Elsheshtawy Urban Transformation in the City Of Riyadh: A Study of Plural Urban Identity.Mashary A. Al NaimTracing the Evolution of Urbanism in Kuwait. Yasser MahgoubThe Verticalization of Manama's Urban Periphery. Florian WiedmannImporting Exceptional Buildings:Transforming Urban Arabian Peninsula intoSkyscraper Cities. Kheir Al-Kodmany and Mir M. Ali
Vol. 38 No. 4 2013
open house international
Theme Issue: ‘Unveiling Contemporary Urban Transformationsin the Arabian PeninsulaDynamics of Global Flows, MultipleModernities, and People-Environment Interactions.
Vol. 38 No. 3 2013
open house international
Theme Issue: ‘Zero‐Energy Mass Custom Home ResearchParadıgms’
Editorial: Masa noguchiDesign Issues for Net Zero-Energy BuildingsLaura aelenei, daniel aelenei, helder gonçalves, roberto lollini,Eike musall, alessandra scognamiglio, eduard cubi & massa noguchiMass-Customized Net Energy-Positive Housing For the Great Lakes RegionGeoffrey thün, kathy velikov, mary o’malley & colin ripleyCasa Zero Energy: An Italian prototype of Zero Energy BuildingAntonio frattariMass Housing and Sustainability. Harald n. RøstvikModular, Sustainable and Customized: Projects for the Contemporary DwellingAlessandra de cesaris & domizia mandolesiConfiguring Product Variants in Customisation Strategies for House-BuildingCecília gravina da rocha & carlos torres formosoSustainable Measures and Economic Value in Green Housing Chihiro shimizuMeasured Home Environment and Energy Consumption Compared to acceptedstandards. Hasim altan, mohamed refaee, liangxiu han & masa noguchiBook ReviewYonca hurol
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Previous Issues
Vol. 38 No. 2 2013open house international
OPEN ISSUE:
Edited by Nicholas Wilkinson RIBA, Eastern Mediterranean University, North Cyprus.
DPU Associate, University College London, [email protected]
Guest Editor:: Prof. Dr. Magda Mostafa, Departmentof Construction and Architectural Engineering, The
American University in Cairo, Egypt.Email: [email protected]
Vol. 38 No. 1 2013
open house international
Theme Issue:‘Built Environments for Special Populations’
Editorial:“Expanding Normal: Towards a more Inclusive Approach to Designing the Built Environment”
Magda MostafaEnriching our Understanding of ArchitectureThrough Disability Experience
Ann Heylighen, Caroline Van Doren & Peter-Willem VermeerschA Computer-Based System for Mass Customization of Prefabricated Housing.
Avi Friedman, Aaron Sprecher & Basem Eid MohamedTowards Inclusive Campus Environments: Evidence-Based Research Of A
University Campus. Evrim Demir Mishchenko
Effectiveness of Tactile Surface Indicators in ‘Design For All’ Context.Halime Demirkan
Elderly-Friendly Inclusive Urban Environments:Learning from Ankara.Yasemin Afacan
Book Reviews
EDITORIAL: Nicholas WilkinsonCirculation and Open Space in Affordable Townhouse Communities.
Avi FriedmanA Typo-morphological study: The CMC Industrial Mass Housing District, Lefke,
Northern Cyprus. Nevter Zafer Cömert & Sebnem Önal HoskaraLessons from Vietnamese Urban Street Houses for Contemporary High-Rise
Housing. Le Thi Hong Na, Jin-Ho Park, Minjung ChoTranslating Memories: Reshaping Spatial Patterns on Ephemeral Urban
Dwelling. Jaime E. Gómez M.A Proposal for the Future of Vernacular Architecture Studies. James DavidsonEvaluating Indicators for Renewal of Properties via Gentrification in Budapest.
Lívia Róka-Madarász, Levente MályuszSymbolic Use of Wind-Catchers in Iran. Rafooneh Mokhtarshahi Sani & Payam
Mahasti ShotorbaniRedefining Vernacular: The Lebanese Diaspora Eclecticisms. Stephanie Dadour
State Mass Housing Scheme and The Low-Income Group In Abuja.Bawa Chafe Abdullahi & Wan Nor Azriyati Wan Abd Aziz
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Hugh Pearman, on page 75 of the new SeptemberRIBA Journal, (In part 3 CULTURE ) Pearman 2013,explains the changes he has brought about in termsof content, design and physical feel. This is to hiscredit to have been able to do this. The RIBA jour-nal is now a very pleasant read, very sensitively laidout with quality colour images. Now that the editorHugh Pearman has got this far I think it will be wellmaintained and carry itself through any difficulttimes.
In the December 2013 edition the titlePearman used in the 3: Culture section on page 41was Adapt and Survive . A subject very close to mythinking and philosophy as it embraces the wholetheory of sustainability and enables structures to befilled in and modified whereby they remain up todate and keep in line with the development of tech-nology and fashion. Adaptation can overcome themainstream of peoples dreams and ideas of thepresent and future realms.
Without trying to out-point the new RIBAJournal Open House International has turned for-ward into a new phase and has gone into colourfrom Vol.38 No.4 2013. Our approach is also toadapt and survive by incremental change. First wehave full colour plates then image size will changeand from there to text arrangement. With these inhand our the design and physical feel will be evi-dent.
In this open issue there are a number ofinteresting of subjects ranging from attitudes tourban open spaces to Sustainable Urbanism andLandscape design and Sustainable Development.Sustainability comes to the front in a number ofmanuscripts relating to urban and rural contexts.Lofts deal essentially with interiors but one manu-script shows a great deal of what can be done inconfined spaces. A study of courtyard housing withFeng Shui creates a contrast around several differ-ent countries on the Cyprus China axis. An inter-esting topic of Demolition versus Deconstructionand Collaborative Design Processes almost com-pletes the issue with the exception of an excep-tional manuscript on Housing Co-ops.
Adaptability and survival goes close handin hand with each other. This is a long way fromthe sixties rigid concept where there was no adapt-ability especially in the government housing sector.Now we have all this reversed into a close and syn-cronised relationship between users and the own-ers. This is something we should care for and doour best to maintain and develop it.
REFERENCES
PEARMAN H. 2013 RIBA Journal September 2013 Part 3 CUL-
TURE page 75 RIBA ENTERPRISES, London, UK
Author(s):
Nicholas Wilkinson RIBAJanuary 2014
Editorial
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INTRODUcTION
Urbanization is the defining phenomenon andprocess of this century. The impact of rapid-hybridisturbanization coupled with the population growthwill –and is being felt most acutely in developingcountries, where the built up area is expected toincrease threefold while the urban population dou-bles by 2030. From this troubling perspective, bothcity sustainability and the resilience of cities becomethe main issues at hand, where housing and “ade-quate shelter for all” become paramount subjects.
The search for a more conventional andlivable lifestyle in the city or in the countryside con-tinues unabated for middle class citizens and con-sumers globally, regardless of the realization andpredictions of the peak oil and ‘dark ages’ ahead;while millions of dwellers stand the test of time andcontinue dwelling in the minimum of housing con-ditions worldwide. The time and age of walking inAvalon has been replaced by one where walking incomplexity and in the convergence of emerging cri-sis of the 21st century is a cruel reality. A time forunprecedented need for controlling and reshapingmodernization on human grounds basis becomes
warranted. In urbanism and architecture alike, weneed to reevaluate and rethink critically the AvantGarde’s pursuit of novelty with iconic-flagshiparchitecture manifested in Transurbanism and cityBranding schemes (As Professor Dana cuff, 2011calls it ‘architecture without urbanism’) where thenew ‘architectural masterpieces’ generate moremedia buzz than really creating humane models forurban life, not least leaving the social agenda ofarchitecture and urbanism in the waste basket ofignorance and unmemorable times. Their blindbelief that new technology and innovation shouldsweep away the past, at the expense of humanisticdesign borders on madness. We have seen oncebefore the results of that similar approach, duringthe age of modernism where, human aspects ofurban form, environmental design, and ergonom-ics of everyday life paid a horrific price for the sakeof architecture, function, and style. Nonetheless,the intentions were at least there and good as forexample the housing that addresses the Modernistpledge to deliver improved living conditions didmake a brake with the poor housing conditions andhealth hazards environments, but at what cost? Thedream that modernism could somehow ameliorate
Alazar G Ejigu & Tigran Haas*
Abstract
The growing alienation of modernist public housing estates and their ethnically and socially excluded residents, as well
as the neglected human potential-capital they symbolize (not social burden), is a grotesque expression of the failure of
a system driven by the profit motive and failed housing, planning and social policy, rather than by the requirement to
satisfy sustainable urbanism and dignified and just housing for all. The modernist concept of architecture & urban plan-
ning, which emerged in response to a very particular set of regional circumstance, spread throughout the world in the
20th century. The result, where the idea was simplistically accepted, had disastrous consequences. The postmodernist
approach on the other hand has given up altogether on the social agenda of architecture and housing. Paying partic-
ular attention to housing, this paper discusses the contrasting results of modernist and –or post modernist planning
approaches in housing and its consequences. It also looks at the rather recent Sustainable Urbanism paradigm and the
possibility that it might offer as an alternative or a new complement to housing planning and design; this in contrast to
the modernist satellite-suburban generic type of living in most major European cities as well as in the developing coun-
tries. The study is based on multiple methods which include, descriptive and exploratory qualitative approach (obser-
vation, introspection, analysis and deduction), as well as Futurescape Method of selected cases in the American
Housing Program HOPE VI, and from ethnographic survey of an ongoing large scale housing program in Ethiopia
known as Integrated Housing Development Program (IHDP).
Keywords: Sustainable Urbanism, Modernism, Hope VI, Integrated Housing Development Program, IHDP.
SUSTAINABLE URBANISM: MOVING PAST NEO-MODERNIST & NEO-TRADITIONALIST HOUSINGSTRATEGIES
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living conditions for all residents did not really cometrue. On the other hand, christopher Alexander haslaid the groundwork with his theory that there arecommon patterns underlying traditional architectureand urbanism, which modernists have abandonedbut which we should revisit and return to in order tobuild on a more human scale and sustainablebasis. In this regard, New Urbanist planners in theUS and worldwide have attempted to lead the wayby building human scale neighborhoods, returningto the traditional principles of town making. Thatnotwithstanding, their idea is not all that entirely dif-ferent from the times of the moderne, where archi-tecture and urbanism could also aid and lead our(their) society toward a better social order andbehavior. But just as modernist architecture helpedto promote faith in technology and progress duringthe 20th century, a humanistic architecture coupledwith sustainable urbanism can now (and is doingso) help promote the focus on human values thatwe need in the 21st century. Modernist architecturesymbolized the triumph of technology and innova-tion over culture and context, with decisions madeon technical engineering grounds and the blindfaith in the future and complete mistrust of the past.Today, with all the challenges posed to us we againneed an architecture and urbanism vision and solu-tions that symbolize the triumph of culture and con-text over technology, with decisions made onhuman grounds and smart growth principles, thosethat are capable of being sustainable and resilientand in the long run (Duany, Speck, and Lydon,2009 and Haas, 2009).
This paper attempts to bring two strands oflinked-post-modernism housing planning & design,one in the USA resulting as a reaction against mod-ernist high-rise public housing program and theother in Ethiopia growing out of the desire to pro-vide a package solution to interrelated urban prob-lems of shelter, employment, and urban develop-ment through transformed modernist housing solu-tions. Both examples are a ‘progressive’ attempt todeal with the most complex issue of planning, thatof providing adequate and good housing, but lackin the long-term vision of sustainable dwelling andadaptation to energy crisis, climate change and riskand uncertainty in general, as well as a long termholistic and systemic approach to home building.The assertion is that in both cases the application of‘sustainable urbanism’ principles could be benefi-cial and sustainable on the long run.
The methodology applied in both cases isa qualitative one. Four cases from HOPE VI werestudied: San Francisco North Beach Place,Orchard Gardens in Boston, The BroadwayOverlook in Baltimore, and capitol Hill - EllenWilson Homes in Washington D.c. (Figures 1-4)
while the projects in Addis Ababa were Tsion,Mechere, Gulele II, and Mikyleyland (Figures 5-8).The research described the phenomena understudy using observational urbanism, introspection,deduction, analysis and synthesis as elements ofexploratory research. The methods were used toidentify and obtain information on particular prob-lems or issues in the study cases (Stebbins, 2001).Also focusing on specific groups of tenants theresearch partly relied on social and interpersonalphenomena under study, i.e. ethnographical survey.The data was then further analyzed and synthesizedand recommendations were generated by usingFuturescape™. FutureScape is a tool for combininginsight of the present and foresight of the future -two skills needed for planning in the midst of com-plexity and change (Sanders, 1998 and 2008).
HOPE VI - JUST THE BEGINNING OFBROADER TRANSFORMATION
The HOPE VI (Housing Opportunities for Everyone)Program, which was in many respects the brainchild of New Urbanism, has over the past twentyyears endeavored to catalyze the transformation ofthe US most distressed projects into well-designed,mixed-income neighborhoods (See: Popkin et.al.2004). HOPE VI began in 1992, with formalrecognition in law in 1998. As of 2005, the pro-gram had distributed $5.8 billion through 446 fed-eral block grants to cities for the developments.HOPE VI has included a variety of grant programsincluding: Revitalization, Demolition, Main Street,and Planning grant programs. As of June 1, 2010there have been 254 HOPE VI Revitalization grantsawarded to 132 housing authorities since 1993 –totaling more than $6.1 billion. Hope VI programsconcentrated on diversity of ages, races andincomes; safety and civic engagement by providing“eyes on the street” (Jane Jacobs legacy); compact,mixed-use neighborhood design ideas:; local archi-tectural character; streets and public open space.
One of HOPE VI’s principal accom -plishments was to shift the emphasis of housing pol-icy from output (units built and managed) to out-comes — housing quality, safety, resident out -comes, economic opportunity, social mixity, and thevitality of the surrounding neighbor hood. Turbovand Piper (2005) demonstrate that the main cata-lyst for this shift was the creation of the mixed-financing, mixed-income model, which permittedprivate and other affordable units and financing ofpublic housing. This approach helped build eco-nomi cally integrated communities consisting ofboth public housing and market-rate units (Turbovand Piper, 2005). Studies (Popkin, et. al.2004;
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Buron, et. al. 2002; cisneros, et. al. 2009, Haas T.2011) have shown that HOPE VI has helpeddeconcentrating poverty and improving some resi-dent outcomes while also being an important cata-lyst in community cohesion and strengthening thelocal organizations as well as keeping ‘they eye onthe street’s momentum in focus. However, HOPE VIhas ‘not yet been able to solve the questions of jus-tice, equity and fair housing for all,’ as displace-ment and relocation of a large number of ‘oldmodernism residents’ continues.
An idea behind the new approach, or anew version and ‘super-plug-in’ called the ChoiceNeighborhoods, is recently proposed to expand theHOPE VI strategy continuing the principles byadding sustainable and long-term holistic vision ini-tiative. It deals very much with economic sustain-ability by making funding available to a wider
range of stakeholders, including nonprofits, privatefirms, local govern ments, and public housingauthorities, the initiative encourages greater com -munity investment in redevelopment projects andincreases available resources (Zielenbach andVoith 2010). Just as important, the program widensthe range of activities to include the acquisition ofproper ties to create mixed-income housing instrategic locations. The $250 million proposal is aplanning experiment and one of the most progres-sive proposals under consideration for the nextbudget year, building upon the Hope VI program,which over the past 17 years has torn down nearly100,000 of the worst public housing projects in thecountry. HOPE VI and choice Neighborhoods areboth premised on the idea that mixed-income, eco-nomically integrated neighborhoods improve thelives of residents and aid the surrounding com -munity. In studying mixed-income developments,
Figure 1-4. HOPE VI social housings. Top-left: The Broadway Overlook(foreground) in Baltimore’s Washington Hill neigh-
borhood, Baltimore (photo by J Broug Schamp 2005). Broadway Overlook, is comprised of 132 mixed income housingrental units and 34 for-sale units; (Top-right) Ellen Wilson Homes 2011 March (photo by Therese Seglert and Ida Larsson);Bottom-left: Orchard Gardens 2010 April (photo by Ryan Locke and Tigran Haas); and bottom-right: North Beach PlaceTrader Joe, San Francisco (photo by Payton Chung June 2008).
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
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Turbov and Piper (2005) found that such projectswere instrumental in both revitalizing the marketand improving residents’ quality of life, where themedian household income of neighborhood resi-dents grew significantly faster than elsewhere in thecity or region and likewise, unemploy ment levelsfell, workforce participation rates improved, andresidential markets strengthened.
IHDP-TRANSFORMATIVEGLOBALIZ ING EFFEcTS OFMODERNISM
The “low-cost” condominium housing program ofEthiopia (officially known as the Integrated HousingDevelopment Program, or IHDP) was primarilyintroduced with a stated plan to address the over-whelming housing backlog which in 2004 was esti-mated at about 300,000 housing units but also toreplace 50% of the total 136,330 dilapidated, low-
rent, public houses (locally known as ‘kebele’ hous-es) which constituting as much as 70% of the hous-ing stock in the central parts of the city. The ambi-tious plan also included ideas for densification and‘integrated’ strategies to address multiple problemsof the city such as high unemployment and low skilllevels in the construction sector. Targeting lowincome and middle income households, the citygovernment, in 2004 set itself the goal of con-structing between 40,000 – 50,000 low-cost hous-es per year over five years (AAHDPO, 2007). By2007, the national government has scaled-up theprogram to cover 36 cities and the figure hasgrown to 59 cities in 2008 (MWUD, 2008). By Feb2011, over 100,000 housing units have been builtin Addis Ababa alone and of which over 60,000were transferred to beneficiaries (AAHDPO, 2012).
The success of the program in terms ofquantity of housing it produced and the tens of1000s’ of jobs it created were evident. The result interms of meeting the social and other urban objec-
Figure 5-8. IHDP Condominium clusters – Top-Left: Tsion (consisting 250 condo units in 6 five story buildings; Top-right:
Mikyleyland (consisting 4642 condo units in 123 buildings); Bottom-Left: Mechare (consisting 14 five storey condo build-ings); Bottlom-right: Gulele II (consisting 9 three storey condo buildings).
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aas*tives of the city, however, were shown to be very
questionable (Ejigu, 2012). In just less than fiveyears the city was filled with mono-functional clus-ters of freestanding condominium blocks that in thewords of Herbel & Kifle (2009) ‘neglect the impor-tance of public space as a social and economicbase’. Instead, the authors show, traditional, mixed-use neighborhoods are ‘replaced by high-enddevelopments and publicly funded large-scale con-dominium clusters’ and ‘social ties and uniquecombinations of different income groups within aneighborhood are jeopardized by uniform planningconcepts, leading to social and spatial separa-tion...’(p.112). Although the overall conceptionand planning of condominium housing of AddisAbaba follow ‘modernist’ planning principles, thedesigning of the blocks demonstrate attempt tomodify the ‘foreign’ design concept of large apart-ment blocks to make it local. For example, condo-minium blocks are low and mid-rise blocks; theyare largely inner city phenomenon; they are forintended for private ownership with some legitima-cy to modify internal organization of the housingunits; they are made with increased density as onecentral goal and hence are relatively denser; therewere some cultural considerations in the designingfor example, by proposing communal blocks toaccommodate traditional activities. By so doing,they meet most of the physical form qualities earlycritics of modernist planning argued for. Despitethis courageous attempt to make the architecturaltwist away from highly criticized monolithic, flatroofed, massive modernist building form (whichmore or less became an ‘international style’), acloser look at life in condominium housing revealsthat all this was not sufficient to create a livablehousing environment neither for low nor middleincome residents of the city.
SUSTA INABLE U RBAN ISM: APPLy INGELEMENTS OF FUTUREScAPE ANALy-S IS
Sustainable Urbanism, a phrase that is used widelyand in combination with ecological and green con-notations, a rather new and complete frameworkfor interdisciplinary planning and design of con-temporary cities, neighborhoods and settlements. Itexplores, in a more holistic manner sustainabilityand urban design in a rapidly urbanizing world, byfocusing on the processes that shape the form andfunction of our built environment in its full com-plexity – infrastructures, land developments, builtlandscapes, social networks, systems of gover-nance and economics and facilities – that all col-lectively make up metropolitan regions (Farr, 2007;
Haas, 2008; Newman, Beatley and Boyer, 2009).Applied, sustainable urbanism focuses on identify-ing small-scale catalytic interventions that can beapplied to urbanized locations, which in aggregate,lead to an overall shift towards sustainable neigh-borhoods, districts, and regions (Newman andJennings, 2008). Doug Farr, in his SustainableUrbanism: Urban Design with Nature (2007), sumsthis up in five points:
•Increasing sustainability through density and com-pactness. •Integrating transportation means, patterns, andland use.•creating sustainable neighborhoods, includinghousing, car-free areas, locally-owned stores, walk-able neighborhoods, and universal accessibility. •The health and environmental benefits of linkinghumans to nature, including walk-to open spaces,neighborhood storm water systems, waste treat-ment, and food production (permaculture). •High performance buildings and district energysystems.
All of these are ought to put the focus on the keyelement of the community – the neighborhood andhousing as being a main node for the carryingcapacity of sustainable transformations and consol-idation, one founded around the human aspects ofform and traditional, timeless practices of good citybuilding.
Analyzing different cases of HOPE VI(median) and Addis Ababa condominium Estatesby using the methods employed in explorativeresearch and applying FutureScape (mapping andvisioning planning process, an innovative newapproach to visualizing the future as it is beginningto take shape), Five Main Features/Aspects wererecognized which in turn created 10 recommen-dations or strategies. These have been generated inTable 1 and Table 2 respectively. The approach andmethod of FutureScape supports the process ofvisual thinking by helping us link our intuitive senseof events in the larger environment with what wealready know and what the data indicate (Sanders,2008). This visual synthesis promotes insight aboutthe present and foresight about the future. For thepurpose of this paper, it blended appropriately withthe explorative methods we used to generate dataon sites and off site we offer a condensed and sim-plified version of some of the possible strategiesthat can be suggested by using the FutureScapeand Exploratory Research. It is important to empha-size here and mention clearly that the suggestedrecommendations below are not meant to be com-plete and ultimate solutions to the problem athand, which deals with systemic build up of sus-
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Table 1. Comparative table of five main features and –or aspects generated through exploratory research and the applica-
tion of the Futurescape method of analysis.
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tainable housing for all citizen of society. Althoughthey are largely focused on the physical restructur-ing of the built environment (as it is clear from bothcases studied), other aspects such as (social restruc-turing and management, property rights andfinancing, public participation and citizen input, pri-vate-public-partnerships) should be considered asvital components of the whole process of holisticrevitalization for urban housing development(Beam, 2009). The important thing is that a system,such as housing system, is always bigger than firstimagined, especially when you consider the largercontext with all outside factors influencing it(Sanders, 1998 and 2008).
Table2
What was observed both in Ethiopian and the UScases is that the physical issues of neighborhoodbuilt environment composition and architecturalexpression have had primacy over environmentaland ecological issues such as energy efficiency,appropriate building materials, environmental
technologies, waste and water management, recy-cling, landscape urbanism as well as other carbon-free measures. Future revitalization and sustaineddevelopment of these places thus relies on (re)con-sidering these aspects of the developments throughsustainable urbanism principles.
cONcLUSIONS
This paper has looked into two very different but yetkindred housing attempts and projects. TheAmerican program HOPE VI, a strong social hous-ing project, turned back to the past and started toexcavate the legacy of good urbanism and humanaspects of form and function, while breaking anddistancing itself from the false promises & failures ofmodernist architecture and planning. The programin Addis Ababa has worked from similar premisesthat a viable and good housing solution had to becreated but neither breaking with the past norembracing the future, it has gone down a uncertainroad when it comes to urban planning & design,i.e. the culture, context and spirit of the place of
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new housing schemes have a long way to go. Whatboth programs have not been able to balance norintegrate, is the issues of energy efficiency, climatechange resilience and maybe the most importantaspect – an integrated holistic housing scheme thatwould complement the other bits & pieces of cityand town building, instead of just being ‘islands ofhope in sea of despair’. Both programs have a longway to go but they still have made the first, veryimportant and crucial leap, maybe a quantum onein strengthening the third pillar of sustainability – thesocial one. The strategy generated by usingFuturescape method and Explorative Research(Observation, Introspection, Analysis, Synthesis),has generated recommendations that can be fur-ther developed by more dense analysis and extend-ed temporal research into new urban solutions &housing policies; this return might enable a morefertile ground for creating livable environments,which would provide sense of place and belonging,inclusion and participation; coupled with creationof jobs, and improvement of often atrocious hous-ing conditions, bad transportation links and means- all of that would be a way forward to: a diversepopulation and range of activities, a rich array ofpublic spaces and institutions; and human scale inits buildings, streets and neighborhoods. The largerquestions and issues remain though, ones that thispaper did not work directly with: to what extentshould we promote ownership? What kind of socialhousing model should we have, a generalized oneor specific context-culture one and is the modeljeopardized today and will it survive at all? Howcan urban and housing policies help control prop-erty prices and rents? To what extent deconcentra-tion of poverty is needed for housing polices? Doeshousing diversity and tenants’ satisfaction enable aproper social mix and integration? can gentrifica-tion be viewed as a positive process and not just asa negative one, if adapted to the systemic develop-ment and change in the community? could diver-sity be better than mixity? What about the socialand physical mobility and the issues of social andecological determinism? If we are going to builtgreat places for people and humane neighbor-hoods for generations to come we need to start, asJane Jacobs observed 50 years ago, asking theright questions first. Finally, policymakers, profes-sionals, and practitioners working with these issuesneed to explicitly recognize and address the chal-lenges distressed, poor and excluded citizens’ facein the housing market. Economic disparities, racialand ethnic segregation, prejudice, and all form ofdiscrimination limit options for them and even formiddle and lower-income public housing residents.As Henry cisneros observes that “the the publichousing mission can be carried out with respect to
the residents, with appreciation for the dynamicpotential of our cities, and with confidence that wisepublic investments can support the values of oursociety” (cisneros et.al., 2009, p.13)
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Author(s):
Alazar G EjiguPhD candidate, Department of Urban Planning andEnvironment, School of Architecture and BuiltEnvironment, KTH- Royal Institute of Technology,Stockholm, Sweden Email: [email protected]
Tigran Haas, Dr.Assoc. Professor, Department of Urban Planning andEnvironment, School of Architecture and BuiltEnvironment, KTH- Royal Institute of Technology,Stockholm, Sweden Email: [email protected]
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1 . in t roduc t ion
Since the publication of the brundtland report(WceD 1987), sustainable settlements that areable to meet the needs and expectations of thepeople, and that take into account also the needsand expectations of future generations, havebecome increasingly significant around the world.accordingly, studies of regional design applicationsthat counteract the effects of climate, or designsthat make use of sustainable energy resources haveaccelerated. Sustainability, which is a much broad-er concept than ecological design, pays heed toboth the physical and local social environment, andcalls for designs that consider the various dimen-sions of both factors (Oktay 1999; 2001).although the discourse is relatively new, the conceptof “sustainable architecture” has become valuedwithin the local architecture discipline of every soci-ety in different parts of the world. local settlementsfollow a sustainable path in their utilization of localresources; and local architectural features developbased on the practical needs of local communitiesand on local topographical and climatic condi-tions. the systems that have developed carry fea-tures that may be learned from in the design of new
environments in the region, and are thus worthy ofinvestigation (Oktay and Pontikis 2008).
in parallel to this, in recent years there hasbeen a gradual increase in the importance ofresearches into the conservation of local values vis-à-vis climate change, ecological degradation, andthe diminishing and vanishing natural resourcesaround the world. Vernacular housing has much tooffer modern architecture, in the sense that richsolutions have been developed that demand maxi-mum compliance and flexibility between the usersand the physical environment, and thus constitutesa good example of sustainability. Vernacular archi-tecture that aims to meet local needs through theuse of existing local resources and appropriate con-struction methods has an environmental, culturaland historical context, and reflects an evolutionthrough time (helena 1998), being passed onthrough tradition and a broad accumulation ofknowledge gained through trial and error (Sayighand marafia 1998). in summary, the solutionsoffered by vernacular architecture should not beunderestimated in the modern day.
the traditional houses found in the ruralareas of the mediterranean region are a typicalexample of how design and construction become
Sıdıka Çetin, Ayse Betul Gokarslan
Abstract
Traditional architectural forms and structures develop under the influence of such physical and non-physical determi-
nants as climate, topography structure, socio-cultural values, economy and technology, and are based on centuries
of accumulated knowledge. This study is an analysis of the rural Yayla settlements of four towns in the province of
Antalya, located on Turkey’s Mediterranean coast. The southern inclines of the Taurus Mountain range facing the
Mediterranean, are host to number of rural settlements at different altitudes that bear some region-specific architec-
tural features. This study aims to understand settlement pattern and house design features that have developed
under the specific climate, socio-cultural and socio-economic conditions of the traditional households in rural yaylas
in the different bio- climatic zones of the region. The study has revealed that designs have developed over time to
result in spaces that are comfortable and climate sensitive, and which attribute importance to the local resources, econ-
omy and culture; and that the housing designs have developed offer natural means of heat control and ventilation.
The new understanding offered in this paper may contribute to the conservation of the local cultural features of the
area, allowing their sustainable perpetuation into the future and serving as examples of good design practise for future
settlements
Keywords: South-Eastern Mediterranean Region; Sustainable Architecture; Yayla Settlements;
Traditional House.
SuStainable architecture in rural YaYlaSettlementS
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adapted to the climate. the region has a hot andhumid climate, one of the five different climatesfound in turkey, however there are significant dif-ferences between the coastal and inland areas. thishas resulted in the development of different struc-tural forms across the region, most significantly onthe inclines of the high mountain range that runsparallel to the coast. the aim of this study is to eval-uate the yayla settlements1 (highland meadow), cli-mate-sensitive design approaches and architectur-al features of the traditional housings that havelocated in south-eastern mediterranean region.
2. t radi t iona l yay la se t t lement s i n theSoutheaste rn med i te r ranean reg ion
2.1 . loca t ion
in the mediterranean hinterland the physical for-mation of cultures has been influenced directly bylocal geographical features. the architectural formsthat have developed under the influence of bothnatural and cultural factors have resulted in theappearance of distinct residential areas betweenthe coast, the mountains and the plateau. the
alpine-himalayan System is one of the most impor-tant mountain ranges in the world. Starting incentral europe and northern italy, the range tra-verses the asian continent via the balkans andsouthern anatolia, and the taurus mountain rangeis an extension of this upper-system in anatolia, fea-turing rich settlement textures that include coastalzones, mountain areas and plateaus, each withtheir own unique architectural styles (hughes 2005;Kavas 2011b)
the borders of the region are determinedby the natural features of the mediterranean Sea tothe south; the Geyik mountains, which are anextension of the taurus mountains, to the north; thetaşeli Plateau, within the borders of Gazipaşa, tothe east; and the manavgat river to the west. thisregion, defined geographically as an “upper zone,”is characterized by the yaylas and highlands usedby the Yörük people, as “yazlak” (summer settle-ments) (Figure 1).
2 .2. cl imat i c fea tures
in southern anatolia, within the long coastal bandthat separates the taurus mountains and the
Figure 1. Location map of the study area.
1 the term Yayla is derived from the word yay, which in turkish means summer, and from the word yaymak, meaning “to scatter,” referring specifically to thedispersed grazing of animals in the open air (alagöz 1941, Zaman 2000). While in physical geographical terms the yayla-plateau is a region that is inter-spersed with running water but which also features clear plains, in human geographical terms it might be defined as a plain in the upper reaches of the moun-tains outside the village where animals are grazed in the summer, but attached to and supporting the village in administrative and economic terms, and wherethere are seasonally settled houses (İzbırak 1986; Doğanay 1997).
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mediterranean coast, the climate is very hot andhumid in summers, and moderate and rainy in win-ters. the inner areas of the region are hilly, beingseparated from the narrow coastal band by themountain ranges. in the upper sections of thetaurus mountain range, a more terrestrial climatedominates, and for this reason, sub-climate bandshave formed in the region. the contrasting climatebetween the summer and winter seasons, coupledwith the altitude and the gradual expansion of plantlife over the taurus mountains that especially smallcattle seem to thrive on, has allowed the growth ofthe meadows that connect the coastal plains withthe mountains and the plateaus (Ozgur 2010). thepasture found between 1000–2000 m is referred toas the mediterranean mountain band (atalay2002), while the mediterranean Sub-band and themediterranean mountain-Pasture areas can befound to the south of the central taurus mountains.these areas are of great interest, in that in additionto the common endemic species, they are host alsoto relict species that survived the climate changes ofthe Quaternary Period. taurus fir and cedar consti-tute the most important tree species for the micro-climate, especially around akseki, which hosts alsothe bulbous and herbaceous species known asgalanthus (kardelen). these species are the highmotivation sources for the nomadic communities ofthe region involved in husbandry to prefer thisregion (hadimli et al. 2010).
in the mountainous areas where the cli-mate is more severe, there is a transitional climatein the diffusion areas of the mediterranean to thesouth and the terrestrial climate to the north. in theyayla settlements at 1000–2000 meters altitude,temperatures vary between -10 and -20°c in win-ter (antalya meteorology regional Directorate2012) and decrease as one goes to further north(Figure 2).
2 .3 Geomorpholog ics t ruc ture and topography
the mediterranean region occupiesa privileged position due to itsmediterranean climate and topog-raphy, and the resulting eco-sys-tems that have developed. the ele-ments making up this texture have amutually-related, specifically richcontent that is highly harmoniouswith the topography and well-inte-grated with the surrounding nature;however there is a clear contrastbetween the abrupt and rocky geo-graphical features in the mountain-ous regions and the flat areas(plains) by the coast, and this multi-structured geomorphologic pattern
has resulted in a number of protected microclimat-ic areas (yayla settlements) in the region (Ozkaynak1954).the first unique zone corresponds to the village set-tlements and lands located at the point of transitionbetween the lower inclines of the mountain and theplain; while the second zone refers to the settlementareas in the upper zone (yayla), characterized byrich pastures and7meadows. these two zones differ significantly intheir climatic features (tuncdilek 1967); however inboth cases, the yayla settlements are concentratedon the plateaus, mountain sides and at the bottomof valleys due to the availability of water (table 1).
2 .4 . the soc io -cu l tura l s t ruc ture
the nomadic lifestyle, or the changing of locationwith the seasons, was brought to anatolia fromcentral asia by the turks, but has died out gradu-ally under the influence of social, cultural and eco-nomic change. Over time, tents gave way to per-manent dwellings, and a sedentary cultureemerged as people chose to spend their winters insettlements (kışlak) in the mild coastal region, andtheir summers in the yayla settlements (yazlak) onthe cooler mountain ridges, which were more suit-able for animal husbandry (bakır 1991). the sum-mer and winter settlement pattern that defines thespatial organization of the Yörük culture in theregion also influenced their specific constructionsystems. in the taurus mountains, the seasonal set-tlements and the traditional houses created by thetranshumant people have also developed differentformal features based on the economic activity ofthe owner/occupier.
Figure 2. The Areal Distribution of the Temperatures in Turkey.
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3 . me thodo logy and scope
to date, there has been little research into the bio-climatic, spatial, socio-economic and cultural cir-cumstances and sustainability of the traditionalyayla settlements within the borders of the towns ofalanya, Gazipaşa, akseki and Gündoğmuş, and sothe data for this research has been garnered froma field study. the study makes an analysis of threedifferent zones, all with different climatic, economicand cultural features, corresponding to the yaylaclassification made by hadimli et al. (2010) andalkan (1991):
Zone-1) the yayla settlements lying at an altitudebelow 1500 m. these are green areas with plentyof water, and are open to the breeze coming fromthe mediterranean. While in the previous yearsthese were temporary settlements, used only asstop-off points between winter and summer, todaythey have been transformed into summer homes bythe residents of the towns or villages;
Zone-2) the yayla settlements lying at altitudes ofbetween 1500 and 2000 m, used by both themountain nomadic and semi-nomadic people.they are partially at the margins of the forests butoften in the steppe, close to a water source, wherethe climate can be quite harsh; and
Zone-3) the yayla settlements located above 2000m, which are home to the mountain nomads(whose main source of subsistence is animal hus-bandry) from mid-July until the beginning ofSeptember (around 40 days). the climate at thisaltitude is harsher than in the second zone, treesare scarce, and the nomads must rely on artificiallakes and snow for their water needs (Figure 3).
4. the vernacular architecture in the first zone
4.1. Design featuresin the yayla settlements in the lower zone the hous-es are designed to provide protection against the
Table 1. Brief summary of location type in case study .
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effects of heat through the provision of ventilation.the houses are built within large gardens contain-ing trees and other plants. the structures are locat-ed within high garden walls, which separate the pri-vate and public spheres, and shield the structurefrom wind in the winter months. the narrow streetsof the settlement run vertically up the incline of theland, allowing the breeze coming from the sea topenetrate the internal areas of the settlement. thetalvar and manar type structures, which are singlestory, are raised 50–60 cm above the ground topermit a natural circulation of air; while the plans ofthe two-story houses are similar to those found inthe hot climate band on the coast. the yayla hous-es in the lower zone, which are able to benefit fromthe breeze coming from mediterranean, aredesigned more open-fronted to allow ventilationfrom both below and above (table 2). humid andhot climatic conditions in this climate zone, toreceive residential wind direction, was wise of issue.the hayat (hall) of the houses, where most of dailylife is spent in the summer, is open to the elementson its northern and either eastern or westernfaçades, defining the entrance (cimrin 1996). thearea below the hayat on the ground floor, known asthe avlu, is also semi-open, allowing natural venti-lation to the hayat from below; and there are roomsto the south of the both the avlu and the hayat. thehouses are arranged in such a way that they bene-fit from the wind in summer while also offering pro-tection from the negative effects of the sun.
4.2. material utilization and construction system
the simple “müne”-type structures at this altitudeare in the “talvar” and “manar” style. the regionbetween the taurus mountains and the coast ischaracterized by light timber structures. talvar-typestructures (alsav Seminar notes 1996), which standon four columns, are square in plan and are cov-ered by plane tree branches and leaves, beingentirely constructed out of timber. manar-typedwellings are more permanent and offer more pro-tection, and their internal spaces offer more privacy(table 2). they are generally constructed either outof light timber or from a combination of timber andstone, in which either a timber frame with stone infillor a stacked stone system is used.
a further type of structure seen at this cli-mate band are two-story buildings constructed outof timber and stone, the plan scheme of whichresembles that of traditional turkish houses featur-ing outer halls as known sofas (Figure 4). therooms are formed from stone, generally 50 cmthick, to keep out the cold in winter and the heat insummer, and timber joists carry the upper floors.the sections open to the landscape are madeentirely of timber. the timber is obtained locally,
Figure 3. The study area map showing the three climatic
zones .
Table 2. The house typologies for the yaylas in different cli-
mate zones.
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where cedar, pine, valonia oak, oak, juniper, oliveand plane trees are common and the stone isobtained from the rocky areas in the mountains.the double pitched roof is made from brick andmud, with the mud acting both as a binder and asinsulation. the roofs are generally tiled. the tradi-tional houses of the akseki region are more mod-ern in terms of the construction methods, with themost distinctive architectural expression of culturalidentity being the masonry wall system utilizing atimber tie-beam, known as the “düğmeli wall” tech-nique. this involves the insertion of short timberposts at 50–60 cm intervals vertically into the stonewall of the structure, which has a stone foundation.their ends protrude by about 20 cm, and the walls,which are nearly 60 cm thick, are timber framedwith stone infill. the space between the two timberbeams is known as the “destur,” and the short postsfitted vertically into the stone walls are called“düğme” (Figure 5) (Kavas 2011a).
5. the vernacular architecture in the second zone
5.1. Design features
the houses presented in the middle altitude aredesigned with a deep understanding of theharsh climate. as there is a significant temperaturedifference between day and night, thehouses at this altitude are built for thermal efficien-cy, taking into consideration the directionof the sun and wind in the placement of doors andwindows. the houses stand directly on theground to prevent air circulation and heat loss, andthree sides of the houses are totallyenclosed. the outer walls have only one or two win-dows and a single entrance door facing thecourtyard, which are small to reduce heat loss andare fitted with shutters as a secondary layerof insulation (Figure 6).
unlike the yayla settlements at lower alti-tudes, these dwellings face south or south east soas to maximize exposure to the sun, and are setsome distance apart to prevent shade and to leave
Figure 4. Stone wall texture with wooden girder.
Figure 5. Example of düğmeli wall (Journal of Akseki 2010:35).
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space for the grazing of animals (animal husbandrybeing the primary source of income of the nomadicresidents). the houses at this altitude have smallgardens or courtyards, which are generally orient-ed towards the south, and are enclosed by fencesor walls 80–100 cm in height. the gardens areused for growing vegetable and fruit, enough onlyto meet the family needs rather than for sale. thecourtyards contain no trees in a bid to reduceshade.
the houses may be one or two story. in thetwo-story dwellings, livestock is kept on the groundfloor and the upper floor is the living area, while inthe single-story houses, the living area resemblesthat of a two-story dwelling, but the livestock is keptin a barn to the east or west of the house (table 3).in both types, the porous Stone-walls facilitate reg-ular air changes within the internal space through
the inclusion of numerous air gaps, contributing toinsulation and the prevention of heat loss. Stonewalls, unlike concrete walls, are able to breathe likeliving organisms, being porous, space-free andhomogenous, although both provide internal-exter-nal differentiation (Kavas 2011b).
5.2. material utilization and construction system
the houses found in the mid-altitude yayla settle-ments distinguish from the manars in the lower alti-tude in terms of material utilization and practice. inthese houses the carrying walls are totally built fromstone material. the doors and windows are ofwood. in the houses built in recent years, iron andplastic based materials are used more frequently.the roofs are covered by tiles over wooden coveredgable roof. the wooden and stone elements whichare used in the local houses are provided from theold, decayed houses or from the nearby forests andmountains as far as possible. utilization of recy-clable material makes these kinds of structures sus-tainable.
the structures are built from large stoneblocks, bound together with mud, which is alsoused as a plaster coat on the internal surfaces.using stone for construction reduces costs, howev-er in recent years people have started erecting rein-forced concrete buildings in some yayla settle-ments. the internal floor is usually compacted soilor timber floorboards on horizontal joists, while theroof is made from timber and covered with tiles.the method of construction and materials of theroof is visible from inside the dwellings (Figure 7).the rafters are covered with rush branches, andcovered with a layer of mud.
Figure 6. Window covers used in order to reduce heat permeability
Table 3. The house typologies for the yaylas in 2nd climate
zone.
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6. the vernacular architecture in the third zone
6.1. Design features
the yayla houses at this altitude are single story andrectangular in plan (table 4), and are found on thesouthern slopes of the valleys at an altitude of50–100 m, where the slope starts to become steep-er. the external and internal arrangements of thehouses are simple, usually being built in one sec-
tion, measuring 4–4.5 x 8–9 m, that is used for eat-ing, cooking and sleeping. the narrow façadesface east and west, and there are no openingsother than in the southern façades of the building,which is a practical solution to preventing unneces-sary heat loss (Figure 8). the entrances are locatedat the center of one of the longer sides, determinedaccording to the sun and wind direction. the hous-es often have no garden, as the climate is harsh,making agriculture impossible, and residency isonly short term.
6 .2. mate r ia l u t i l i za t ion and cons t ruc-t i on s y s tem
in this zone, the lack of access to high quality anddurable materials has resulted in the use of localstone and timber in innovative ways, with very littleshaping of the raw materials. the load-bearingstone walls are left without plaster, and the maincarriers of the roof are unworked timber. the roofs
Figure 7. Roof construction and view of the rush branches holding the roof from the internal space.
Figure 8. In order to prevent heat leakage the door and windows are only opened at the southern façade of the structure.
Table 4. The house typologies for the yaylas in 3rd climate
zone.
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are covered with tile or wooden (Figure 9).the walls are constructed using a dry-stone
technique. as vegetation is sparse at this altitudethere are no timber elements used in the construc-tion. the external walls are a maximum of 1.5meters high, topped by double-pitched roof toincrease the internal headroom. the walls, lackingmortar, plaster and timber beams, are not verydurable against the heavy winter conditions and sooften suffer collapse and need to be repaired at thebeginning of the next season. as the constructiontechnique is simple and the materials plentiful, this
does not constitute a major problem. the short-term use of settlements at this altitude make ituneconomical to construct permanent dwellings,however the more recently built houses are morerobust, using modern masonry construction tech-niques and cement mortar.
the houses tend to have only small windowopenings, measuring 10 x 10 cm to 20 x 20 cm. inthe orientation of the buildings, south and south-west are the preferred directions, and the east-westfaçades are generally plain walls.
Figure 9. Roof examples with steep slope, wooden cover
Table 5. General Evaluation Criteria for the yaylas at different altitudes.
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7. Discussion
the use of local materials, conformity with thetopography, orientation to make best use of the sunand consideration of the climate in spatial organi-zation means that the vernacular yayla settlementsare in harmony with the existing environment.access to water was the determining factor in thelocation of settlements, given its importance fordrinking, the rearing of livestock and the washing ofwool. the texture that has been created through theuse of reinforced concrete today is totally alien tothe environment.
table 5 presents the general features of theyayla settlements.
regional architecture develops sponta-neously as simple rational solutions are sought toaddress social, cultural needs and climaticextremes. it is this process that resulted in the devel-opment of “talvar”, “manar”-type structures andthe plan type, featuring an open hall in the region,given their suitability to the climate and the needsof the residents.
table 6 presents general features of thehouses found in the region
8. conc l us ions
in Québec Declaration (2008) defines the conceptof the spirit of a place (genius loci) as tangible(buildings, sites, landscapes, routes, objects) and
intangible elements (memories, oral narratives,written documents, festivals, commemorations, ritu-als, traditional knowledge, values, odors etc.) i.e.physical and emotional features that give meaningand value to a place. Yayla settlements under con-sideration are environments with authentic spacecharacteristics that norberg-Schulz (1980) definedwith the terms structure, site and landscape. beingelements of an ineradicable tradition Yörük migra-tions, migration routes, settlements and their inter-relation with environment has authentic particulari-ties of the region. the yörük tribes have continuedtheir nomadic existence in the taurus mountains forcenturies, and have thus been bypassed by thestructural changes and the technological develop-ments that have influenced modern society.
however, today the sustainability of theyayla settlements is coming under threat under theinfluence of large-scale changes in function. theyayla settlements in the first zone have all but losttheir original features, and have become bona fidevillages as a result of increasing housing densityand rising population; and as the number of mas-ter stone masons declines, so does the knowledgeof local materials and traditional construction sys-tems. in the last 30 years, these traditional systemshave been replaced by reinforced concrete, facili-tating the construction of multi-story buildings thatdeal with the climate through mechanical means,as witnessed in almost all yaylas in the lower zone.this has caused a fundamental change in the tra-ditional character of these settlements. in the settle-
Table 6. General features of the houses at different altitudes.
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ments at the upper altitudes, due to the strict imple-mentation of Forestry law, no legal incentives toanimal husbandry, the permission to open mead-ows to agriculture and limitation of migration peri-od and routes by government, the number nomadicyörüks is diminishing, most having adopted asedentary life. many properties have been aban-doned and have fallen into disrepair through lackof use with the changing lifestyles, and thus thesesettlements are under threat of being lost all togeth-er.
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author(s):
Sıdıka Çetin, email: [email protected].: +90 0246 211 8250
ayse betul GokarslanSuleyman Demirel university, Faculty of architecture,Department of architecture, isparta, 32260, turkey.
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INTRODUCTION
The two foremost groups of building professionalsare architects and structural engineers. The formeraim, mainly, at providing functional, efficient, andaesthetic spatial environments, and are thus con-cerned primarily with space and elements related toit such as spatial organization, spatial divisions,environmental behavior of spaces, etc.; they useconcepts such as “spatial flow”, “hierarchy ofspaces”, and “environmental comfort”. Structuralengineers, on the other hand, aim at providingstrength and stability by means of structural ele-ments that resist imposed loads or transmit internalforces, and are thus concerned with structural com-ponents such as beams, columns, and shear walls,while using concepts such as “gravitational/lateralforce”, “support”, and “deformation”.
What's more, in any building project whichcomprises a design process, these two groups,among the different professionals associated withsuch a process, are those who work together for thelongest period of time (Figure 1).
This collaboration between architects andstructural engineers is characterized by iterationand rework, entailing an intense flow of informationamong the different participants. However, notmany studies have been done to either understandthe nature of this flow, or find ways of manipulatingit (Eastman, 1999: 347). As a result, the steps andstages of the decision-making process that leads tospecific building design configurations remain invis-ible. This is probably also due to the fact that build-ing design is a very difficult process to manage. It
involves thousands of decisions with numerousinterdependencies in a highly uncertain environ-ment. It moreover entails a large staff, and eachgroup of experts has a distinct and different profes-sional background.
It is also widely known that a considerableamount of building defects result from decisionsmade by these two groups during the designprocess. Although the increasing complexity ofbuildings and the existence of a very competitivemarket-place have been forcing design profession-als to improve their performances in terms of timeand quality, many of their projects still do not con-tain any systematic design planning. This is due tothe common misconception of designers thatdesign, being a creative process, cannot beplanned effectively. And even when planning isdone, it is carried out in an intuitive manner basedsolely on discipline-specific programs, although, tobe effective, collaboration in design necessitatesplanning the flow of interdisciplinary information.However, compared to production management inconstruction, to which much scholarly attention hasbeen given, relatively little research has been done
Şule Taşlı Pektaş
Abstract
Effective collaboration and knowledge management are the major contributors of success in the construction industry.
Although a huge amount of interdisciplinary knowledge is exchanged in building design processes, there is a lack of
tools for representing information flows. Therefore, this paper focuses on the collaboration between architects and struc-
tural engineers and introduces an innovative matrix-based tool named “The Layered Dependency Structure Matrix” for
modeling and managing the discipline-specific and collaborative design activities. The proposed method is compared
with the conventional techniques used in the industry and its application is demonstrated in a beam design example.
Keywords: Collaborative Design, Design Process, Disciplinary Domains, Process Modeling, Dependency Structure
Matrix, Design Structure Matrix, Complexity Management.
THE LAYERED DEPENDENCY STRUCTURE MATRIX FORMANAGING COLLABORATIVE DESIGN PROCESSES.
Figure 1. A generalized schema of building design process-
es and organizations(adapted from Kalay et al., 1998:178)
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(Formoso et al., 1998), as is the case for the flowof information during the design process, as notedabove.
This paper is based on the premise that it isuseful to develop quantifiable models of the build-ing design process within a systematic approachdeveloped to understand complex phenomenarelated to design (Pektaş, 2007, 2010; Pektaş andÖzgüç, 2011). Although "modeling" has limitationsarising from the reduction of a complex situation toa (simplified, yet) more structured form, it does havevaluable merits, as it allows one to learn about aprocess, and suggests ways by which the processmay be controlled. Starting from this viewpoint, thispaper proposes the use of a layered dependencystructure matrix (DSM) as a system analysis andscheduling tool for building design. First, processmodels of design are briefly reviewed, and then thedependency structure matrix method is explained indetail. Finally, an innovative DSM-based tool,which represents the collaboration processes ofarchitects and structural engineers, is introduced.The utilization of the tool is demonstrated througha beam design example.
PROCESS MODELS OF DES IGN
There is a distinct stream of modeling researchwork on design methodology that focuses on thedescriptive methodological and philosophicalframeworks of the design process. It includesHubka's Principles of Engineering Design (this trans-lation into English 1982); Pahl and Beitz'sEngineering Design (this translation into English1984); and Cross's Engineering Design Methods:Strategies for Product Design (1989), to name afew. In the models put forth by these works, the
design process is described in terms of genericphases in an either linear or cyclic manner. Anothercharacteristic common to all these works is theirrepresenting the process at high levels, and givingvery little information at lower levels. On the otherhand, in this paper, the focus is on quantitative andgraphical models that are capable of representingdesign processes in detail with most of the com-plexity involved.
In the construction industry, chart-basedscheduling is still the most widely used processmodeling method. This type of modeling compris-es the milestone chart and the bar chart. Charts areeasy to prepare and use, but their application islimited to short design projects with few partici-pants, since they cannot represent any design-relat-ed information beyond activity durations.
Network models can overcome some ofthe drawbacks of chart-based methods by incorpo-rating activity relationships. Such models are basedon the premise that once decomposed, the designprocess may be described as an interconnectednetwork of design tasks which may be illustrated ona directed graph. The Project Evaluation andReview Technique (PERT), the Critical Path Method(CPM) (Galloway, 2006), and the IntegratedDEFinition Language (IDEF) (Karhu, 2000) areexamples of models based on digraphs which areused in the construction industry (Figure 2).
However, there are several limitations in these mod-eling methods, such as the following:
1. They lack the ability to model feedback anditeration in the projects, so they cannot modelprojects as a dynamic decision process;
2. They have a top-down approach and do notsupport detailed analyses which are requireddue to the complexity of design processes;
3. They take only the document pro-ducing activities into consideration formodeling, in spite of the fact that animportant amount of information flows byinformal communication in designprocesses; 4. They can be time-consuming toprepare, and difficult to read and update.As a result, they are often more useful inthe construction phase than the designphase of the building process;5. They suffer from size limitations,since they tend to grow rapidly for a largenumber of tasks, and the visual inspectionof the information structure becomes verycomplex and also misleading.
Figure 2. An example network diagram: elevator design process model in
IDEF0 notation (researched and developed by the author).
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Thus, it is clear that there is a need for newprocess modeling methods in building designwhich are both compact and capable of represent-ing iterations, dependencies, critical activities, andother components of design complexity.
THE DE PE NDE NCY STRU CTU REMATR IX METHOD
An alternative method for the design process,namely the dependency structure matrix method,has its roots in the 1960s, when several efforts weredevoted to understanding systems. Donald Stewardfirst coined the term “Design Structure Matrix” in1981 (Steward, 1981: 71). The design structurematrix method gained credibility as a result of sev-eral studies at the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology (MIT) in the 1990’s. In recent years,research devoted to this topic has expanded toinclude many new areas, and a more general term,“Dependency Structure Matrix” (DSM), has come tobe used.
A dependency structure matrix is a matrixrepresentation of a system or a project. The rowsand columns of the symmetric matrix consist of a listof all elements of the system; while matrix elementsrepresent the corresponding dependency patterns.In general, there are two types of process DSMs,namely activity (task)-based and parameter-based(Browning, 2001). The process DSM methodsassume that each task (or a decision about a para-meter) can be modeled as an information process-ing activity, using and creating information. Theoutput information from one activity becomes theinput information to another activity. Activities areindicated in the rows and columns, in roughly achronological order. Matrix elements indicate theexistence and direction of information flow fromone activity to another. Reading across a row, adependency mark reveals the flows to that elementfrom the column activities. Reading down a columnreveals the output information flows from the activ-ity represented by that column to other activities.Thus, the marks to the right of the diagonal in a sin-gle row reveal a feedback from a later activity to anearlier one that causes iteration in the designprocess. By re-arranging the position of activities,unintentional iterations can be avoided and anoptimum sequence may be obtained (Figure 3).
The construction of a DSM requires exten-sive knowledge of the system to be modeled.Besides the formal knowledge manifested in designdocuments, the DSM method aims also to captureinformal knowledge held by the professionals.Therefore, in the initial stages, it may be difficult toproduce a useful DSM. However, once an initial
DSM model is built, it can serve as a platform forcontinued organizational learning and processimprovement. The DSM method is advantageouscompared to other process modeling methods,because it provides a compact, visual, and analyti-cally advantageous format even for complex tasks.Although other process modeling techniques arealso useful for scheduling activities, they do notenable an analysis of the total information structureprocessed in the system.
A comparison of DSM with the otherprocess modeling methods used by the constructionindustry is given on Table 1.
A recent book edited by Eppinger andBrowning (2012) demonstrated that DSM applica-tions include a wide range of industries such asautomotive, aerospace, electronics, building, andpharmaceutical. Krishnan (1993) has worked onsequencing and overlapping activities in productdevelopment via DSM, to improve design process-es in the automotive and electronics industries.Browning (1998) has applied DSM techniques indeveloping lean design strategies for the aerospace
Figure 3.Three configurations that characterize a sys-tem in DSM analysis.
Table 1. A Comparison of the DSM Method with the other
Process Modeling Methods.
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based DSM system at NASA (the US NationalAeronautics and Space Administration) forsequencing and monitoring design processes.Hameri, Nihtila and Rehn (1999) have studied doc-ument interdependencies on the design phase ofone-of-a kind delivery processes. English,Bloebaum and Mille (2001) have developed aDSM-based method for quantifying the strength ofcouplings in multidisciplinary design processes inmechanical and aerospace engineering.
Applications of DSM in the constructionindustry have mostly utilized high-level activity-based DSM. The method has been applied inbuilding research at VTT (Valtion TeknillinenTutkimuskeskus - Technical Research Center ofFinland) and at Loughborough University. At VTT,Huovila and Seren (1998) have studied the applic-ability of DSM in understanding customer needsand in planning the building design process. Theresearch team at Loughborough University hasdeveloped a DSM-based design planning tech-nique called Analytical Design Planning Technique(ADePT) (Austin et al., 2002). These studies havedemonstrated that activity-based DSM is a usefulproject management tool. However, analyses offiner granularity—at parameter level— have beenneeded to exploit the capabilities of the method forvisualizing and managing complexity in design. Aparameter-based DSM represents the informationflows between parameter decisions (the lowest levelactivities) and allows bottom-up analysis. Black etal. (1990) have applied a parameter-based DSMto automobile brake system design. The methodhas also been used in planning software develop-ment for airplane design at Boeing Company(Browning, 1998). The parameter-based DSMmethod was introduced to building design byPektaş and Pultar (2006) and recognized interna-tionally by the scholars in the field. This paper fur-ther elaborates the parameter-based DSM methodin order to represent information ownership in inter-disciplinary design. The following section describesthe proposed method.
PROCESS MODELING FOR BU ILD INGDESIGN USING THE LAYERED DSM
Browning (1998) explains that DSMs are especiallyuseful when several participants must coordinateactions and/or information, because they provide amedium whereby the groups can visualize andexplore how they must function together to achieveoverall goals. Such is the condition in the collabo-ration of architects and structural engineers inbuilding design. However, in a conventional DSM,
a mark denotes merely existence of a dependencyor an information flow. Information ownership (whoproduces a particular piece of information) is notvisible. In interdisciplinary design tasks (like most ofthe activities of architects and structural engineers)decisions on design parameters are highly coupledbecause information ownership is often shared.This paper proposes that collaborative designprocesses can be described with a layered DSMwith each layer showing processes of a design pro-fessional. The bottom layer is called the“Collaborative Process DSM” and it results from thesuperposition of discipline-specific dependencies(Figure 6).
A layered DSM may provide insights into the following issues:
1. Information ownership 2. The optimum sequence of parameter decisionpoints3. Critical parameters that cause large iterationcycles4. Design decisions that can be made concurrenly (parallel, at the same time)5. Schedule of assumptions to be made in theprocess.
Of course, there are many parameters involvedin design processes. Therefore, to capture andmanage all describing parameters in buildingdesign may be unrealistic and not necessary. Aselection can be made depending on the pur-pose of the parameter deployment. If the num-ber of considered parameters is based on thecritical tasks, the number of parameters to becaptured reduces considerably. Even such asmall-scale model is useful for the followingreasons:
1. Sharing a DSM opens the process to its partic-ipants and facilitates a common understandingof the process. This is especially useful for col-laborative projects in which participants mayhave difficulty in understanding how the wholesystem works. Designers may not be aware ofwhat information they hold and what informa-tion they owe to others. DSM can be an effi-cient learning tool to discover previouslyunknown patterns of design and organization-al architecture.
2. For many processes it is very difficult to estimatethe magnitude of change and the effortrequired without the knowledge of the existingstate. The recognition of problems in existingprocesses is important in order to avoid repeat-ing the problems in the new process.
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3. In building design, several assumptions aremade when related information is not avail-able. These assumptions are reviewed at somepoint in the process in order to validate them.What assumptions have been made and whenthey are to be reviewed are critical for processsuccess. DSM makes these assumptions explic-it. It identifies when assumptions should bemade and how they affect the overall process.
4. Explicit definition of parameters and character-istics of information flows between them is alsohelpful for the development of parametric mod-eling systems which have attracted much atten-tion in recent years.
An Example DSM for Beam Des ign
The application of the layered DSM to designprocesses of architects and structural engineersmay be best explained by an example. The exam-ple building presented here has been adapted fromParker and Ambrose's Simplified Engineering forArchitects and Builders (1993). The building is athree-story office building and has a cast-in-placeslab and beam system of reinforced concrete.Concrete columns provide support for the spanningstructure. Figure 4 shows the structural framing planfor the reinforced concrete structure of the building.The basic floor-framing system consists of a seriesof beams that support a continuous, one-way span-ning slab and are supported by column-line girdersor directly by the columns. The beam shown by anarrow in Figure 4 carries a narrow strip of the slabas a uniformly distributed loading.
Parameter-based DSMs have been devel-oped for the design of this beam as explainedbelow. DSM operations were then performed tooptimize the sequence of parameter decision
points, to identify iterative cycles, and to decide onwhen assumptions should be made. A Visual Basicsoftware program initially developed at the MIT andenhanced by the author was used in the analysis.
Building the DSM
Building of any type of DSM consists of three stepsin general:
1. Determine the list of tasks or parameters2. Build a DSM listing the system elements as row
and column labels in the same order3. Determine inputs and outputs.
Within this framework, a parameter isdefined as a physical property whose value deter-mines a characteristic or behavior of a system com-ponent. Such parameters include sizes, quantities,loads, and material resistance. For the beamdesign example, twenty basic parameters wereidentified and listed in the matrix in a roughlychronological order. Floor area, floor height, floormaterials, and amount of exterior window surfacewere considered as input parameters and it isassumed that their values remain constant duringthe beam design process. The value of the slabthickness is based on assumed minimum require-ments for fire protection. The clear span would notrequire this thickness based on limiting bending orshear conditions or recommendations for deflectioncontrol. These five parameters as well as initial val-ues of beam width, column size, clear span ofbeam, and beam depth are assumed to be deter-mined by the architect. Other parameters were inthe domain of structural design and their valuesaffected the sizes designed by the architect.
A precedence analysis helps in identifyingthe interactions between system elementsbefore entering them in the matrix. Theprecedence relations of our example areshown in Table 2.
The DSM corresponding to thistable is shown in Figure 5. Here, the lettersA, B, and S denote an information flow fromthe column parameter to the row parameter.The letters used discriminate the informationownership with "A" indicating architect, "S"structural engineer, and "B" both, producinginformation for a specific parameter deci-sion.
In fact, the matrix shown in Figure 5can be thought of as a two-dimensionalprojective superposition of two overlappingdiscipline-specific matrices as depicted inFigure 6. Each of these DSMs represents theFigure 4. The structural framing plan of the example building.
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Figure 5. The parameter-based DSM for the collaborative beam design example.
Table 2. The Precedence Relations for the Beam Design Example. The column A includes those parameters in the architect’s
domain and S those in the structural engineer’s domain.
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view of the design problem from the point of thecorresponding discipline.
Pa r t i t ion ing the DSM
Partitioning is the process of re-ordering the DSMrows and columns so that the resulting matrix doesnot contain iterations. This means that the DSM istransformed into a lower triangular form. For com-plex processes, it is often impossible to obtain alower triangular form DSM by partitioning. In thiscase, the aim is to cluster the feedback marks in ablock about the diagonal of the DSM so that fewersystem elements are involved in the iteration cycle.The partitioned DSM of our example is shown inFigure 7. It contains three coupled blocks affectingeleven parameter decisions.
Banding the DSM
In the banding procedure, alternating light anddark bands are added to the matrix to show inde-pendent parameter decision points. The decisionprocess for the parameters belonging to the sameband can be conducted concurrently, i.e. in paral-lel. In a DSM, it is desirable to have as few bandsas possible. As shown in Figure 8, there are thirteenbands in the partitioned matrix. The first band con-sists of five independent parameters, which are theinputs to beam design process. The large amountof bands denotes the highly interdependent natureof design processes of architects and structuralengineers.
Tear ing the DSM
Tearing is the process of choosing those feedback
Figure 6. DSM as superposition of discipline-specific dependencies.
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matrix will render the matrix lower triangular.The marks that are removed from the matrixare called “tears.” Tearing corresponds tomaking an assumption for an unknown para-meter. In DSM analysis, the aim is to have aminimal number of tears and to confine tearsto the smallest blocks along the diagonal. Aninspection of the partitioned DSM in theexample reveals that “beam width” parame-ter is one of the sources of iteration in theprocess. If a proper assumption is madeabout the beam width, this item can be tornfrom the matrix. The resulting matrix includesa smaller iteration cycle, as can be seen bycomparing Figure 7 to Figure 9.
CONCLUSIONThe complexity of building design processeshas been ever-increasing, but the modelingand management tools used in the industryare not still capable of resolving this issue.This paper proposed the layered dependencystructure matrix as a tool for detailed analysesof interdisciplinary design processes. An appli-cation of this method was demonstratedthrough an example. The paper showed thatthe proposed method provides insights forinformation ownership and overlapping deci-sions, the optimum sequence of parameterdecision points, critical (and mostly problem-atic) parameters that cause large iterationcycles, design decisions that can be madeconcurrently, and the schedule of assumptionsto be made in the process. The author’s con-tinuing research in the field of building designprocess modeling re-affirms the need for bet-ter tools that are based on information flows.
Figure 7. The partitioned DSM.
Figure 8. The banded DSM.
Figure 9. The DSM after tearing.
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The author hopes that this new method would formthe basis of useful tools for the collaborativeprocesses of the construction industry.
Author’s Note: An earlier version of this paper waspresented in Buildings Ahoy: A Festschrift in Honorof Mustafa Pultar (limited edition of 75 copies).
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Author(s):
Şule Taşlı Pektaş
Bilkent UniversityFaculty of Art, Design and Architecture06800 Bilkent/Ankara TURKEYEmail: [email protected]
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INTRODUCTION
“Architecture is best understood as a ‘symbolictechnology’; it is described as ‘the science of thedwelling of the gods,’ so that cosmology is the divi-ne model for structuring space – cities, villages,temples, and houses” (Lannoy 1971; Ghosh andMago 1974; Rapoport 1979b). Traditional settle-ments such as ancient Rome, medieval Europe(Müller 1961), China (Wheatley 1973), Cambodia(Giteau 1976), and many others (see Rapoport1979b) are only comprehensible in terms of theirsacred meanings (Rapoport 1982).
Man and cosmos are intimately related toeach other. Man is the microcosm and togetherwith the cosmos, they reflect the “MetacosmicReality.” Traditional man views the totality of archi-tecture with its cosmic dimension and also its com-ponents as well. To understand traditional manand any form of traditional architecture, it is neces-sary to understand the qualitative space uponwhich all religious rites and orientation are based(Ardalan and Bakhtiar 1973) and consider themeanings they had for their users (Rapoport 1969,1979a, 1979b, 1980, 1982). In that sense, thearticle presents the man, universe and architectureon an ontological, topological and typologicalbasis.
This article intends to contribute to thegeneral knowledge of the discipline of architecturewith its attempt to identify spatial architectural ele-ments with cosmologic infuence on the condition ofman’s well-being within a framework based on fengshui. From this viewpoint, the basic argument isthat courtyard house, which is a well known arc-hetype of spiritual and celestial qualities, exhibits anarchitectural conjuction between man and nature,including the generic forms of such archetype hasbeen congruent with the environment. In regards tothis, cosmology and the influence of symbols sho-uld be explained in relation to feng shui, since fengshui is a language of symbols. In doing so, first, thecontext of the selected region is stated; and themain factors that have contributed to the spread ofthis type such as environmental and climatic fac-tors, lifestyle in terms of social and cultural context,and interior organization of the houses areaddressed to justify the selection of the housedesign for the analysis.
In this context, the courtyard house plantype in the countries on Cyprus-China axis is takenas a case study (Figure 1). Certain criteria such asentrance-courtyard relation, building shape, waterelement, room arrangement, and door alignmentand circulation are extracted for analysis. In thiscontext, the article introduces a theory and prac-
Afet Çeliker, Banu Tevfikler Çavuşoğlu, Zehra Öngül
Abstract
Cosmology is of essence for the life of traditional man not only to live in a meaningful universe, but to bound himself
with the universe to achieve well-being as well. Architecture is a way of creating spaces through generic forms and
symbols to attain this unity of man and the universe. This article interprets the courtyard house which is a well known
archetype of spiritual and celestial qualities and has symbolic generic forms through the perspective of theory and prac-
tice of feng shui which is an ancient Chinese philosophy, based on the understanding of physical configuration of geo-
graphical settings and application of its principles to the built environment. The courtyard houses represented for this
article are chosen on a linear axis starting from Cyprus, passing through Syria, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India,
and ending at China. In this article, principles of feng shui are selected and formulated to create an evaluation model
showing entrance-courtyard relation, building shape, water element, room arrangement, and door alignment and cir-
culation. Based on this evaluation model, the essential aspects of well-being have been revealed through the elements
of architecture. In that sense, this article presents the opportunities and possibilies of an ideal plan layout by bringing
an awareness to the cosmology and feng shui to achieve well-being.
Keywords: Courtyard House, Feng Shui, Being / Ontology, Cosmology, Cyprus-China.
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF COURTYARD HOUSINGUSING FENG SHUI.
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tice, feng shui, that qualifies space according tosacred geometry and an ideal plan scheme and“creates a harmony between environment, build-ings and people” (Mak & Ng 2006: 1332), toreveal a different perspective to cosmology andsymbolic connotations of shelter. Eventually, thearticle tries to see if the courtyard house on theselected geography suggests motivations for well-being of its residents.
THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
An architecture designated as “cosmic” can beunderstood as “an integrated logical system, andseems rational and abstract, in the sense of trans-cending the individual concrete situation” and “dis-tinguished by uniformity and ‘absolute’ order.”Forms of cosmic architecture are “static rather thandynamic” and aim at “necessity rather than expres-sion.” In that sense, “cosmic space is strictly geo-metrical and is usually concretized as a regulargrid” (Norberg-Schultz 1980:71).To understand relation between cosmology andarchitecture, it is necessary to understand how manviews himself in the cosmos and attaches himself tothe universe on an ontological basis.
“Traditional man lives in a universe that ismeaningful” (Ardalan and Bakhtiar 1973:xii),where both man and the cosmos reflects the“Divine Principle”. Therefore, man is the micro-cosm and is in direct relation to the macrocosm,the universe. In ontological reality, man attains themeaning of his existence to the cosmos throughsacred architecture. All religious rites and orienta-tion qualify space and regulate architecture for thetraditional architect to achieve unity and synthesis.
However, Cartesian philosophy obliterates allmemory of the qualitative space based on religion,rites and rituals and became an instrument toquantify space for Western man (Ardalan andBakhtiar 1973:xii-xiii). Therefore Western manhave forgotten how buildings can have greatsymbolic significance (Oliver 1975). The pheno-mena of indigenous attributions of meaning andsignificance to built structures including the systemsof belief and religion are the concern of anthropo-logist, sociologist, philosopher or architect.Understanding these systems is a way to determinethe traditional man’s world view and “place him inrelation to his environment, to the natural and ina-nimate beings and objects with which he shares thephysical world” (Oliver 1975:9).
Natural objects, such as mountains andrivers, orientation of space, the concept of traditio-nal forms or geometry, garden and room are someof the essential elements of traditional architecturefor the qualification of space. Beyond being ele-ments to fulfill an architectural function, they have“a greater significance to correspond to an innerstate of traditional man through their symbolicaspect of the spiritual principles”. Therefore, allthings within the cosmos reflect the cosmic intelli-gence, within which man reflects it in an activesense and all things are related through their exis-tence to “Pure Being” (Ardalan and Bakhtiar1973:xiii-5).One of the most direct symbols of “Being” is space.For Norberg-Schulz, “man dwells when he can ori-entate himself within and identify himself with anenvironment, or, in short, when he experiences theenvironment as meaningful.” Then, the “spaces”where life occurs become “places” (Norberg-Schulz 1980:5).
Figure 1. Cyprus - China axis
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Norberg-Schulz argues that the task of thearchitect is not only as a form-giver, but also asymbol-giver as well. Because, in the case of anindigeneous society, the form of a dwelling issymbolic of its resident’s self-image. Society’s natu-re, organization, family structure, and aesthetic areall considerations of form in vernacular architectu-re. Avaliability of materials, suitability of the struc-ture to climatic conditions, and the symbolic con-notations of the building to the society are otherform determinants. Therefore, traditional mangives form to his dwellings within these determi-nants that are as much symbolic as physical or cli-matic (Oliver 1975:10-12). In this respect, thelocation of the dwelling is as important as its formas well to maintain the stability of his environmentand to act in harmony with nature. For Ardalan &Bakhtiar (1973:xii-xiii), the knowledge of qualifyingspace according to sacred geography has receivedits most explicit formulation in the Far East. This for-mulation is the philosophy of feng shui, which is thebackbone to create an evaluation model within thiscontext.
Feng shui principles are significant, becau-se they are based on “the understanding of physi-cal configuration of geographical features” andimprove the relationship between man and naturalenvironments (Mak 2010). These principles areembraced as a broadly ecological and architectu-rally connected paradigm (Hwangbo, 1999).
Cosmic orientation through the applicati-ons of the principles of feng shui is “the art of adjus-ting the features of the cultural landscape so as tominimize the adverse influence and derive maxi-mum advantage from favorable conjunction offorms” (Wheatley 1973). Courtyard, porch, gate-way, room and garden are some of the symbolicgeneric forms that constitute the fundamental buil-ding blocks of traditional architecture and contribu-te to the connection of qualitative, abstract world ofthe imagination and the quantitative artifacts ofman. For this reason, courtyard house which is asstated by Ardalan & Bakhtiar (1973:15-67) a “tra-ditional rhythmic syntheses of generic forms asso-ciated with specific functions”, is the primary focusof the article.
THE CONTEXT
As Rapoport (2007) puts it, the history of variousforms of courtyard houses goes back to thousandsof years, and the locations of them vary in morethan forty countries spanning the earth, from ÇatalHüyük (10,000 B.P.), through the Indus Valley civi-lization (5,000 B.P.), the ancient Middle East(Turkey, Mesopotamia, Ur, etc.), China, Ancient
Greece and Rome, to the present (Rapoport 2007;Zako 2006). For Schoenauer and Seeman(1962:13), courtyard houses were built in theTroglodyte villages in the Matmatas of SouthernTunisia, probably by the most primitive and homo-genous societies. They add that “each dwelling-unit is built around a crater open to the sky, havingsloping walls and a flat bottom, which is the court.”These primitive courtyard house examples are for-med by a circular courtyard surrounded by circularrooms. In the ancient Rome and Greece, duringthe classical period and later during the Medieavalperiod until today, the courtyard house plan typehas been evolved. Bagneid (1989:42) observesthat “geographically, courtyard houses are todayspread mainly in North Africa, the Middle East, andperiphery regions (Mediterranean: Spain, Greece,etc.; India, Pakistan, Iran, etc) as the predominantform in indigenous cities with hot-dry, moderateand/or warm humid climates.”
For Petruccioli, “the courtyard house hasendured in the Mediterranean basin in the form ofthe classical Roman atrium and Greek pastashouse.” Although there is a generic similarity,“organic attitude of putting together forms” are dif-ferent in a courtyard house in Jilin, China; in Fez;and a domus in Italica, Spain. He also adds that“the archetype courtyard house represents a pri-mordial act of enclosure and construction” and “itis necessary to consider that every cultural regiondeveloped shelter and enclosure along differentlines.” Based upon that fact, the Mediterraneancourtyard house has evolved “with reference to theforces intrinsic to the building plot” (Petruccioli2006:1-3).
The Cyprus-China axis (Figure 1), which isone of the routes on the Silk Road, has a great sig-nificance for the study of the courtyard houses.Cyprus island, which is the starting point of this lin-ear axis, has had “strategic, economic, and cultur-al importance due to its location on the most vitalsea route” (Pitsillides 1947) which “links Asia,Africa, and Europe” (Numan and Dinçyürek 2001)and China, which is the end-point, has created atraditional wisdom aimed at bonding environment,buildings and man in a harmonious manner toenhance quality of life. Within the context of thisarticle, the route starts from Cyprus, passing thro-ugh Syria, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India,and ends at China.
In Cyprus architecture, which was formedand improved by the influence of several cultures asa result of its geographical location, the courtyardhouse plan type is seen in the years 1800 – 1600BC in Kalopsida that is situated at the east ofMesarya plain. Gjerstad states that the details of theconstruction correlate with Syria and Mesopotamia
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ül(Gjerstad 1926). Between the years 1620 – 1050BC, the yard of a house is noticed not in the formof a courtyard, but as an extension of the rooms inKition and Apliki “Karamallos.” The Vouni Palace,on the other hand, that was built in 500 BC underthe influence of Persians, is an example of a court-yard building. During the Roman period, in theyears 58 BC – 395 AD, the Roman villa is seen asan example of the courtyard house plan type inSalamis (Salihoğlu 2006:162). However, theexamples of traditional housing architecture thatreached today have been constructed during theOttoman rule (1571 – 1878). Some of the court-yard centered single or double-floor constructionswere built upon Lusignian and Venetian ruins on theground floor. In the 16th Century, the courtyardhouse plan type that came along as synthesis ofOttoman traditions reaches today as the traditionalarchitecture of the island (Pulhan and Numan2006).
In Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan and other neigh-bor Arab countries the functions of courtyards areshaped and determined by the society’s traditions,religion and social structure. For Memarian andBraun (2006), “there is evidence that houses withcourtyards existed in Iran around 8000 years ago,”where “the rooms were positioned on one side ofthe courtyard, and included living spaces, storesand barns.” It is also observed that the courtyardwas also an important architectural feature in thelater Mesapotamian civilisation (Memarian andBraun 2006). However, the role of the courtyarddiffers from one region to another in both Iran andin neighboring Arab countries. For Memarian(1993), the following functions of the courtyard ispossible to be identified as: “the demarcation oflimits of the property, the definition of a place of pri-vacy for the family, the unification of spaces andelements in a house, the provision of a circulationelement, the creation of a garden or cool place,and the promotion of ventilation” (Memarian1993). For Schoenauer (1981), especially after theadoption of Islam, courtyard house type plan hasbeen used as a prototype in urban housing tilltoday. Because of its features maximizes shadearea and allows the creation of microclimate in thehot weather of Mesopotamia, this plan type is stillbeing used. The courtyard that moisturize inneratmosphere with the existing plants and water ele-ment is used for social activities as well in Syria regi-on which shares a common history withMesopotamia. For Abidin (2006) the courtyardbecame an essential typological element, with thedevelopment of Arab-Islamic architecture. He sta-tes that “the previous nomadic desert life style ofArabs had a strong influence on their desire to havean open space or spaces within their permanent
houses” where the courtyard fulfills “a deep-rootedneed for an open area of living”. Based upon thatfact, the courtyard house typology of Syria presentsa number of examples, especially, in Aleppo.
Singh et. al. (2009:879) states that “Indianvernacular architecture includes informal and func-tional structures designed and built with local mate-rials to meet the needs of the people in rural areas”that also “reflects the rich diversity of India’s clima-te, locally available building materials, culture andetnicity.” On the other hand, in warm and humidclimatic zone, the courtyard is a common and cha-racteristic form of residential architecture (Singh et.al. 2009:887). The courtyard houses built betwe-en 2000 – 1500 BC in the Indus valley of Indiahave a plan scheme that includes rooms that sur-round the courtyard and have with access to it. Inthis plan scheme that is generally formed of squareand rectangular sites, the courtyard has severalfunctions such as lighting the rooms, absorbing theheat in the summer, providing heat in the winterand providing an open air area in the inner spacefor social activities. Nangia (2000) states that thiscourtyard plan type is still used in the region.
Das (2006) states that the traditionalChinese houses show similarities with the estates inthe Indus Valley. Blaser (1979:9) also observedthat in planning the courtyard houses according thenorth-south orientation following “a strictly axialkind, symmetrically disposed in all-embracing har-mony” is reflected. Xu (1998:272), on the otherhand, emphasizes that for traditional Chinese builtenvironments, including cities, houses and gar-dens, the courtyard, a central opening enclosed bybuildings, is a basic model. Xu (1998) also statesthat “the Beijing courtyard house developed overthousands of years, reaching its apogee during theMing dynasty (1368-1644) and the Qing dynasty(1644-1911), when Beijing, as the capital ofChina, was the political and cultural center for thecountry.” Based upon that fact, the courtyardhouse was the “basic unit of the city.”
INTE RPRE TAT IO N O F C OU RTYA RDHOUSES IN REGARDS TO FENG SHUI
Feng shui, literally means wind and water(Rossbach 2000; Collins 1999: 2; Freedman1971: 220; Mak 2011: 28) and it is a Chinese the-ory and practice that relates architecture to builtenvironment (Mak and Ng 2005:427). Within theperspective of this philosophy, man life and faithare linked to the universe and nature, in a cosmicmanner. The aim of feng shui is to attach man tonature, provide a good, peaceful life in harmonywith nature (Wong 2001; Xu 1998:271) and
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enhance the quality of life (Collins 1999:1). Toprovide this, feng shui uses one of the oldest mysti-cal books called I Ching. Besides, it has principlesto constitute the backbone of this Chinese wisdom.These are the chi, which is known as vital energy orcosmic breath; the Tao, which is known as the ‘way’and is a philosophical concept of unity of oppositesthat describes the true nature and harmonious gov-erning principles of man and the universe; the the-ory of yin-yang, which is the Taoist concept thatunites all opposites and achieve the whole; and theBagua, the eight trigrams of the I Ching, to whichare ascribed eight characteristics relating to nature,man, family relationships, and even areas within ahome. It is also the octagonal symbol of the IChing (Rossbach 2000).
Mak (1995) states that the context of “fengshui covers the entire cycle of built environmentfrom town planning to interior design”. Lee (1986)suggests that “feng shui is a Chinese traditionalarchitectural theory for selecting a favorable site fordwellings and provides a theory of building layoutand design associated with domestic architecture”.Feng shui researchers concern with location andspatial arrangement of built environment. ForHwangbo (1999), “the main aim of feng shui is aharmonious and auspicious existence in architec-tural design”. He states that “the practice of fengshui as an intuitive matter combined with cosmog-raphy and has strong parallels with western con-cepts of geometry in architecture”.
As Mak (2011: 16) emphasizes that west-ern scientists seek for a “deeper understanding ofthe relationships between human and natural envi-ronment” recognizing that there are “similaritiesbetween modern science and eastern philosophy”and have changed “their attitude towards theancient Chinese’s view of nature and the environ-ment, realizing that the principles and practices offeng shui could contribute to the built environ-ment.” For this reason, it is significant to use fengshui principles as an evaluation tool for the analy-sis of the selected geography.In the theory and practice of feng shui, an overall
analysis should be done as the architectural designprocess, regarding the physical surroundings. Mak(2008) identified four stages of preliminary designstages that are site analysis, concept design, sketchdesign and schematic design in relation to feng shuidesign modules that are surrounding environment,external layout, internal layout and interior arrange-ment (Table 1), and he (Mak & Ng 2005: 427-434) identified 24 key criteria according to thesefeng shui design modules (Table 2).
On the other hand, As’ad and Leylia(2011) created another group of criteria for fengshui evaluation based on surrounding environment,external layout and internal layout, and formedtables in comparison to Mak’s criteria (Table3a,b,c).
Based on the former researchers’ feng shuievaluation models, a similar set of criteria is formedin the context of this article as well. These criteriaare formed based on the external layout (Table 4a)and internal layout (Table 4b).
The main purpose of these analyses is tounderstand the flow of chi, life-generating energy,which should be understood just the same as theflow of man within the building. If the flow of chi isnot proper, this means that the positive space con-tinuity is obstructed to affect the residents in anunsuitable way.
Approaching the interpretation on thecourtyard houses on Cyprus-China axis from theperspectives feng shui necessitates the analysis ofthe following criteria in brief:• Entrance-courtyard relation• Building shape• Water element
Table 1. Preliminary Design Stages related to Feng Shui.
Table 2. Feng Shui criteria grouped in four design modules.
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• Room arrangement• Door alignment and circulation
These criteria are the ones that affect theflow of chi. Bramble (2003:22) states that “chi canrefer to the activity of life (and to the traditional
mind life is an aspect of being). It can also refer tomood or to an active influence (perhaps somethingauditory, atmospheric, bacterial, viral or chemi-cal)”. Within this perspective, the entrance-court-yard relation shows how the vital energy, chi, entersthe house and reaches to the central inner court(Collins 1999:95). In this relation, when the chiflows easily, without any obstacles, to the center, theresident is affected in a suitable way. Chi reachedto the central inner court can flow to the otherrooms and sectors of the house. The buildingshape is another important criterion in feng shui.Square and rectangular shapes are the most desir-able building shapes (Rossbach 2000). If distortionhappens to the building shape by some additionand subtraction, then the residents are affected inan unsuitable way. Water elements are always cru-cial in feng shui. A water element that has a fastflow or is stagnant is unsuitable, because fast flow-ing water creates an aggressive environment andstagnant water does not help chi flows.Additionally, stagnant water may create bad smellas well. Room arrangement is significant as well.All the sectors within a house, whether a room or ayard, should be used continuously, if not, then thisshows that chi will not enter such sectors. Doors,on the other hand, are like the ‘mouths’ of chi thatprovides the flow both for the chi and man.Therefore, the placement of the doors is cruciallyeffective on the flow of chi. At some cases, doors
Table 4a. Comparison criteria for external layout.
Table 4b. Comparison criteria for internal layout
Table 3a. Surrounding Environment.
Table 3b. External Layout.
Table 3c. Internal Layout.
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situated across each other shall provide afast flow of chi. This type of fast flow is anunsuitable situation for representing asymbol of destruction. Besides, doorsshould be aligned properly and in terms ofproportion, they should be same to createbalance (Hale 2001:56).
T he Ana l y s i s o f Co u r t y a r dHouses
The analysis of the courtyard houses arerepresented by selected plan schemes anddemonstrated on various tables. To reacha conclusion, an evaluation model is cre-ated to present a more in-depth and com-prehensive analysis for each region of theselected geography. Eventually, the totalanalysis is shown as percentages to clarifythe resultant outcome.
In a former research, Xu (1990)classified feng shui evaluation for land-scaping into categories as “best, good,okay and evil”; whereas Mak (2010) cate-gorized as “excellent, favorable, fair, unfa-vorable and bad”. In this study, the possi-ble outcomes based on feng shui evalua-tion are classified into four categories as:most suitable, suitable, less suitable andunsuitable.
Entrance-courtyard relation ofCyprus plan type, it is seen that entrance isin direct relationship with the inner courtthat pulls out chi inside. This is a suitablesituation. In case of building shape,Cyprus has the most distorted geometricalshape which is the most inappropriatecase among the others. Water element isgenerally seen at courtyard houses. Theysometimes are as small ponds and some-times as water wells. Besides being stag-nant or not, the proportion of the water element tothe building is important as well. In Cyprus plantype this proportion is suitable. Cyprus plan typehas the most unbalanced room arrangement,which is not suitable. Doors are very important interms of flow of chi as stated before. The mostunsuitable case is observed in Cyprus. In brief forCyprus, it is seen that entrance-courtyard relation isdefined as most suitable, building shape as unsuit-able and water element as most suitable; and interms of internal layout, both room arrangementand door alignment and circulation is defined asunsuitable (Table 5).
In terms of entrance-courtyard relation forSyria, it is seen that as soon as chi flows in court-
yard house, it is gathered at a central square inneryard which is suitable to have chi in the center. Forbuilding shape, the purest geometrical shape andtherefore one of the most favorable cases is theplan type of Syria. In terms of water element, theproportion is suitable. On the other hand, therooms are arranged at three sides of the house andcreate a good flow of chi; whereas based on thedoor alignment, chi flows mainly on one side of thebuilding. Briefly, it is seen that entrance-courtyardrelation is defined as suitable; both building shapeand water element is as most suitable. For the cri-teria of internal layout, room arrangement isdefined most suitable and door alignment and cir-culation is as less suitable (Table 6).
The center represents residents’ spiritual
Table 5. Evaluation of Cyprus.
Table 6. Evaluation of Syria.
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existence. In case of Iraq, the flow of chithrough the entrance to the central inneryard is very difficult among the otherregions. Therefore, entrance-courtyardrelation of Iraq is not suitable, becauseof this situation. This factor creates anunsuitable situation for the residents.Iraq plan type is close to a pure geo-metrical shape that is suitable. In termsof water element, Iraq has a suitableproportion. However, in terms of roomarrangement, this plan type shows anunbalanced characteristic and thereforeit is categorized as unsuitable. Whenthe door alignment is evaluated, it isseen that chi flows mainly on one side ofthe building. To sum up, entrance-courtyard relation is defined as less suit-able; building shape is as suitable and
water element is as most suitable. For thecriteria of internal layout, room arrange-ment is defined as unsuitable and dooralignment and circulation is as less suitable(Table 7).
The flow of chi in Iran plan type isin a controlled manner while reaching thecenter and classified as suitable. On theother hand, one of the purest geometricalshape and therefore one of the most favor-able cases is this plan type. In terms ofwater element, the proportion is suitable.In case of room arrangement, Iran plantype is observed to have a balancedarrangement, which is suitable. However,this plan type does not get benefit from theflow of chi because of the placement of thedoors. Briefly, it is seen that for the criteriaof external layout, entrance-courtyard rela-tion is defined as suitable; both buildingshape and water element is as most suit-able. For the criteria of internal layout,room arrangement is as most suitable, anddoor alignment and circulation is definedas suitable (Table 8).
Entrance-courtyard relation ofAfghanistan shows that chi is able to reachto the center, after passing through a pro-tected entrance and flows to the other sec-tors of the house. In terms of buildingshape, Afghanistan plan type is close to apure geometrical shape that is suitable.Besides, this plan type has the water ele-ment as a well and does not create anunsuitable situation. However, there is anunbalanced room arrangement. Analysis
Table 7. Evaluation of Iraq.
Table 8. Evaluation of Iran
Table 9. Evaluation of Afghanistan
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based on door alignment shows thatAfghanistan plan type creates the oppor-tunity for chi to circulate all around thebuilding. So, it is seen that entrance-courtyard relation, building shape andwater element are all defined as suit-able; on the other hand, for the criteriaof internal layout, room arrangement isdefined as less suitable and door align-ment and circulation is as most suitable(Table 9).
Based on entrance-courtyardrelation, chi flows easily and properly inPakistan plan type. This plan type hassome subtractions at some sectors, whenbuilding shape is evaluated. In terms ofwater element, the proportion is suitable.Similar to Afghanistan plan type,Pakistan plan type is unbalanced as well.In terms of door alignment, it is observedthat this plan type creates the opportuni-ty for chi to circulate all around the building. As aresult, it is seen that both entrance-courtyard rela-tion and water element are defined as most suit-able, whereas building shape as less suitable; onthe other hand, for the criteria of internal layout,room arrangement is defined as less suitable anddoor alignment and circulation is as most suitable(Table 10).
Based on entrance-courtyard relation ofIndia plan type, chi flows easily and properly.Similar to Pakistan, India plan type has also somesubtractions at some sectors. This plan type has nowater element. On the other hand, the rooms arearranged at three sides of the house and create agood flow of chi; door alignment, in a similar man-ner, creates the opportunity for chi to circulate allaround the building. It is seen that for the criteriaof external layout, entrance-courtyard relation isdefined as most suitable; building shape as lesssuitable and water element is as unsuitable. For thecriteria of internal layout, room arrangement is assuitable, and door alignment and circulation isdefined as most suitable (Table 11).
The relation of entrance-courtyard ofChina is similar to Syria, Afghanistan and Iran.After passing through a protected entrance, chi isable to reach to the center and flows to the othersectors of the house. In terms of building shape,the purest geometrical shape and therefore themost favorable cases are the plan types of China,which is similar to Syria and Iran. Like Cyprus,Syria, Iraq, Iran, and Pakistan, China plan type hasa suitable proportion. In terms of room arrange-ment, China plan type like Iran is observed to havea balanced arrangement, which is suitable.Especially, the plan type of China is symmetrical
that creates the best balanced room arrangementin terms of feng shui. Based on door alignment, itis observed that similar to Afghanistan, Pakistan,and India, China plan type creates the opportunityfor chi to circulate all around the building as well.To sum up, in case of China, entrance-courtyardrelation is evaluated as suitable; whereas buildingshape and water element as most suitable. In termsof internal layout, both room arrangement anddoor alignment and circulation are classified asmost suitable (Table 12).
Regarding the flow of chi based on the cri-teria entrance-courtyard relation, building shape,doors, room arrangement, stairs and water ele-ment, Cyprus, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan,Pakistan, India and China courtyard house plantypes have been analyzed. In this respect, Cyprusand Iraq are evaluated as less suitable (LS); Syria,Afghanistan, Pakistan and India as suitable (S); andIran and China as most suitable (MS) plan types interms of creating a proper environment achievingwell-being of man (Table 13).
CONCLUSION
In this article, an original connection betweencourtyard house and its residents’ well-being underthe light of the spatial considerations of cosmologyand feng shui are represented. Within this view-point, the courtyard house plan types of the coun-tries on the Cyprus-China axis have been selectedfor analysis. Following a conceptual framework onthe cosmology, explain the context and aspectsinfluencing the design of courtyard houses, the cos-mological interpretation of these selected plantypes of the selected countries have been empha-
Table 10. Evaluation of Pakistan.
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ülsized in the context. Based on theanalysis undertaken, the entrance-courtyard relation, building shape,water element, room arrangement, anddoor alignment and circulation tableshave been demonstrated to show thecomparisons among the countries. Theplan schemes reveal the data in reach-ing an understanding of man’s condi-tion of well being. This article showsthat the plan type of a courtyard houseis a suitable plan type not only in termsof the climatic, socio-cultural and spa-tial organization aspects, but also interms of cosmology and the theory andpractice of feng shui where the well-being of residents’ is revealed within thesymbolic meanings it contains. Theresults of this article may help to struc-ture a code for the application of fengshui to improve an awareness andusage of this ancient wisdom.
Table 13. Final evaluation
Table 12. Evaluation of China
Table 11. Evaluation of India.
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Author(s):
Afet ÇelikerPhD Candidate, Eastern Mediterranean University,Faculty of Architecture, Gazimağusa (Famagusta)Mersin 10 Turkey Northern Cyprus;Lecturer, Cyprus International University, Faculty of FineArts, Haspolat Campus, Lefkosa (Nicosia)Mersin 10 Turkey Northern Cyprus.E-mail: [email protected]
Banu Tevfikler ÇavuşoğluEastern Mediterranean University,Faculty of Architecture, Gazimağusa (Famagusta)
Mersin 10 Turkey Northern Cyprus
Zehra ÖngülEastern Mediterranean University, Faculty of Architecture, Gazimağusa (Famagusta)Mersin 10 Turkey Northern Cyprus
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INTRODUCTION
Many resources go into the production of a build-ing; such as material, labour, energy, time andmoney. But buildings cannot stand forever, as withthe passage of time they may become dilapidated,redundant or even a liability. When this happens adecision has to be made as to their fate: to reno-vate or to demolish. Whatever the decision may be,more resources are needed for the job at hand,while those that were used at the outset to constructthe building are in imminent danger of being wast-ed altogether.
The question is which of these resourcescan be saved from being wasted and what can bedone to conserve or salvage them. The only wayforward is to first assess the building disposal pro-cedures from the point of view of these resourcesand then analyze the feasibility of the options athand, i.e. complete demolition, selective demoli-tion or deconstruction. The demand for used build-ing material in many countries is an incentive to optfor selective demolition, which in turn involves bothdeconstruction (of reusable building components)and demolition (of the structure).
Deconstruction is considered to be anexpensive option compared to demolition sinceconsiderable time is required to deconstruct abuilding properly. It is believed that when a buildingis demolished using explosives or machines (suchas excavators and bulldozers) the disposal processis speedy; and since time is money, the demolitionoption would be more economical. It should be
noted here that the time required to dispose of abuilding is usually calculated as the time needed toraze it to ground. However, as Dantata et al. (2005)rightly point out, the duration of a demolition pro-ject should also account for the time taken to dis-pose of the waste material and to leave the siteclean and tidy. Consequently, the total duration fordeconstruction may at times work out to be lessthan for demolition; this was also the case in thecomparative study presented in his paper.
another misconception is that deconstruc-tion is always more expensive than conventionaldemolition. However, the balance can sometimestilt in favour of deconstruction if the resale of sal-vaged material generates enough profits to coverthe extra costs for prolonged durations and addi-tional manpower. pun et al. (2006) investigatedthree scenarios for the disposal of residential build-ings in australia: mechanized demolition, hybrid(selective) demolition and deconstruction. They dis-covered that deconstruction has the best overalleconomic performance, hybrid has slightly lowerprofits and mechanized demolition costs are thehighest. Coelho & De Brito (2011) have also com-pared the economic benefits of selective demolitionprojects in portugal, and determined that thoughlabour costs and duration were more for decon-struction, disposal costs for mixed waste wereimportant in determining the total cost of the demo-lition project.
In addition to labour costs, waste disposalcosts, duration, and amount of material salvagedfor resale; energy is also a factor that needs to be
Soofia Tahira Elias-Ozkan
Abstract
This paper presents findings of a comparative study on the removal and disposal of fenestration units in two separate
buildings, belonging to the same period and built with similar construction materials. Demolition techniques were used
for removing the fenestration units from a building that was undergoing refurbishment; while, deconstruction techniques
were used for dismantling similar units from another building that was being selectively demolished.
It was concluded that the amount of energy consumed, time taken and waste generated, were far greater, and the rev-
enues much lower, when conventional demolition techniques and tools were used. Hence, from the point of view of
resource conservation (material, energy, time, and money) deconstruction was found to be more advantageous in the
disposal of reusable building components.
Keywords: Demolition, Deconstruction, Resource Conservation, Reuse, Recycling.
DEMOLITION VERSUS DECONSTRUCTION: IMpaCTSOf fENESTRaTION DISpOSaL IN BUILDINgRENOVaTION pROjECTS.
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antaken into consideration. Schultmann & Sunke
(2007) argue that energy consumption should bean important factor in deciding on the techniquesto be used in building disposal projects. WhileThomark (2006) points out to the importance ofembodied energy of building materials and stress-es that this energy should be kept in mind whenselecting materials at the outset of the constructionproject, because the right choice can help reducethe overall environmental impact of buildings whenthey are demolished.
Despite the widespread belief in the bene-fits of demolition and re-construction, there is agreater tendency to renovate and refurbish oldbuildings because it is not always feasible to startanew. another reason may be that it is possible toimprove the environmental quality and energy effi-ciency of existing buildings and raise their comfortstandards on a par with new ones, through strate-gic interventions. Many authors have listed suchinterventions to be the addition of insulation towalls, roofs, basements and ceilings; renewal ofHVaC systems; replacement of windows; and addi-tional shading elements (papadopolus et al., 2002;jakob, 2006; Uihlein & Eder, 2010; O’Dall et al.2012)
Indeed, renovated buildings can achievethermal standards of newly constructed buildings,simply by adding 10 to 14 cm of insulation to thebuilding envelope and replacing existing windowswith ones having a U-value of around 1.1W/m2 K(jakob, 2006). It is estimated that such interven-tions in the building envelope will help reduce theenergy demand of residential buildings up to24.8% by 2020. (O’Dall et al. 2012)
according to Uihlein & Eder (2010) majorbuilding renovations in Europe take place every 40years or so; and element replacement for energyefficiency is cost favourable in many Europeancountries. While O’Dall et al. (2012) reveal thatwindow replacements have increased in recentyears due to a 55% tax deduction for energy savingmeasures in existing buildings. Be it as it may, win-dow replacement also means window disposal; i.e.the old windows have to be removed and disposedof, by either dumping as waste or recycling, beforethe new ones can be installed.
a ims o f the s tudy
a study was carried out to evaluate the merits anddemerits of deconstruction and demolition tech-niques that are employed to dispose of old doorsand windows in building refurbishment projects.The aim was to compare the two techniques withrespect to the conservation of resources; i.e. mate-
rial, labour, energy, time, and revenues. To this endthe removal and disposal of fenestration units wasobserved in two residential buildings belonging tothe same period. The first was a refurbishment pro-ject where the single-glazed timber fenestrationunits of an old flat, in Building a, were to bereplaced with double-glazed pVC windows anddoors. Since the old doors and windows were to bedismantled by the crew who was to install the newones, demolition techniques were used in the beliefthat they would speed up the job. The second pro-ject was the selective demolition of Building B i.e.the emphasis was on material recovery; hence thefenestrations were removed using deconstructiontechniques. Details on the research methodologyare given in the following section.
MaTER IaL aND METHOD
The removal and disposal of timber fenestrationsfrom the two buildings was observed and recordedfrom start to finish. a detailed study was then car-ried out for one unit in each building, denoted asUnit a and Unit B, respectively.
The dismantling process of the old doorsand windows opening out on the terrace ofBuilding a was not only observed and recorded onvideo tape but also analysed in terms of the dis-posal procedure followed; time-taken and materialwasted or recycled. photographs, depicting thedemolition steps, which were reproduced from thisvideo, are presented as a collage in figure 1. Dataon the area of glazing, the length of framing andthe total area of the fenestration were derived fromthe drawings prepared by the manufacturers of thepVC fenestration (which were to replace the old sin-gle glazed timber ones).
The dismantling process of the timber fen-estration in Building B that was being selectivelydemolished was observed, photographed andanalysed in terms of the disposal procedure fol-lowed; time-taken and material wasted or recycled.Selected photographs taken to record the decon-struction process, are presented as a collage infigure 2. Data on the total area of the fenestrationswere derived from the site visits and photographs,and durations were calculated from the times thephotographs were taken.
DaTa ON fENESTRaT ION DISpOSaL
Relevant information on the replaced fenestration inBuilding a is presented in Table 1, where, D1denotes a half glazed door; W1, a 3-bay windowwith fixed glazing; W2, a 4-bay window with two
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fixed and 2 operable parts and W3, a 5-bay win-dow with both fixed and operable parts. all thedoors and windows had transom light above them.additionally, there were three types of ventilationwindows V1, V2 and V3 respectively. The total areaof the replaced units was calculated to be 54.79 m²of which 37.88 m² was glazing.
Data on the number and area of the fen-estrations in Building B and the time taken to sal-vage them are presented in Table 2 below. W1denotes a two-bay window with one bay fixed andthe other with a sash; DW, a 2-bay operable win-dow with an adjacent door; W2, a three-bay win-dow with one fixed and two operable parts; and V1,a small ventilation window. all the doors and win-dows had fixed transom lights. The total area of the32 salvaged units was approximately 145 m² andthe time taken to remove all doors and windowswas four hours only.
D isposa l u si ng demo l i t ion techn iques
The demolition process for Unit a is presented stepby step in the following paragraphs. This unit com-prised of a door (D1) and a window (W1); the win-dow was divided by timber mullions into 3 bays withtransom lights; and the adjacent door also had amatching transom light. The total width of the fen-estration unit was 2.92m and the total area of theopening it was installed in was 5m². The materialused in the production of Unit a was 0.198m3 ofwood, 1.8m2 of glass, iron nails to anchor the win-dow frame to the wooden blocks in the wall; 3hinges and 1 lockset with aluminium handles.Removal: The dismantling of the old timber fenes-tration units was carried out in three distinct stages,the first being the removal of articulated memberssuch as the doors and window sashes. The secondwas the removal of fixed glazing and the third, dis-
Table 1. Data on the area of replaced timber fenestration units in Building A and the amount of glass and timber that was
salvaged or dumped.
Table 2. Data on the fenestration units in Building B.
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an
membering of the main frame. all these stageswere executed single-handedly by one crew mem-ber.
first, the timber doors and window sashes wereremoved from the main frame with the help of acrow bar that lifted them free from their pin-hinges.Then, the glazing was broken with a claw hammerfrom inside; causing the glass pieces and slivers tofly out on the surrounding terrace. pieces of glassthat still adhered to the frame were either pulled outand thrown down on the floor (thus shattering intoeven smaller pieces) or were knocked off with thehammer. The mullions were cut off at a point nearthe sill with an electric-saw and then pulled outmanually. The transom rails in units with top-lightswere first sawn-off with an electric saw (whichsometimes penetrated into the glazing, cracking itand creating a shower of glass slivers); then loos-ened with a mallet and pulled out. The transomlights were dealt with in the same manner as therest of the glazing.
The bottom rail of the main frame was alsosawn down the centre and then loosened from thesill with the help of a claw-hammer for leverage.after pulling the rail free from the embedding plas-ter, the jambs and the head rail were also removedlikewise. This method of dismembering the timberframe rendered the wood useless for further con-structive purposes. (figure 1)
Disposal: The dismantled and dismembered timberfenestration units were disposed off in three lots:The first consisted of the doors and window sashes;
the second of the timber pieces from the mainframes and the third of shattered glass from thefixed lights.
The doors and window sashes that wereremoved intact from the hinges were taken away byone of the crew for his under-construction squatterdwelling. The fenestration frames, on the otherhand, had been dismantled in such a fashion thatthey could not possibly be used for any other pur-pose except as firewood; although, this too was notadvisable in view of the accumulated coats of toxicpaint on the timber. Nevertheless, the dismemberedmain frame (173.44 m length of timber), was takenaway by another crew member for this very pur-pose.
The broken glazing was further smashedinto even smaller pieces by stamping on them. Theglass debris was then swept up, shovelled into sacksand carried down by the crew, to be disposed off;thus 13.55 m² of glazing had been wasted in thisway.
Duration: The total time taken for removing Unit afrom the wall was 27 minutes; which did notinclude the time taken to dispose of the debris cre-ated during the demolition process.
Energy consumed: The timber frame was cut upwith an electric saw into manageable pieces so thatthey could be pulled out individually. The electric-saw was used six times in Unit a alone for a total of6 minutes. The energy used may not be significantbut its consumption could have been avoided alto-gether if the fenestration had been dismantled
Figure 1. Disposal of building fenestration using demolition techniques: (i) Removing the sash; (ii) breaking the glass; (iii)
sawing the mullion and (iv) pulling it out. (v) Cutting the transom rail and (vi) dislodging it; (vii) removing the sill and (viii)the head and jamb.
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using deconstruction techniques mentioned in thenext section.Safety measures: The dismantling of old timber fen-estration and the installation of new pVC unitsinvolved working with glass that should be handledwith great care. Inattention to safety measures canand does result in serious accidents. On the otherhand, employment of safety procedures not onlyreduces risks for the workers, but also for others inthe immediate work area.
Of the four-member crew, only one personwas wearing rubber gloves while the others workedwith their bare hands. This indifference to safetyrules resulted in an accident when the glazingslipped out of a worker's hands and cut his palm.further, though the un-conventional procedureadopted for removing fixed lights necessitated thewearing of protection visors; this safety measurewas also disregarded.
glass-breaking was done without concernfor splinters, big or small, flying off to quite a dis-tance. Broken glass was all over the surroundingterrace and there was impending danger of it flyingoff beyond the parapet walls, thus injuring passers-by on the ground below. Whenever the electric sawpenetrated the glass while sawing off the transomrails the shower of glass particles, however short-lived, could have seriously injured the person whowas using the electric-saw or, for the matter, anyonestanding close by. Even after the glass debris hadbeen removed from the site there were small sliversscattered all over the work area.
D is po sa l u s ing decon s t ruc t io n t ech-n i ques
The deconstruction process of Unit B is presentedstep by step in the following paragraphs. This unit(W2) comprised of a window that was divided bytimber mullions into 3 bays having transom lights;the centre bay was large and had fixed glazing,while the narrower ones on the two sides had oper-able sashes. The total width of the fenestration unitwas 2.4 m and the total area of the opening it wasinstalled in was 3.12 m². The material used in theproduction of Unit B was 0.198m3 of wood,1.8m2 of glass, 4 iron anchors, 4 hinges and 4locksets with aluminium handles.
Removal: The dismantling of the old timber fenes-tration units was carried out in three distinct stages,the first being the removal of articulated memberssuch as the doors and window sashes. The secondwas the removal of the window frame from the walland the third, replacing the window sashes. allthese stages were executed single-handedly by one
workman.first, the window sashes in Unit B were
removed from the main frame with a pickaxe usedas a lever against the sill to lift them free from theirpin-hinges. Then the window sill was broken awaywith the pickaxe. a sledge hammer was used tochip away the plaster around the window frame;thus revealing the location of the metal anchors,which were then dug out of the wall with the pick-axe. finally, the window frame was pulled out of thewall and the sashes replaced. (figure 2)
Disposal: Once the sashes were replaced andclosed, the fenestration was carried down andstacked upright with the other units. When all of thefenestration units were dismantled they were trans-ported to the demolition contractor’s yard, fromwhere they could be sold for reuse. This techniqueof removal prevents wastage of useful buildingcomponents.
Duration: The total time taken for removing Unit Bfrom the wall was 10 minutes; which included thetime taken to replace the window sashes in theframe after it had been taken out. The debris accu-mulated consisted of chipped plaster and brokensill; which would have been safe and easy to cleanup and throw away, had this been a refurbishmentproject.
Energy consumed: The timber fenestration wasloosened from its position in the wall and pulledout, using small manual tools. power tools were notneeded in this technique, hence electricity was notconsumed.
RESULTS aND DISCUSSION
The two techniques that were used in the disposalof a specific building component are comparedfrom the point of view of the resources depleted orconserved; i.e. material salvaged or wasted; man-power, tools and energy used; duration of work;and the projected revenues from the sale of the sal-vaged material (see Table 3).
The two processes are also presentedschematically in figure 3, which shows the stepsrequired to dispose of a fenestration unit, usingeither option. It is clear that not only more steps,more tools, more energy and more time were need-ed for the demolition procedure, but also morewaste was generated. In fact, 65% of the materialwas dumped as waste. On the other hand, ifdeconstruction techniques had been used toremove these very fenestration units, they couldhave been sold for reuse, thus generating a profitrather than loss due to the tipping fee. (figure 3)
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as noted earlier, the duration for bothdeconstruction and demolition should also includethe time required to remove all salvaged material,debris and rubble from the site. The crew usingdemolition techniques had claimed that their dis-mantling procedure was fast and efficient; however
they had not taken into consideration the extra timespent on cleaning up the broken glass and woodsplinters. Hence, the total duration of disposal forUnit a was actually more than the 27 minutes ittook to remove the fenestration from the wall. Thisis almost three times the duration for removing Unit
Table 3. Comparison of resource conservation in the disposal of two timber fenestrations units (Unit A and Unit B) by using
demolition and deconstruction techniques, respectively.
Figure 2. Disposal of building fenestration using deconstruction techniques (Photos: FZ Cakici) (i) Removing the window-sash
(ii) breaking the window-sill (iii) chipping off the plaster (iv) removing the metal anchor (v) pulling out the window-frame (vi)replacing the sash
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B, i.e. 10 minutes. The reason for this longer dura-tion may be that just like deconstruction demolitionwas also carried out manually with small hand-heldtools.
from the point of view of energy consump-tion, which should also be an important factor indeciding on the techniques to be used in buildingdisposal projects, the amount of energy consumedwas considerably more for the demolition option.This consumption consisted of not only the electric-ity used in the power tools but also the energyexpended in manual work as well as in cleaning upthe debris; the fuel used to transport the material to3 different places; the energy to recycle the glasscullet (if it were not dumped as waste) and the
embodied energy wasted.finally, the projected revenues from the
resale of all of the 32 fenestration units (145 m2)salvaged from the deconstruction project can becalculated as approximately 1500 - 2000 TurkishLira (TL) or 750 - 1000 €. Whereas the 12 Units(54 m2) wasted in the demolition project couldhave generated an income of approximately 1000- 1200 TL or 500 - 600 €. These figures have beencalculated from the prices obtained by the authorfor a previous study (Elias-Ozkan, 2002).
Figure 3. Process chart for comparing the steps in deconstruction and demolition of fenestration units, from the point of view
of resource management.
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Soofia
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from the comparative study presented in this paper,it is safe to conclude that the deconstruction optionis preferable to demolition on all counts, especiallyif current techniques and tools are to be used. Inaddition to the conservation of resources, such asmaterial (by reusing or recycling) and energy (savedor embodied) safety is also a factor that makesdeconstruction more ethical and, consequently,more preferable. furthermore, revenues generatedfrom the resale of the salvaged material add to theprofitability of the project.
It should be noted that manual demolitionin refurbishment projects entails removal of everyelement of the building component one by one;whereas, deconstruction means dismantling thecomponent by removing the connections only.Thus, to facilitate the dismantling process oneneeds to adopt strategies for ‘Design forDeconstruction’ (DfD): “...that is designing thebuilding and selecting materials, products and con-nection systems that will facilitate eventual disas-sembly of the building” (Kibert, 2007).
acknow ledgements
The case study on Unit B was conducted as part ofa research project funded by the Middle EastTechnical University in ankara, Turkey; photographsof this unit were taken by f.Z. Cakici.
REfERENCES
COELHO a. and DE BRITO j. 2011, Economic analysis of
conventional versus selective demolition – A case study,
Resource Conservation and Recycling, Vol. 55(1) pp 382-392.
DaNTaTa N., TOURaN a. and WaNg j. 2005, An analysis of
cost and duration for deconstruction and demolition of resi-
dential buildings in Massachusetts, Resource Conservation and
Recycling, Vol. 44(1) pp 1-15.
ELIaS-OZKaN S.T. 2002, An overview of demolition, recovery,
reuse and recycling practices in Turkey, in: Chini aR,
Schultmann f, editors. Design for Deconstruction and Materials
Reuse, CIB publication 272, pp 128-138.
jaKOB M. 2006, Marginal costs and co-benefits of energy effi-
ciency investments: the case of the Swiss residential sector,
Energy policy, Vol. 34 pp 172–187.
KIBERT C.j. 2007, The next generation of sustainable con-
struction, Building Research Information, Vol. 35(6) pp 595-
601.
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ology for evaluating the potential energy savings of retrofitting
residential building stocks, Sustainable Cities and Society, Vol.
4 pp 12-21.
papaDOpOULUS a.M., THEODOROS g., THEODOSIOU
T.g. and KaRaTZaS K.D. 2002, Feasibility of energy saving
renovation measures in urban buildings: the impact of energy
prices and the acceptable payback time criterion, Energy and
Buildings, Vol. 34(5) pp 455-466.
pUN S.K., LIU C. and LaNgSTON C. 2006, Case study of
demolition costs of residential buildings, Construction
Management Economics, Vol. 24(9) pp 967-976.
SCHULTMaNN f. and SUNKE N. 2007, Energy-oriented
deconstruction and recovery planning, Building Research
Information, Vol. 35(6) pp 602-615.
THORMaRK C. 2006, The effect of material choice on the total
energy need and recycling potential of a building,. Building
and Environment, Vol. 41(8) pp 1019–1026.
UIHLEIN a. and EDER p. 2010, Policy options towards an ener-
gy efficient residential building stock in the EU-27, Energy and
Buildings, Vol. 42(6) pp 791-798.
author(s):
Soofia Tahira Elias-Ozkan, B.arch, M.S, phD,Department of architecture, Middle East TechnicalUniversity, ankara 06800, Turkey E-mail: soofia.elias @gmail.com
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INTRODUCTION
The Loft concept was first defined as “attic,” then“warehouse/commercial building” and now it isdefined as “monolithic areas of a commercialbuilding” (Hasol, 2005). In addition to this defini-tion, the concept of “life-hospitable house in facto-ry premises” shaped its widely used definition today(Karagoz, 2007a). From America to Europe, andthen to Turkey and particularly certain parts ofIstanbul, Lofts have been regarded as a newlifestyle. Growing concerns over world ecologyensured the domination of a protection-driven con-cept of urban life instead of demolition in the1970s(Koksal, 2008). This understanding, inİstanbul, interfered to change the concept of hous-ing together with Traditional life continued until the1980s and renewal process brought about byurbanization. Developments in the housing sectorwhich began with attempts to integrate with the restof the world in the 1980s and has continued to thisdate paced up the orientation towards Loft housing.Urbanization and migration particularly accelerat-ed the evolution in housing sector and put the sec-tor in competition with different housing typologies.This competition required the continuous variation
of housing typologies, with 1990s, left its place todifferent formations, such as Loft and residences.Especially, the process of gentrification has a largeeffect in this change, it required rebuilt of old build-ing or changing identity of historical places. Thus,settling of artist-scholars in the neighborhoodspaved the way of converting workshop-warehouse-style buildings into houses. In this sense, Loft life hastaken place in the literature as a way of life that hasspecific architecture incorporates and historicalvalue. But in recent years, housing sector to be inthe race has changed original identity of Loft. Thus,in the study, examination of the differences appear-ing in meaning of Loft such as “Original”, “Semi”,“Imitation” ranging from commercial considera-tions. In the study; in the first chapter; past, presentand change with expanding to outside with post-1980 have been examined. In the second part,changes in urban scale due to process of gentrifi-cation and Loft life in Istanbul have been examined.Revealing that Lofts in Istanbul are produces as“Imitation” or “Semi Loft” under name of “OriginalLoft” is targeted. Accordingly, in the context of struc-tural criteria, three different types of Loft have beendiscussed in detail. In the third section, three differ-ent Loft types have been analyzed on examples in
Serpil ÖZKER
Abstract
Lofts are housing forms converted from warehouse-workshop into a “habitable environment” in coastal towns of Europe
and the USA after the Industrial Revolution. Particularly positioned in coastal towns of New York, Loft life made an impact
in the world over time. It became a new form of living when artists converted structures like factories into habitable envi-
ronment. From past to today, all national and international developments during the process affected and accelerated
development of the constant evolution of housing concept. In that sense, in this study, the meaning of Lofts in Istanbul
and the effect and change of socio-cultural stratification on spatial conversion of housing consumerism has been exam-
ined in the context of Istanbul. Especially, process of gentrification, shaped by effects of urban transformation post 1980,
and cultural development affected by this process, attendant Loft life has become an accelerating way of life. In this
context, historical and stylistic value and especially usage of Loft living has been examined. In the first chapter; past,
present and the post-1980 development of housing sector in Istanbul, in the second chapter, with a thriving cultural life,
and Loft formation, has been examined in the context of structural criteria, resulting three different Lofts have been dis-
cussed in detail. In the third section, three different types of Loft have been analyzed in the context of space depend-
ing on examples. As a result of researches, three different types of Lofts, “Original”, “Semi” and “Imitation” concepts
have become clear and it has been concluded that “Imitation Loft” formation gives direction to life in Istanbul.
Keywords: Definition of Loft, Types of Loft, Housing Sector, Urban Transmission, Process of Gentrification.
A REVIEW OF LOFTS AS HOUSING IN ISTANBUL
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three different Loft were decided according to dis-trict, historical characteristic and region, source,document, photo shoot and site interviews werealso done. “Hasanpasa Loft” located in Kadıkoywas taken as an example of “Original Loft”, “LeventLoft” in the middle of the business district in Maslak-Levent line was taken as an example of “Semi Loft”,Incity Loft project located in Kozyatagi was taken asan example of “Imitation Loft”. One reason for theselection of those surveyed three examples wasreserving different district and cultural identities.Consequently, the study aims to emphasize thatIstanbul has not a prominent identification of thehousing sector, construction companies use luxuryhousing concepts such as residence, Loft to accel-erate the competition. Thus, purpose is to empha-size the loss of meaning of Loft life in changingIstanbul. As a result of researches, three differenttypes of Lofts, “Original”, “Imitation” and “Semi”concepts have become clear and it has been con-cluded that “Imitation Loft” formation gives direc-tion to life in Istanbul.
1. THE HOUSING SECTOR IN ISTANBUL
All reforms from the Westernization in 19th centuryto 1980s constantly modified communal living.Changing traditional life by effects ofWesternization continued with restructuring processfrom Republican era to the 1950s. Urbanizationprocess that occurred in the 1950s, volume ofloans extended in order to modernize agricultureand more revealing the population in the agricul-tural sector increased internal migration from ruralto urban, initiated a process of rapid urbanization(Turkdogan, 1988). Rural-urban migration andincreasing population, from 1950s to the present,accelerated urban transformation that appearedespecially after 1980. From 1950s to the 1970s,on the one hand, as a result of industrialization, lux-ury homes and apartments increased, on the otherhand, trend of slum began in low-income areas(Senyapili, 1978). Demolition of old structures andconstruction of new ones in the 1970s is the actu-al spatial transformation process that changed theurban identity of Istanbul. Emergence of the build-and-sell (Contractor's job) caused an inclinationtowards concretion. During this conversion, lack ofattention to the design and production revealedintense apartment architecture. Towards 1980s,build and sell production, then the acceleration ofrural-urban migration, has increased slums evenmore in a large part of the city.
Opening its doors to outside world in
1980s, Turkey ended the expurgatory period andenabled the introduction of technological develop-ments into the country. Outsourcing policy andefforts to bring the country to a modern situationcaused a great change. However, this change poli-cies implemented in the country brought problemsof cultural and social life as a result of that societywas not yet ready and not able to perform thistransformation (Sonmez, 2008). Foreign expansionand the ensuing population increase in the citydeemed social change obligatory which paced upthe need for housing areas. The housing sectorthat produced according to income statue becameevident. 1980 era was actually a period of trans-formation and integration with the West. Thisprocess carried on with accelerated housing pro-duction due to private entrepreneurs by the end of1990s. As of 1990s, the historical districts ofIstanbul gained importance and historical buildingswere taken under protection. Moreover, Istanbul’sskyline was now formed by skyscrapers and thetransformation of several areas into business cen-ters increased construction in those neighborhoods.A complicated urbanization arose in Istanbul andforest lands on city’s outskirt were destroyed. Theupper class's desire to move towards a calmer envi-ronment particularly caused lifestyles located in cityoutskirts (Ozker, 2011).
Detached houses from 19th century to1950s, apartment housing from 1930 to 1960s,builder-seller production from 1950s to 1980s, for-eign expansion in 1980s with globalization, sus-tainability and technology concept in 1990sincreased the speed of housing production. In thisperiod, Emlak Bank initiated a fast dwelling pro-duction, number of cooperatives increased, thebuilder-seller production continued building at fullspeed, the private sector began a large-scalehouse construction on large plots (Gorgulu, 2003).The 2000s saw technological innovations anddwelling production developed to the point ofOriginal estate investment trusts. In a spatial sense,urban renovation changed Istanbul’s silhouettewhile meeting demands from different architecturalstyles under the influence of globalization process.The increase in houses and commercial buildingsin city’s center made it unable to cope with the pop-ulation density. Therefore, construction of houses inthe suburbs especially for the high income groupgained speed. As the skyscrapers shaped Istanbul’sskyline towards 2000s, an inclination begantowards house forms like Lofts and residences.Mansion in the last period of the Ottoman Empire,apartment in the Republican period, and today,changing housing preferences from flats towardsresidences greatly influenced the city's physical envi-ronment (Yalvac, 2008a).
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In addition, the fast transformation of sociallife in 2000s and increasing technological oppor-tunities made their impact on the housing sector.Becoming the center for domestic and foreigninvestors under the influence of globalization,Istanbul became the most affected city during thisperiod. The urban transformation issue becamecrucial particularly in terms of enhancing the quali-ty of life. With arrangements of urban transforma-tion, the aim was to prevent the spreading ofshanties and acquiring habitable environments bydemolishing old structures and building new hous-es. The gradually decreasing capacities of builder-sellers and shanty construction are far from meetingthe demand in densely populated areas. Thiscaused both public and private sectors to focus onlarge-scale housing estate enterprises. The stateenabled large-scale production with housing estatelaw and new loaning mechanisms, and created adifferent market from previous periods with TOKI(Housing Development Administration)(Yalvac,2008b). In this regard, TOKI was affiliated with thePrime Ministry as of 2004 and new regulationswere initiated which accelerated urban arrange-ment. TOKI is on agenda with urban renovationand shanty transformation projects. Also, it pavedthe way for private sector and local governments toconduct big, comprehensive projects. Projects forurban transformation and high life standardsshaped Istanbul’s architecture.
The social change that emerged in 1980screated a process called gentrification, which is set-tlement in vicinities in the city’s center.Gentrification is defined as the process of “high-classes” settlement in slummed inner-city areaswhere low-incomers live (Ciravoglu, 2006). Inthese vicinities, ragged houses are renovated andformer residents are removed. Gentrificationprocess brings along the settlement of different cul-tures in these areas which forcefully change theneighborhood’s culture as well. Urban gentrifica-tion is usually seen as process in which middle andupper-middle classes settle in slummed historicalhousing areas where low-incomers and poors liveand they renovate these areas according to theirown live standards (Behar, Islam, 2006a). All thesechanges caused urban transformation to reflectupon the area in social and economic sense. Classdifferences according to income statue became evi-dent; these differences damaged the integrity of acertain group. The individual's new lifestyle causedspatial disintegration in society and created self-enclosed housing settlements. Accordingly, theensuing sense of alienation caused disconnectionswithin society.
In summary, events that began withdestruction of historical buildings in 1960s and
spread of shanties in 1980s created a transforma-tion period for Istanbul. The increasing urbansprawl added to the pace of house consumptionand induced different housing typologies to sur-face. In this sense, there have been many housingprojects since 1980s to our day that seemed differ-ent but actually same in context and concept.
2 . LOFTS IN ISTANBUL WITHIN THECONCEPT OF HOUSING
The most important factor in the development ofLoft, began by settling in buildings used for indus-trial purposes in New York, are cheap rents, creat-ing a suitable environment to live and work(Pamukcu, 2009b). But in Istanbul, considering thedevelopment of Loft, it is observed that it hasevolved into becoming one of the defining aspectsof life in luxury. In this sense, the development ofLoft, lifestyle and types are important factors in win-ning the ultimate goal of Loft apparent. In this con-text, housing typologies shaped by the effects of thewestern provide a basis for houses built by targetedmarketing strategies. Thus, under the name of dif-ferent forms of housing, many residential projectshave similar characteristics. There is also a differ-ence in spatial terms between luxury housing andLoft housing produced in recent years. In short,today, background characteristics of housing suchas public housing, residential, Loft, villas, indepen-dent apartment are quite similar. Still in Istanbul,with the leadership of the artists pattern New YorkLofts, numbered examples of original Lofts can beseen. Lofts, having varied forms of housing, arenoteworthy in terms of differences between them-selves. While a cheap live of living in New York, Loftformation, rapidly increasing in recent years inTurkey, is an expensive lifestyle in Istanbul which isincentive life of luxury.
2 .1 . Deve lopment of Lo f t i n I s tanbulw i th in the Contex t o f Hous ing
The changes made en route to westernization fromthe Tanzimat reform era to today failed to progressat the same pace with the West in sociocultural,economic, and political areas. In spite of that, rela-tionships with the West increased with the develop-ing commerce in country due to non-muslims resid-ing in Galata and neighboring vicinities. Theseneighborhoods in time formed the city’s density andrequired the settlement of industrial areas in theseparts. The small scale enterprises from past to pre-sent were in these vicinities and were not used,which led to secondary ownership. Also, Istanbul’s
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tance in socialization and industrialization.Industrial structures and workshops from theOttoman era that are extant today paved the wayfor creation of Lofts. For instance, with the develop-ing industry after World War II, many industrialcomplexes in parts of Istanbul are extant today in asheltered way. The economic balances emergingparticularly after 1980 necessitated the city’srenewal. For this reason, the construction processof housing areas in gentrification period whichaccelerated urban transformation was exposed torenewal as well. This renewal naturally affected thesociocultural environment as well as houses. Theurban renewal developing in sociocultural senseaccelerated the gentrification process in theseneighborhoods. In accordance with this process,the change in population composition should takeplace as to newcomers having a higher socioeco-nomical level than current residents. Improvementsin physical texture of the resided area should beobserved as well (Behar, Islam, 2006b). The role ofartists and academicians in this process is substan-tially crucial. Beyoglu, Galata, Cihangir, Balat,Tarlabasi are the areas where gentrification is heav-ily implemented. Small workshops in these vicinitieswere converted into houses or house/workshops bytransforming the intended use. Indicating activity inIstanbul particularly in early 20th century, thesebuildings laid the basis for Loft concepts. Loft,shaped by the effects of the process of gentrifica-tion, today, have been substantially amended bylosing its meaning. Housing sector shaped by theeffects of urban transformation has entered into thecompetition in line with marketing strategies. Thiscompetition required the continuous exchange ofhousing typologies by forcing the sector into com-petition. This growing competition have launcheddifferent types of housing, today, formations such asLoft, residence have taken their place as a symbolof luxury living.
2.2 . Lof t L i f es t y le
In the early 1970s, using old industrial centers andproduction areas as a residence in America andEurope has started tendency of Loft lifestyle(Pamukcu, 2009a). This types of structures initiallyused as storages have impact on its environment interms of socio-cultural sense with its features thatmake basis of Loft way of life such as high ceiling,wide window. Loft is a residence concept seen inIstanbul as a result of the gentrification process fol-lowing sociocultural changes caused by new eco-nomic models and global policies in the post-1980era. They are natural buildings with an open plan,
high ceiling, wide windows, and bare structure(Karagoz, 2007b). Loft life offers spaces where nat-ural building is preserved, dividing elements areoptional, decorated with open systems, and day-light is widely benefited. When the standard designsof a house offer no flexibility, it becomes an obsta-cle for those who want “difference”. All Lofts varyaccording to their resident for those who seek a dif-ferent lifestyle. Loft life is usually witnessed as per-sonalized spaces of escaping from the city, in themiddle of the city (Maralcan, 2004).
2 . 3 . T ype s o f Lo f t i n I s t anbu l i nS t ruc tura l Sense
In order to prevent in today's rapidly growingdemand for housing, the housing sector offers dif-ferent housing examples to customers. Increasingdemand for luxury housing also accelerate the realestate sector to compete in this area. Actually, whilehousing sector is dealing with competition, Loft isrequired to convey its meaning to customer. WhileOriginal Loft is expected to have free plan (large liv-ing area), naked structured, high ceilings, largewindows, use of natural materials, flexible, histori-cal texture (semantic value), 1 +1, 2 +1 Loft exam-ples have emerged. In this sense, Loft types areanalyzed as “Original, Semi, Imitation Loft” in thecontext of architectural criteria, “Free plan, highceilings, large windows, bare-structured, historicaltexture” (Karagoz, 2007b). (Table1)
2 .3.1. Or ig ina l Lo f t
With the 20th century, with the socio-cultural andeconomic conditions, some of the workshop-stylestructures have lost their importance, has left theirplace for Loft living. This formation have forcedhousing sector in competition into type of housingshaped by insufficient space and cultural values.Loft is free planned, naked structured, naturalvenues that offer flexibility. Living, eating, working,sleeping environments are combined together andlargely offers the ease of movement. When need-ed, different functions can be installed, directed,modified, and added by separatist elements. Loftcan differ from usual examples of housing by itsfree planning. As well as hard architectural ele-ments, also exposes the reality. It hosts visible, nat-ural material in its structure. Large windows of Loftallow the exploitation of natural lighting. OriginalLoft life in Istanbul is intensively aggregated inGalata. In the past years, commerce was importantin Galata and neighboring vicinities and there werevast numbers of workshops. In addition, due to theGasworks house in Kadıkoy-Hasanpasa, there are
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many small workshops in the area. The gradualunplanned settlement and increasing rate of migra-tion in the area caused housing demands to risetoo.
2 .3.2. Semi Lo f t
Semi Loft is transformation of living space of struc-ture serving a different function which does not ownhistorical texture. It has criteria such as high ceil-ings, bare structure, flexibility, interchangeability,large windows, natural-artificial materials, techno-logical equipment. In addition, Loft can removenaked structure of exposed structural elements byreferring to the industrial character of the space(Karagoz, 2007c). Still, fixed structural elements arevisible. When needed, different functions can beinstalled, directed, modified, and added by sepa-ratist elements, wide windows of Loft allow theexploitation of natural lighting. Main differencebetween Semi Loft and Original Loft is alterationlargely of main structure and lack of historic fabric.Semi Loft, as Original Loft, is located in convertedindustrial buildings, but arrangement is different.Semi Loft in Istanbul is frequently seen in neighbor-hoods where business centers are located such asLevent, Kozyatagi, Maslak, Atasehir…
2.3.3. Imi tat i on Lof t
Housing search reflects the way of life andResponding to emerging user needs of the post-
1980, has revealed housing types formed with thesame features but with different presentations.Continuity that Loft lifestyle revealed, with under-gone changes, offers the user an expensive life.Therefore, the effect of the increasing demand ofLoft housing and socio-cultural changes acceler-ates process of Lofts Imitation. Still, Loft formationsbased on private sector entities are usually pro-duced in imitation. The increasing demand of Lofthousing and unawareness of the sector abouthousing typologies cause loss in meaning of Loft.Imitation Loft is structures designed under the nameof standard high ceilings, open plan, bare structuredealt with the typical architectural criteria. In theface of increasing demand in the housing sector,Loft Imitations are only those applied on the basisof well-known architectural criteria. Despite theabsence of the converted structure, it is redesigned.In Imitation Loft, there is no bare structure, butnoticeable quality workmanship and material.Therefore, it shows similarity with fully equipped lux-ury residential projects that are often preferredtoday. In addition, the most prominent feature ofimitation Lofts, they are marketed with the type ofapartment such as 1+1, 2+1. Imitation Loft inIstanbul can be seen in any neighborhood andmany residential projects considered as luxury.(Table2)
3 . ANALYS IS OF SELECTED SAMPLESIN THE CONTEXT OF TYPES OF LOFT
Today, Loft housing began to lose its true meaning
Table 1. Important Criteria According to Loft Architectural Measures
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due to different housing projects. Especially in thisstudy, evaluation of position of Loft formation inhousing sector, difference between Original,Imitated and Semi Loft are intended. As an exam-ple of Original Loft, “Hasanpasa Loft” was recon-structed from a workshop have been out of use inHasanpasa, “Levent Loft” as a Semi Loft, wasreconstructed from chocolate factory, “Incity Loft”as an Imitation Loft was reconstructed in Kozyatagi.
3.1 . Hasanpasa Lo f t (Or ig ina l Lof t )
The Hasanpasa Loft is a duplex private residentialbuilding belongs to interior designer Tanju Ozelginlocated in district of Kadıkoy-Hasanpasa. Thisbuilding used to be used as a workshop was con-verted into Loft in 1987. Ground floor is used officespace, while the upper floor is used as a residence
(Ozelgin, 2012). The use of concrete materials inthe structure can be observed clearly. In theHasanpasa Loft, door was not used in whole of theliving environment expect entrance and bathroom.It is an Original Loft project where solutions areproduced by space-limiting elements. It meets Loftproperties such as bare structure, flexibility, substi-tutability, history tissue, high ceiling, large windows,and use of natural materials.
3.2. Levent Loft - (Semi Loft)
Levent Loft, Levent-Maslak axis, is a Loft projectlocated in the heart of the business community. Builtas factory in 1990, it was converted into a resi-dence from chocolate factory by AkfenConstruction and Architecture Tabanlıoglu. Ten-folded building consisting of 144 residential units
Table 2. Loft Types and Features
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has a number of features such as gym, swimmingpool, spa, etc. (Unal, 2012). “Levent Loft” designedby Tabanlıoğlu architecture has been one of theRIBA 2011 award winning projects (EuropeanProject Management, 2013). Levent Loft meets Loftproperties such as bare structure, flexibility, substi-tutability, high ceiling, large windows, and use ofnatural materials. Option of different apartmenttypes and normal housing projects are also present.History tissue that should be in an Original Loft,does not meet the natural material property.
3.3. Incity Loft – (Imitation Loft)
Incity Loft is a Loft project in Kozyatagi, was rebuiltin 2009 by Dundar Construction. It consists of 322houses in 11 blocks and 4 different types. Containscharacteristics such as A swimming pool, tenniscourt, basketball court, fitness center, sauna, spa,etc. (Duran, 2012). Incity is today's modern, high-rise housing projects. It contains not only residence,but also number of housing options like 1 +1, 2+1, 3 +1. The concept of a normal in-room apart-ment is clearly seen in Incity Loft project. Incity Loftmeets architectural criteria of Loft except wide win-
Figure 1- 5. Hasanpasa Loft Plan and Figures. Figure 2 (Photo by Serpil OZKER) Figures 3, 4, 5 (Photo by Tanju OZELGIN)
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Figure 6 - 7. Hasanpasa. (Photo by Tanju OZELGIN)
Figure 8 - 11. Levent Loft Plans and Figures.(Photo by Arsel Erginbas Unal)
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Figure 12 - 15. (Photo by Arsel Erginbas Unal)
Figure 16. Incity Loft Plans Figure 17. Incity Loft Plans.
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Figure 18 - 23. Incity Loft Plans and Figures.(Photo by Serpil Ozker)
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dows. Also it does not meet criteria such as historicfabric, flexibility, natural material. (Table3)
3 . CONCLUSION
Having emerged following an inclination of NewYork’s artists towards industrial buildings, the mainfactor in Loft housing is implementation of appro-
priate and cost-effective conditions for living. Loft isa housing type where there is no sense of privacyand no spatial places formed by divisive agents.The Original Loft is a living environment created byusing the current structure without damaging natur-al texture and doing any changes. Most of theOriginal Loft examples abroad are warehouse-plant type industrial structures from the 1800s.These structures were converted into habitable envi-
Table 3. Comparison of Three Different Loft Types in Istanbul.
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Upon examination of Loft houses inIstanbul;It has been observed that Loft houses usually locat-ed in gentrification areas are used ashouses/house-workshops. In this sense, Loft hous-ing is a spatial transformation in Istanbul that hasemerged by the influence of new economic bal-ances and sociocultural changes.
Increase in rent in Istanbul in the periodbefore 1980, has led to the start of the social andclass differentiation and service share inequality.Thus, urban regeneration and gentrification occur-ring have occurred together. This gentrificationprocess has provided emerge of Loft formation byconvert of workshop-style old buildings into housesby artists in some regions.
Loft is the concept of user’s reflection oftheir own options on the place without facilitatingany space restrictors. It is transformation of struc-tures built for commercial use into living environ-ment without damage to its fabric, without anychange. Its difference from other housing typolo-gies is that it does not contain any unit-by-unit spa-tial areas; it does not impose restrictions and offersthe user flexibility in shaping the area.
The current status of Loft housing is thatthey are formed with modern architectural patternsin line with the upper class’s desire to live in luxury.However, it should be kept in mind that the naturalstructure feature of Lofts must be preserved whichenables flexibility along with the integration of inte-rior and exterior. In short, the essence of Loftsshould not be distorted for competition with villasand apartments; they should be preserved in theirnatural structure without inflicting any damage.
In conclusion, the transformation of indus-trial structures into living environments in New York-Manhattan area in 1960s has now been replacedby houses that can be called as imitation Lofts. Theyare structures that have emerged by a gentrificationprocess that led to recognition of a historical envi-ronment gaining value.
Regarded today as a concept of housingmovement that spread from New York to othercountries, Lofts are seen as symbols offering resi-dents a luxury life in Istanbul. They are in highdemand by customers with economic potential andthat absorbing luxury consumption. For this reason,this demand gradually leads to luxury housingforms contradicting the Original Loft concept.However, neglecting of Original Loft's architecturalcriteria causes problems in housing development.
A lifestyle to some, a new consumptionobject for others, and a status symbol to some few,Loft housing has gained itself a place amongIstanbul housing architecture as a new housing
typology. In spite of the Original Loft which has ahistorical textures, Lofts with same features yetnewly-formed may be presented as the original. It istherefore important to be able to distinguishbetween converted lofts and rebuilt ones. Actually,not every workshop style structure that has survivedthe years is all Lofts. Another thing to keep in mindis that the originality of converted buildings andtheir compliance with the Loft’s architectural criteriashould be examined as well. Loft houses shouldhave a unique identity along with many housingprojects in Istanbul. In this sense, it should be point-ed out that Lofts, which have become one of themodern housing typologies today, should be con-verted by taking architectural criteria into consider-ation.
In th i s regard ;
Distinguishing between Original and Imitation Loftshould be made and the difference to be empha-sized,
Lofts should not become structure elementsthat have lost all the criteria and gained a newimage, Should not be changed into a different culturalidentity representing the lifestyle of urban culture, The current identity should be displayed withrespect to its historical and cultural values, The real aim of Original Loft is cost-effective andmulti-purpose residency. Loft life should not beturned into a housing form that offers a prestigiouslife to the upper class. Loft, different from the traditional housing model,must be a way of life offering bare structure, historictextured places.
In this sense, criteria such as historical tex-ture and flexibility for Original Loft life should bepresented to the user with their real meaning in theresearch. In today’s competitive housing sector, itshould not be changed into a product that address-es the higher income group as a luxury life symbol.
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R EFERENCES
Books:
HASOL, D. 2005, “Architecture and Structure Dictionary”, YapıPublication, Istanbul, p. 218
KARAGOZ, Z. 2007a, “The Loft Concept in Designment”,
Master’s Thesis, Istanbul Culture University Institute of Science,p. 1
KARAGOZ, Z. 2007b, “The Loft Concept in Designment”,
Master’s Thesis, Istanbul Culture University Institute of Science,p. 9
KARAGOZ, Z. 2007c, “The Loft Concept in Designment”,
Master’s Thesis, Istanbul Culture University Institute of Science,p. 50
MARALCAN, M. 2004, “Life in the Loft” Journal of Design-Architecture-Interior Architecture & Landscape Architecture,December 2004, Issue 147, p. 142
OZKER, S. 2011, “The Spatial Transformation Analysis of Post-
1980 Houses: The Istanbul”, Proficiency in Art Thesis, MarmaraUniversity Institute of Fine Arts, p. 56
PAMUKCU, K. O. 2009a, “As a Result of Commercial and
Industrial Translocation; Evaluation of Lofts”, Master’s Thesis,Yıldız Technical University Institute of Sciences, p. 3
PAMUKCU, K. O. 2009b, “As a Result of Commercial and
Industrial Translocation; Evaluation of Lofts”, Master’s Thesis,Yıldız Technical University Institute of Sciences, p. 17
SONMEZ, S. 2008, “Reflection of Socio-politic and EconomicChanges in Turkey After 1980 to 2000's” , Master’s Thesis,Afyon Kocatepe University Institute of Social Sciences, p. 42
TURKDOGAN, O. 1988, “Change, Culture and SocialDisorganization”, Turkish World Research foundation, No: 44,Istanbul, p. 44
YALVAC, M. 2008a, “Evaluation of New Housing Areas in
Istanbul That Developed in the Post-2000 Period”, Master’sThesis, Yıldız Technical University Institute of Sciences, Istanbul,p. 31
YALVAC, M. 2008b, “Evaluation of New Housing Areas in
Istanbul That Developed in the Post-2000 Period”, Master’sThesis, Yıldız Technical University Institute of Sciences, Istanbul,p. 19
SeminarKOKSAL, G. 2008, “Preservation of Turkey’s Industrial
Heritage and the SEKA Example”, Historical Cities AssociationSeminar, Kocaeli, p. 98
Journa l A r t i c l es :
BEHAR, D. and ISLAM, T. 2006a, “Gentrification in Istanbul:
New Owners of the Old City”, Bilgi University Publications,Istanbul, p. 21
BEHAR, D. and ISLAM, T. 2006b, “Gentrification in Istanbul:
New Owners of the Old City”, Bilgi University Publications,Istanbul, p. 37
GORGULU, T. 2003, “Diversified Dwelling Production Forms in
Istanbul and Changing Habits of Housing”, Mimar-istQuarterly Architecture Culture Journal, Istanbul, Year 3, Issue7, p. 52
SENYAPILI, T. 1978, “Problem of Unintegrated UrbanPopulation”, METU Publications, Ankara, p. 32
Webs i te
“European Project Management” 2011, (Access; 27 March2013)http://avrupaprojeyonetimi.emlaktasondakika.com/Levent_Loft_Bahce_ArkiPARC_2013
In te r v iew
OZELGIN, T. 2012 Hasanpasa Loft, Tanju Ozelgin, November
UNAL ERGINBAS, 2012 A. Levent Loft, Arsel Erginbas Unal,December.
DURAN, S. 2012, Incity Loft, Semih Duran, December.
V i sual Re f e rences
Figure 1-Hasanpasa Loft, Tanju OZELGİN ArchiveFigure 2-Hasanpasa Loft, Serpil OZKER ArchiveFigures 3, 4, 5, 6, 7-Hasanpasa Loft, Tanju OZELGİN Archive Figures 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15-Levent Loft, Levent LoftVAA Real Estate Archive, (Photo by Arsel Erginbas Unal)Figures 16, 17-Incity Loft, (http://www.incity.com.tr)Figures 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23-Incity Loft, Serpil OZKERArchive
Author(s):
Serpil ÖzkerFaculty of Fine Arts and Design Department of Interior Architecture, Dogus University.Email: [email protected]
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i n t roduc t ion
virtually all people of the world build or shape theirown forms of dwellings. For a long period of time,the palestinian people retained more or less a stateof equilibrium between housing supply anddemand through the self-financed, family-basedform of dwelling. this was the only type of housinguntil mandatory palestine was divided into two partsas a result of the partition plan decreed by the u.n.general assembly resolution 181 of 29 november1947. after 1948, the increase in income inequal-
ity, lack of economic growth and in-out migrationled to a high level of poverty (60%) and producedpoor quality and insufficient quantity of varioustypes of housing, with a high cost of both homeownership and renting (Fig 1).
thereafter, three new forms of dwellingwere created in the urban space of the palestiniancities to meet the new needs that resulted from theprevailing geo-political developments. the firstform was the mixed-use dwellings in the centralparts of the palestinian cities, with commercialspaces at the street level and offices and apart-
ments at the upper levels. the second formwas the family apartment buildings, whichflourished due to the land scarcity and spec-ulations. the third form was the housingcooperative, which began after 1956. theseforms satisfied the needs of the local commu-nity until the establishment of the palestiniannational authority (pna) in 1994, when thehousing market grew dramatically andbecame more diversified by new forms ofdwelling. Few social housing projects wereprovided by either the government throughthe ministry of Housing or religious institutionsto host young married families and assistthem in locating an appropriate shelter. thepalestinian Housing Council was establishedin 1993 as a non-governmental body thatcovered all palestinian territories. it was fund-ed by european resources to provide housingunits to low- and middle-income families.
Shadi Sami Ghadban
Abstract
This study aims to examine the housing cooperative practices employed in the Palestinian territories in the second half
of the twentieth century and across diverse socio-political circumstances. This approach has been implemented to ful-
fil the housing needs of Palestinian society. Tracing this movement reveals an intensification of the housing cooperative
approach between the years 1958 and 2008. However, in the years since, this practice has declined considerably.
This study discusses and analyses the housing cooperative practices adopted by the Palestinian community after
1956. It explores the stages, principles and concerns that characterise this practice, whether it is an approach that con-
tinues to meet a share of the demand for housing people in Palestine and how this practice can continue and receive
wider support and recognition. The results of this study could aid in providing a diagnostic database, which in turn might
provide a needed boost to the housing cooperative movement in the Palestinian territories.
Keywords: Housing Cooperative, Stages and Principles, Social Mix, Community, Palestinian National Authority “PNA”.
Housing Cooperatives in tHe palestinianterritories:Development anD Current praCtiCe
Figure 1. Housing Issues and Situation in Palestine after 1948.Source: Author, upon modification of schema from Kamau (2006).
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However, in all of these cases, the cost of thedwellings was high; thus, the dwellings were sold topeople with higher social status.
thus, the main purpose of the current studyis to examine the housing cooperative practiceadopted by the palestinian community in the sec-ond half of the twentieth century. the following cri-terion was used to define the housing cooperativein palestine: a legal entity that owns a real estatethat consists of one or more residential buildingsand common areas for the use of all residents.Housing cooperative membership is based on ashare-purchase. each member is granted, on equi-ty principles, the right to occupy one housing unit,have equal access to the common areas and votefor members of the executive committee, whichmanages the cooperative. there are often restric-tions on the transfer of shares, such as giving prior-ity to other members or outside entities approved bythe cooperative leadership and limits on income ormarket sales price. an internal by-law specifies thecooperative's rules.
the present study will discuss the stages,
principles and concerns that characterise this prac-tice. the study will also determine whether thisapproach continues to meet a certain share of thehousing demand in palestine. Finally, it will clarifythe main challenges that this practice must over-come to receive wider support and recognition.
a case study methodology approach basedon a quantitative and qualitative analysis wasemployed. the components of this methodologywere derived from various sources, as follows: sitevisits, including observations and photographing ofselected cooperative projects; interviews with anumber of people who were active in the creationof key cooperatives; selection of the most represen-tative cooperatives, which will be a basis for theanalysis; sources of international discourse on thehousing cooperative approach, stages and princi-ples; data available from palestinian institutions;and the available literature on palestinian housingcooperative issues.
Figure 2. Approaches in the private housing sector after 1870; different imported styles are implemented: A) An apartment
building in Jerusalem built on an incremental basis, B) A mixed-use housing project in Jerusalem, C) An apartment buildingwith four units in Al- Bireh City and D) The German Colony in Jerusalem
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H i s tor ical rev iew
the traditional practice of cooperatives has been inexistence in palestine since time immemorial. in thispractice, members of the community build housestogether. Due to the sense of belonging and togeth-erness amongst the community members, even themembers who do not need a house participate inthe building. this form is available to all families,regardless of whether they hold a high-, moderate-or low-income status. typically, it results from pri-vate subsidy and carries certain restrictions on theresale of initial shares because the whole structurebelongs jointly to the extended family. today, thispractice continues, mainly in the construction ofhouses for family purposes in both urban and ruralareas (Fig 2, a, b and c).
other practices of housing cooperativesappeared as a result of the ottoman land reforms(Tanzimat11) in 1840. these reforms led to majorchanges in the process of land privatisation andregistration, which allowed foreign immigrants tomove to palestine and obtain land based on certainreligious or social beliefs. new enclaves were builtfor residential, religious, educational and health-related activities (ghadban 2008). these enclaveshad a predominantly agricultural framework andresidence was restricted to immigrants of thenational group, regardless of their socio-economicstatus (Fig 2, d). they became a model for the later
construction of Jewish settlements in palestine(Hubbard 1951).
after 1948, the practice of rehabilitatingand revitalising existing structures, building newdwellings and forming housing cooperatives in thepalestinian territories signified much more than sim-ply the building of houses. it became a process ofresistance by building a community that joinedyoung palestinian people to overcome the geo-political consequences of the division of palestine,rebuild their community and fulfil their housingneeds, regardless of their income status. this prac-tice became a meaningful choice in relation to thevarious challenges and priorities facing thepalestinian community; it grouped people togetherand strengthened their relationships and bonds ofmutual support. this practice became effective after1974 despite a number of hindering factors, suchas the israeli restrictive measures upon thepalestinian planning and development process,israel’s relentless annexation of palestinian land forcolonisation purposes, the increasing young immi-gration from palestine, the absence of governmen-tal housing policies or subsidies and a depressedeconomy with restricted growth and high unem-ployment and immigration.
the modern housing cooperatives inpalestine appeared after 1956. Five stages charac-terise their development between 1958 and 2010(table 1):
Table 1. Data analysis of the cooperative housing in Palestinian territories between 1958 and 2010. Source: Author, based
on data extracted from the documents provided by the Palestinian Ministry of Labor.
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the first phase was between 1958 and1966, during which the West Bank was under theJordanian reign. a “special Bylaw for Cooperativeassociations no. 17/ 1956” and a “CooperativeHousing associations Bylaw no. 42/ 1959” wereissued to regulate the cooperative activities in thecountry. Both bylaws delineated the conditions forregistration of cooperative associations and provid-ed an “internal Directive” that contained all neces-sary information and details for this purpose. Fewcooperatives were established, the majority wassuccessfully implemented and they all benefitedfrom a partial subsidy provided by the JordanianCooperative’s Bank.
the second phase spread between 1967and 1975, when israel occupied the West Bankand gaza strip. Few cooperatives were establishedin this phase and they received a partial subsidyfrom the Jordanian Cooperative’s Bank. in thisphase, a twofold system of control was established,which included the determination of eligibility forfinancial subsidy in Jordan and registration with theisraeli officer responsible for cooperatives.
the Joint Jordanian-palestinian Committee(JJpC), which was established in 1974, was a keyfactor in the development of housing cooperativesin the palestinian territories in the period of 1987-1991. Between 1975 and 1987, the twofold sys-tem of control continued to be enforced, but thesubsidy became the sole responsibility of the JJpC,which provided a fixed loan of approximately17000u$ to each member of a registered cooper-ative (sabri, 1978). thus, the number of coopera-tives greatly increased and the self-financeapproach provided the remaining cost of thedwelling. the cooperatives were inaugurated byengineers, teachers and medical personnel andnon-governmental, governmental and religiousinstitutions. the JJpC was discontinued after themadrid peace conference in 1991.
the housing cooperative practice wascomplicated and hampered in the period of 1988-1994 due to the First uprising (intifada) in thepalestinian territories and the disengagement reso-lution of 1988, by which Jordan relinquished itsclaims over the West Bank, halting the work of the
Figure 3. Approaches in the private housing sector after 1994: A) Housing apartments built in Al-Bireh city after 1994, par-
tially occupied because of the high prices and low quality standards and B) Dense Residential neighbourhood, with low qual-ity buildings in Um-Alsharayet neighbourhood, Al-Bireh.
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Joint Committee. in 1994, the israeli authoritiesrelinquished the responsibility of cooperatives to thenewly established pna and the registration of newcooperatives became the sole responsibility of thepalestinian ministry of labor.
From 1994 to 2010, the housing marketgrew dramatically and became more diversified bythe new forms of dwelling. the new housing poli-cies introduced by the pna encouraged the privatesector to become actively involved in providingmore housing units for direct sale (Fig 3). However,a large number of cooperatives were registered bythe palestinian ministry of labor. in the absence offinancial grants, these dwellings were entirelyaccomplished by their own financial means. since2010, no new housing cooperative has officiallyregistered in the palestinian territories.
theore t i ca l F ramework
Dwelling is both process and artefact. it is theprocess of living at a location and the physicalexpression of doing so. However, the dwellingplace is more than the structure. the bond betweenpeople and their dwelling place transcends thephysical limitations of the habitation. thus, thedwelling has double significance- dwelling as theactivity of living or residing and dwelling as theplace of structure, which is the focus of residence.as such, the dwelling encompasses the manifoldcultural and material aspects of domestic habita-tion (oliver, 1987: 7-8). in most languages andcultures, home is a fundamental conceptual entity.people understand its meaning effortlessly, nearlyunconsciously and employ it to anchor their beingin the world (Dayarate and Kellett 2008).
in a world that is increasingly market-dri-ven, many view housing cooperatives as the ulti-mate source of shelter for practically every incomegroup (rohan 1966: 1323). according to Hays(1993), housing cooperatives provide contempo-rary housing advocates that reinforce joint owner-ship of property among residents and empowerboth low- and moderate-income families. underthe cooperative structure, residents own and controltheir housing (leavitt 1995), which stands in con-trast to the traditionally subsidised rental housing inthe majority of developing countries. With housingcooperatives, residents not only take responsibilityfor their actions, but also experience the direct con-sequences of those actions on the cost and qualityof their housing (thomas et al 1994).
the experience of developing countries,such as egypt, Jordan, Kenya, thailand, indonesia,Colombia, Botswana and south africa and devel-oped countries, such as China, australia, usa and
Canada, demonstrates that cooperative practicesshare the same values of self-help, self-responsibil-ity, democracy, equality, equity and solidarity. theyapply the same principles of voluntary and openmembership, democratic member control, membereconomic participation, autonomy and indepen-dence, provision of education, training and infor-mation, cooperation among cooperatives and con-cern for the community (rwelamira 2010). theymaintain the importance of the role of communityin housing supply and offer feasible solutionsthrough people’s direct participation (malusardiand Kammeier 2002).
However, in the traditional form of cooper-atives, in contrast to the modern cooperatives,members had a greater sense of commitment andbelonging, mutual trust and voluntary involvementin the cooperative activities. ouma (1988) arguedthat although these associations of group effortcould be deemed as ‘self-help’, which is a form ofcooperative, the modern cooperative movementowed much of the cooperative idea to the earlypractices. Kamau (2006) defined three main stagesof the housing cooperative process (Fig 4):
1) land acquisition stage, which begins with pur-chasing land, subdividing it into individual parcelswith title deeds and installing the basic site infra-structure,
2) House construction stage, in which residentinvolvement begins from the earliest steps of plan-ning and design through the on-site building work,including the purchase of building materials,“sweat equity” labour of residents, financing,administration, management and supervision,preparation of infrastructure networks and con-struction of other communal facilities on the site,and
3) House occupation stage, which encompassescompleted houses, cases of “incremental” con-struction, landscaping and future improvements.examples from developing countries show thatpeople prefer to move into houses before complet-ing them (incremental construction) to graduallydivert the amount of rental expenditure into the finalhouse construction.
several principles can be learned from thehousing cooperative practices. mun (1992) definedthe cooperative approach as more than simply thebuilding of houses and describes it as “CommunityDevelopment” through joining together andstrengthening bonds, ties and support within thecommunity. He added that it improves productivitydue to the direct benefit of “group” labour andmanagement and provides economies of scale
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through more efficient work practices, lower pricesthrough bulk buying and delivery and sufficientguarantees for recovering the costs of land.although lewin (1981) explained that most of theproblems that the self-help housing for low- andmiddle-income households face can only be solvedwithin a framework or an organisation, a “cooper-ative society” that exercises internal control enablescollective savings accumulation, repayment ofloans, servicing costs, management and adminis-tration that allow members to participate in theprocess of establishing the housing cooperative.
according to Kamau (2006), this groupingcan utilise “local materials and technologies” thatare readily available, less costly than exportedgoods, create linkages with the local industry andgenerate employment. Burns and shoup (1981)found that self-builders are more satisfied with thehouses that they develop compared to people livingin public rental housing due to their more activeinvolvement in decisions that govern the planningof their neighbourhoods and the construction andmaintenance of their dwellings.
Finally, seeling (1978) discussed the possi-bilities of expanding or contracting the dwellingover time. this “flexibility and adaptability” in thesize and space quality of the housing unit is impor-tant in two ways. First, it allows the family, accord-ing to its financial means, to improve its home over
time. second, it allows for the expansion of the unitas the family grows.
ana l ys i s and main F ind ings
the fieldwork was conducted in view of the previ-ously provided definition of the housing coopera-tive. it constituted the emergence of 167 registeredhousing cooperatives in palestine between 1958and 2010, geographically situated as shown intable 2. gaza strip was excluded from the fieldworkbecause no housing cooperative was ever regis-tered there. in the absence of clear and dynamiccooperative policies at the governmental or non-governmental levels, the majority of these coopera-tives were accomplished by the community to avoidthe segregation and polarisation of social classesamong their members. a key to this ethos was thecollegial and friendly relations, as cooperativeswere established by engineers, teachers, medicalpersonnel, government employees and workers inprivate establishments within a politicised contextsuch as the israeli-palestinian problem. this situa-tion likely called for a higher degree of “connect-edness” and resolve among members of the coop-eratives. this was observed in nearly all of the stud-ied cooperatives. For example, in the Cooperativesof employees in Jerusalem Water undertake in al-
Figure 4. Self-Help housing development process. Source: Kamau (2006).
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Bireh, Birzeit university employees’ HousingCooperatives i & ii in ramallah, the Cooperative ofengineers in nablus, the post-office employee’sCooperative in Beit-Hanina, the social mix or socialintegration was a key component in avoiding thedevelopment of low-income ghettos. Despite this,the fieldwork confirmed that upon completion ofthe dwellings, most of cooperatives continued toexist only formally, providing annual administrativeand financial reports to the ministry of labor, hold-ing annual meetings and electing their administra-tion, but no further incentives were created to helpthem strengthen their conditions.
once the community group was formed,the cooperative members launched discussion onthe type of cooperative they intend to establish, sep-arate houses or apartment buildings. accordingly,the discussion included the potential number ofcooperative members and the specifications of theland they needed for construction and the requiredarea, followed by the purchase of the land by self-
subsidised means (tables 1 and 3). typically,aspects such as the price of the land, financialcapabilities of the members, location of the land inrelation to the existing urban structures, state andmunicipality regulations, closeness of the site toavailable infrastructure and topography of the site(hilly or plane configuration) were considered withthis purchase.
thereafter, the cooperative administrationbegan the preparation of a master plan, designdocuments and the applications for subsidy frompossible sources. the amount of the subsidy wasfixed for each member of the Cooperative loanBank (1956-1987), as this loan was guaranteed bythe cooperative or through the newly establishedmortgage system (after 1999). this system embod-ied the following three conditions: a legal praedialregistration of the land and/or the dwellings, therequested loan does not exceed the market value ofthe property and the loan is granted only on anindividual basis for each member as a legal entity.
Table 2. Distribution of cooperative housing on the Palestinian Governorates according to the stages of involvement and the
principles that characterised the housing cooperatives in Palestinian territories. Source: Author, based on data extracted fromthe documents provided by the Palestinian Ministry of Labor.
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For both loans through the cooperative and mort-gage system, the land was subdivided into parcelsand each parcel was designated for use by onemember.
the fieldwork illustrated that most of thehousing cooperatives were located in the fringes ofthe major cities, mainly in the central mountainousarea of Jerusalem, ramallah and Bethlehem (table3). the distribution of the housing cooperatives wasstrongly affected by the socio-political and eco-nomic conditions in these locations before 1993,the concentration of pna governmental institutions,local and foreign ngo headquarters, the settlingof the majority of palestinian returnees from over-seas after 1994 and the system of Area jurisdictions(areas a, B and C) ushered in by the oslo accord(Fig 5) (table 4).
the palestinian cooperative practice repre-sents a multifaceted planning and architecturalexperience. the following three types of housingcooperatives were observed: apartment buildings,separate and row houses (Figs 6a and 7). the sep-arate and row houses (the horizontal layout) werepopular at the early stages (1958-1993) and the
apartment type became well known in the latestages due to the previously mentioned reasonsand the land speculations that began taking placeat the local market. Beginning in the earliest stage,residents were involved in the production stage,including the plan and design, purchase of buildingmaterials, “sweat equity” labour, administration,management, supervision, preparation of infra-structure networks and construction of other com-munal facilities on the site. members did not knowthe exactly location of their share and the entirecooperative was built collectively to the end of theskeleton construction phase, which generated sig-nificant cost savings. then, houses were distributedamong members through a lottery. Further savingswere generated from collective public works andservices, including sidewalks, asphalting internalroads, internal underground works for electricity,water and telephone and common landscaping.the collective finishing of units was not commonpractice; however, for some projects, a few mem-bers completed their houses collectively.
all realised cooperatives were built usingnatural stone, materials produced locally and local
Table 3. Distribution of cooperative housing in the Palestinian Governorates according to their number, period of establish-
ment, current condition, means of subsidy and type of construction. Source: Author, based on data extracted from the docu-ments provided by the Palestinian Ministry of Labor.
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building manpower and technologies, which wereless costly than exported goods. the members’labour participation was virtually non-existentbecause the education system in palestine concen-trates on academia and neglects the importance oftraining young generations in the field of BuildingKnow-How. therefore, their labour contributionwas observed only in the finishing works that do notrequire a specific expertise, such as maintenanceand landscaping.
the possibility of completing or expandingthe dwelling over time comprises another area ofconcern. in the palestinian case, flexibility and sus-tainability in the size, quality and gradual finishingof the dwelling is an important factor because itallows the family to complete its home while thefamily grows. the concern is due to factors such asthe lack of sufficient financial means, continuouschanges in the quantitative and qualitative structureof the family, changes at the personal level of thefamily members, including education, taste, desiresand aspirations and changes in the lifestyle of eitherthe family or the society (ghadban 2003: 59).
For most of the observed cases, the mem-bers were 28-40 years old when their cooperativeswere established. Due to their financial status, theybegan moving into their new houses before thehouses were completed to gradually divert the
Table 4. Distribution of cooperative housing on the areas defined by Oslo Peace Accord according to their number, period
of establishment, current condition and infrastructural services. Source: Author, based on data extracted from the documentsprovided by the Palestinian Ministry of Labor.
Figure 5. Geo-political classification map for the West Bank
of the Palestinian Territories in accordance with the InterimPeace Agreement (Oslo Accord) signed in 1994. Source:http://www.iris.org.il/oslo_2000.htm, March, 2012.
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rental expenditure (typically 25% of their monthlyincome) to the further completion of their houses onan incremental basis. this was manageablebecause the dwelling areas varied between 120-150m2 for the apartment type and 180-220m2 forseparate and row houses, which were typically con-structed on more than one level due to the hillycharacter of the land. the construction schema forall types allowed each member to design and con-tinuously change the interior of his house. the hor-izontal typology was more adaptable because itallowed the adding of new floors, horizontal expan-sion, separation of the floors into independentdwellings or division of the large floors into smallerdwellings. this is evident in table 4, as 52% of thehousing cooperatives adopted the horizontal con-figuration (Fig 7).
interviews with some key persons and resi-dents of several housing cooperatives highlightedthe diverse degree of owners’ satisfaction with boththe process and the results. in most cases, the build-ing process consumed a long period of time (6-8years) and was largely conducted through individ-ual financial means. this explains why the majorityof cooperative members considered these dream
houses that belonged to them and why they werewilling to put forth all effort required meeting theirexpectations and needs.
the observations showed that less than30% of the cooperatives members sold or rentedout their dwellings and this action mainly applied tothe apartments and row houses. various factors ledto the sale or renting of the dwellings, as follows:residents’ financial inability to complete thedwellings, disappointment with the quality of theconstruction, which fulfilled emergent needs ratherthan satisfying future needs, inability to create addi-tional living space coupled with their desire to con-tinue living with their children after they establishfamilies, or failure to integrate into the community.in some cases, residents failed to integrate eventhough all of the members worked in the sameorganisation. For example, the great majority(approximately 85%) sold or rented out their units inthe municipality of al-Bireh housing project (Fig6a). property speculations due to the increasingmarket prices motivated a significant number ofstakeholders to sell their houses, which becameoverly close to the central urban area and searchfor another site to build new houses and accrue
Figure 6. Examples of the variety of housing projects built in the 1980s, all with the self-help cooperative approach: a) Al-
Bireh Municipality Employees housing cooperative, Apartment type from 1981, b) Doctors housing cooperative, Ramallah,Villa-type houses from early 1984 and c) Green oasis housing cooperative with social mix, Al- Bireh, Row-type houses from1986.
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savings from the deal. However, most ofthe newcomers wished to integrate into thecooperative’s life.
after 2008, no new cooperativeswere officially registered (table 1).
However, a new phenomenon hasrecently been observed (Fig 8). peoplehave organised “informal cooperatives”for the purpose of jointly building their owndwellings. they implement all of the stagesand principles of cooperative formationbut without officially registering as a coop-erative entity. Based on ties of friendship,this approach allows the members to joint-ly purchase a suitable piece of land, obtainthe required permits for their building pro-ject and begin the skeleton constructionphase with their own resources. For the fin-ishing works, each member obtains his
Figure 8. A new private housing project built in Ramallah city after 2000,
using an informal cooperative approach.
Figure 7. Site plan and images from two housing cooperative pro-
jects: a) Birzeit University Employee’s Housing Cooperative pro-ject: House type- site plan, b) Al-Bireh civic housing cooperative:Row housing type- site plan, c) Birzeit University Employee’sHousing Cooperative project: House type- general view and d) Al-Bireh civic housing cooperative: Row housing type- general view.
Source: Author, 2010 based on drawings obtained from the two cooperatives.
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own bank loan and gradually completes hisdwelling on an “incremental” basis. all the while,the external finishing works, landscaping and inter-nal control continue as a collective responsibility,which results in collective savings. it also enablesthe participation of all members in the processes ofsite planning, ongoing maintenance and improve-ment. However, this new approach provokes seri-ous property speculations due to the increasingmarket prices, as some stakeholders seem to usethe approach as a means to achieve financial gainrather than to solve a housing shortage.
Conc lus ions
the analysis of the palestinian housing cooperativepractice showed that it was carried out by people’sefforts and voluntary involvement, with very limitedinvolvement from the government. the role of thegovernment in this practice changed from innova-tor of idea and facilitator in 1956 to an absentbody in 2010. the urban middle-income peopleappear to appreciate this method of housing, utilis-ing various forms of housing cooperative solutions.However, high and low tides were evident between1956 and 2010. many of the reasons that werepreviously identified for promoting this housingpractice remain relevant, such as the desire to forma community and acquire a dwelling to fulfil familyneeds and the desire for social acceptance, respectand personal dignity.
this practice is rich, thriving and full oflessons for the future. it has generally progressedthrough the main stages and principles of housingcooperative development, land acquisition, houseconstruction and house occupation. attempts toadvance the cooperative housing concept mustbuild on this practice and integrate it into the edu-cational and training systems while increasing thepublic awareness about how to build a cooperativecommunity that embodies strong social relationsand shares an appropriate vision. this practicecontains principles that could be learned, such ascommunity development through a social-mixapproach, variety of types, flexibility and adaptabil-ity through incremental development and the pro-motion of local materials and techniques.Comparing the present market prices, the presentcost of a dwelling built by this approach is muchcheaper than that of a new commercially builtdwelling.
Finally, the need to enhance this practice isdictated by the rapid socio-economic and politicaltransformation that the country faces. the entireprocess must be reviewed and assessed to ensurethat the socio-economic realities are addressed
and true cooperative principles are embraced. thiscan be accomplished through the adoption of newhousing strategies and an adequate legislationwhile providing sufficient free space to advance thecooperative movement and emphasizing the pri-mary value of people banding together to solvetheir housing problems through their own hands-onefforts.
Finally, the author hopes that the outcomesof this fieldwork will stimulate the development offurther in-depth research. such explorations mightaddress the many aspects of the housing coopera-tives in palestine and lead to a clearer understand-ing of this practice and the other types of dwellingsthat have recently emerged in the palestinian terri-tories.
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reFerenCes
Burns, l. and sHoup, D. 1981, Effects of resident control
and ownership in self-help housing, Journal of land
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DaYaratne, r. and Kellet, p. 2008, Housing and home-mak-
ing in low income urban settlements: Sri Lanka and Colombia,
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gHaDBan, s. 2003, Minimum Housing & the Concept Of
Adaptation, in report of valladolid- the right to Housing,
universdad de valladolid, escuela de arquitectura, spain, 59-
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gHaDBan, s. 2008, Traditional Architecture in Palestine, in
selin, H. (ed.), encyclopedia of the History of science,
technology and medicine in non-Western Cultures, 2nd edi-
tion, springer, germany, 225-238.
HaYs, a. (ed.), 1993, Ownership, Control and the Future of
Housing Policy. (Westport, Connecticut: greenwood).
HuBBarD, D. 1951, Agriculture in Palestine, american Journal
of economics and sociology, 10: 3, 247-268.
Kamau, p. 2006, Factors that affects Self-Build Housing in
Nairobi, Kenya. available online,
http://www.tulips.tsukuba.ac.jp/limedio/dlam/B24/B246234
8/1.pdf, accessed 3 march 2012.
leavitt, J. 1995, The Interrelated History of Housing
Cooperatives and Public Housing from the Thirties to the Fifties,
in leavitt J. and Heshkin a. (eds.), the Hidden History of
Housing Cooperatives, Davis: Center for Cooperatives,
university of California, 79-104.
leWin, a. 1981, Housing Co-operatives in Developing
Countries: A manual for self-help in low cost housing schemes,
John Willey & sons, new York, usa.
malusarDi, F. and Kammeier, H. 2002, Informal Settlements
in Bangkok 1960-2001: Upgrading Policies and Housing
Development, Casa editrice, rome and Bangkok.
mun, l. 1992, The development of group self build housing
in Victoria, university of melbourne, australia.
oliver, p. 1987, Dwellings, the house across the world,
phaidon, oxford, uK.
ouma, s. 1988, A History of the Cooperative Movement in
Kenya 1908-1978. Bookwise ltd.
palestinian Central Bureau oF statistiCs (pCBs),
December 2006, a report about Housing Conditions in the
palestinian territory, available online,
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.pdf, accessed 3 march 2012.
roHan, p. 1966, Cooperative housing: An appraisal of resi-
dential controls and enforcement, stanford law review, 18:7,
1323-1338.
saBri, n. 1978, Problem of Housing on the West Bank, Birzeit
university and the union of engineers- Jerusalem Center,
ramallah, palestine, (in arabic).
saBri, n. 1995, Changing the Role of the State in Subsidized
Housing: The case of a developing environment, the
economic research Forum publication, Cairo, egypt.
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1 tanzimat literally means re-ordering; the work refers to the
administrative reforms that divided the territories of the
ottoman empire. palestine was divided into three sanjaks and
administrative sectors.
author(s):
shadi sami ghadban Birzeit universityDepartment of architectural engineeringBirzeit- p.o.Box (14), palestineemail: [email protected]
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Space
: th
e n
eed for
Unifo
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olic
y?
I n t roduc t ion
the importance of open areas or open spaces hasbeen widely covered by writers and researchers.this is because open spaces provide huge benefitto human lives in terms of quality of life. however,a review by luqman et al. (1999) highlights the factthat developments in cities are being designed sole-ly to emphasize commercial values and profits.Green spaces are sacrificed to make way for thedevelopment in cities. this has resulted in theneglected interest and welfare of city dwellers as thedevelopers’ main focus is to reap maximum returnon investment. By and large, developers have notbeen adequately providing open spaces for citydwellers for outdoor activities. Sometimes the pro-vision of open spaces is merely to meet theapproval requirements set by state governmentsand local authorities (la’s). therefore, it is impor-tant that the state governments in malaysia ensurethat the implementation policy for its open spaces isin accordance the provision with the planningStandard Guidelines for open Spaces andrecreation (JBpd 7/2000) issued by the federaldepartment of town and country planning,peninsular malaysia (fdtcp). the commitment byeach la to implement the open space policy withintheir respective jurisdiction is a key step in ensuring
that the provision for open spaces is not ignored bythe developers in their proposed developments.thus, the research will be focusing into the aspectof policy implementation by the decision maker andplanning administrative at the local level. emphasison the implementation and application of openspace policy is the first step taken before a devel-opment can be approved. therefore, strongenforcement by the las will is highly needed toensure the sustainability of open spaces will bemore secure.
de f in i t ion o f open Spaces
It is believed that the term ‘open space’ was firstused in 1833 by a committee in a “public trail” inlondon. this committee is also believed to be theagency responsible for creating the term ‘openspaces’ (maruani & amit-cohen, 2007, p.4). theusability and design of open spaces evolved in linewith the developments and trends of the times.today, the term ‘open spaces’ is adopted worldwideas areas for various activities such as recreationand as places to meet and socialize. In themalaysian local context, the definition of openspaces under Section 2 (1) town and countryplanning act 1976 (act 172) is "any land that is
Melasutra Md Dali, Safiah Muhammad Yusoff, Puteri Haryati Ibrahim
Abstract
The provision of open spaces within a residential development is often seen as unimportant. The Malaysian
Government targeted to provide 2 hectares of open space per 1000 population to be achieved as a developed nation
status by the year 2020. This vision can be seen as the Government attempt to ensure the sustainability of open spaces
in Malaysia. The Federal Department of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia (FDTCP) has produced a
planning standard guideline to supervise the implementation of the open space policy in Malaysia. According to
FDTCP; until December 2009, Malaysia has achieved a percentage of 1.19 hectares of open space per 1000 popu-
lation. Achieving the standard requires commitment of local authorities to implement the open space policy. However,
the adoption of open spaces policy differs among local authorities, from a simplistic general approach of land ratio
techniques to an ergonomics method. The paper examines the local allocation practices using 5 different approach-
es and it argues that implementation of open space by local planning practices requires the knowledge of and under-
standing by planning profession towards a long term sustainable green objectives.
Keywords: Open Space Policy, Residential Development, Urban Planning, Local Authority Planning, Environment
Sustainability.
ImplementatIon of open Space: the need forUnIform polIcy?
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y?m
elasu
tra m
d d
ali,
Safia
h m
uham
mad y
uso
ff, p
ute
ri h
ary
ati
Ibra
himenclosed or not enclosed, for use or reserved for
the use in whole or in parts as public gardens, pub-lic parks, public sports and recreational fields,tourism areas, pathways or public places" (p.l5). Ingeneral, open spaces can be considered as anopen area designated for the public to carry outtheir recreational activities. Grose (2009) has sim-ilar views with regards to the definition of openspaces as that in act 172, and defines open spacesas ‘public spaces’. It can be deduced from the def-initions in act 172 and writings of Grose that openspaces are areas built for public recreational pur-poses. thus, it should be noted that the term ‘openspaces’ used in this paper refers to the open spacesin residential areas provided for the public use ofrecreational activities.
3.0 conserva t ion o f open space as atool for su sta inab le deve lopment
It is widely known when a new development occursit involves the opening of an area. the total area ofdevelopment is based on the capital and the great-ness of the project to be developed. If the develop-ment occurred on the outskirts of town; the problemof land is not a big issue. however, if the locationof the project is in the city centre, developer willface a problem to find a suitable location. reviewof Girling and helphand (1994) indicates thatgreen space is gradually decreasing in addition tothe development of more houses especially inurban area. this situation is in line with the currentsituation in malaysia in which the urban populationwill increase up to 70 percent by the year 2020(department of Statistics malaysia, 2000). reviewof Bengston, fletcher et al. (2004), states openspace protection is the main issue of sustainabledevelopment. this is because to achieve the objec-tive of sustainable development, it should havesome allocation of open spaces for public use.developers are required to provide open spacesand greenery in each development undertaken.this is important for the fact that people need openspaces to perform outdoor activities while greenareas are necessary to act as a buffer zone andgreen belt area. open spaces provision indirectlyprovides 'balance' between development and envi-ronmental protection. thus it appears clearly thatconservation of open space is one of the right waysto accomplish sustainable development. therefore,preservation of such spaces is highly important toensure a better quality of life can be achieved.
4 .0 ex i s t ing pol icy for open Spaces inmalays ia
as a result of rapid development urban areas areexperiencing a critical shortage of green areas.thus, for every development within and near urbanareas, the location and allocation of open spacesmust be seriously considered by the authorities toprevent the reduction in the urban green areas dueto development. to realise the concept of “a city ina park” mooted by the former prime minister ofmalaysia, his excellency tun dr mahathirmohamad, fdtcp issued a general guidelinewhich is the JBpd 7/2000. the main objective ofthe guideline is to assist state governments throughtheir respective las to achieve the vision in makingmalaysia a “Garden nation”. the intention of theguideline is to assist town planners, developers,and the general public to better understand the keyissues of open spaces with respect to financial pro-visions, sizes, definitions, usage, and designrequirements that must be met. With respect toopen spaces, the town and country planning act1976 (act 172) is important and relevant as openspaces are clearly defined in this act. as stated inSection 2.0, a clear description of what constitutes‘open spaces’ in act 172 is vital as it serves as thebasis of reference in defining the true meaning ofopen spaces in the malaysian context. the provi-sions in the act seem to be genuine and workable.the approaches and measures by the governmentin the agenda are to ensure the preservation andsustainability of open spaces and green areas in thecountry.
5.0 Implementation of open Spaces policy atStates level
malaysia comprises of 14 statesi, 12 states arelocated in peninsular malaysia, while Sabah andSarawak located in Borneo Island. In relation toopen space policy, the 111 states in peninsularmalaysia are bounded by the act 172 (town andcountry planning act) with exception of federalterritory of Kuala lumpur, Sabah and Sarawak.the town and country planning act 1976 (act172) was passed by the malaysian parliament withthe intention to coordinate matters relating to thelaws and town and country planning in all the statesof peninsular malaysia (lee, abdul mutalip et al.,1990; Goh, 1991). the states under federalterritories (Kuala lumpur, labuan and putrajaya),Sabah and Sarawak, as mentioned uses its own actbecause the states under the federal territorieshave adopted the federal territory act 1982 (act267). likewise, Sabah and Sarawak are not bound
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by act 172 because the two states have adopteddifferent acts which is referred to as the town andcountry planning ordinance (Sabah cap.141)and the town and country planning ordinance(Sarawak cap.87) (phang, 2006; Zakaria, 2006;ainul Jaria and Bashiran Begum, 2009). (figure 1)
In general, fdtcp has set a policy of 10percent for open spaces for each developmentapplication. however, the 10 percent policy ismerely a base reference. according to fdtc(2009), the states bound by act 172 have theoption of implementing the open spaces policy invarious ways for development in their respectivestates. table 1 shows the guidelines for openspaces adopted by the states that are enactedunder act 172. It is believed that the adoption ofopen spaces policy differs among las within statesbecause many las are responsible for all adminis-trative matters at the local level. each authority hasits own guidelines with respect to matters in openspaces. table 1 present five basic types ofapproaches that the 11 state governments inpeninsular malaysia adopt to determine the appro-priate guidelines for use in their respective areas.the approaches can be divided into general,ergonomics space, land ownership, number ofhousing units, and the size of the developmentarea. the common denominator is the provisionsof open spaces, but the approaches differ becauseof the differences in economic development status,population, demand, and physical locations of theapproved areas. Below is a brief discussion of theguidelines:
5.1 General Approach
the ‘general approach’ implemented by negeriSembilan and Kelantan is based on the basic 10percent provision of open spaces for all types ofresidential development. the general approach isapplied in total (stand-alone) or as a continuouspolicy as set by fdtcp.
5.2 Ergonomic Space Approach
the ergonomic2 space approach implemented inpulau pinang for the provision of open spaces refersto the measured requirements for an individual tofeel comfortable. the measurement for an idealergonomic space can be visualised by stretchingout both human arms. the ergonomic space withan area of 2m x 2m for each individual is believedto be ample for the individual to move freely andfeel comfortable in carrying out activities in openspaces.
5.3 Land Owner sh ip App roach
determining the percentage for the provision ofopen spaces for each development in terengganuis based on the ‘land title‘or ‘land use‘ areas to bedeveloped. the 10 percent provision approach isnot easy to apply for developments on governmentland because the las are occasionally forced to belenient towards certain parties who request exemp-tions.
Figure 1. Map of fourteen states in Malaysia
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5.4 Number o f Hous ing Uni tApproach
perlis, pahang and Kedah adopt the number ofhousing unit approach to determine the percentagefor the provision of open spaces required of thedeveloper. however, it was discovered that the con-ditions under which this approach is implementeddiffer between the three states because the numberof developments and population differ greatly.
5.5 S i ze o f Deve lopmen t AreaApproach
there are four states that have adopted the size ofdevelopment area approach as a method to deter-mine the percentage for the provision of openspaces required of the developers. In melaka, fordevelopments that achieve the minimum qualifica-tion, the provision of open spaces by the developeris at the discretion and goodwill of the la. While inSelangor, developers are required to pay a contri-bution to the la if they cannot meet the provision ofopen spaces due to limited land or minimum devel-opment qualification. In perak; the emphasis is on
Table 1. Existing Open Spaces Guidelines in the States of Peninsular Malaysia Source: Federal Department of Town and
Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia (2009).
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the provision of open spaces for high-rise housingdevelopment. developers are not given any lenien-cy in the provision of open spaces for high-risehousing development. last but not least, the state ofJohor breaks down the percentages for the provi-sion of open spaces into ‘absolute open spaces’and public facilities. ‘absolute open space’ heremeans a completely open area.
Undoubtedly, the five approaches dis-cussed have their own issues and problems.Whichever the approach adopted, it should pro-mote the provision of sustainable open spaces forpublic use. however, each approach adopted mustbe implemented with a single goal, which is toensure that the provision of open spaces in housingdevelopments cannot be easily neglected.
6 .0 research approach
as the research focus on policy implementation bythe decision maker and planning administrative atthe local level, respondents involved in the surveywere the town planning officers and their technicalassistants. the survey manages to obtain a samplesize of 240 units with response rates of 52.6% from98 local authorities in peninsular malaysia3. thefirst section of the research looks into personalinformation of the respondents such as gender,age, job position and council status. Section 1 ofthe survey will include questions with regards to dis-similarity in application of open space policyamong las, Section 2 will be discussing on inde-pendent policy implemented by the states inpeninsular malaysia. finally, Section 3 will talkabout the effectiveness of the JBpd 7/2000 guide-line.
7 .0 research f i nd ings
the research findings indicate male respondentsformed the majority (59.6%) of the responds; theremaining 40.4% are female respondents. theaverage age of respondents was 35 years old. theplanning officers formed the major group of therespondents with 57.5% while the remaining 42.5%was the response of the technical assistants. therespondents involve in the survey work in three cat-egories of council status which are city council,municipal council and district council. majority ofthe respondents work in a municipal council thatcomprises of 43.9%; followed by a district councilthat is 43.1% and 13% out of the respondents workin a city council.
Di f fe ren t app l i ca t ion o f open spacepol i c y by LAs .
the first section of the survey was to investigate thedifferences in the application of open space policyguideline by the las from 11 states in peninsularmalaysia. two questions were asked to draw outrespondent’s opinion with regards to the differenti-ation; (1) do the respondent’s aware of dissimilari-ty in the application of JBpd 7/2000 guidelineamong las; and (2) the differences in application ofJBpd 7/2000 is due to the development situation inthe jurisdiction.
as expected, majority of respondents statedthat they are aware of the differences in applicationof JBpd 7/2000 guideline among las. table 2shows high percentage of 91.7% (n = 220) agreewith the statement. out of 240 respondents only 5was not aware of the differences and 13 was notsure. the result provides initial observation; major-ity of the respondents are highly experience plan-ning professionals. a small percentage of 2.1% thatwas not aware of the differences was probablyyoung and inexperienced respondents.
table 3 also indicates high percentage interm of agreement - more than half of the respon-dents agree (67.5%) the differences in applicationof the JBpd 7/2000 guidelines is because of devel-opment situation. the remaining 32.5% was notsure and disagree with explanation of diverse appli-cation of the JBpd 7/2000 guideline by las inmalaysia is because of distinction in developmentpace. the initial result from the two questions canbe concluded; the JBpd 7/2000 is standard openspace guideline used by the states government forthe purpose of open spaces provision. however,through the respective las the guideline has been‘adopted and adepted’ to suit with the developmentsituation in jurisdiction.
Table 3. Difference in application is due to development
situation
Table 2. Dissimilarity in application of JBPD 7/2000 guide-
line
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Di f fe ren t gu idel ine app roaches imp le -men ted by the s ta te gove rnmen ts .
Section 2 of the survey focus on independent poli-cy implemented by the states in peninsularmalaysia. as been indicated in table 1, there arefive basic types of approaches that the state gov-ernments adept from the JBpd 7/2000 guidelinepertaining to open space provision. the approach-es was different and independent therefore what isseem to be appropriate to be implemented in onestate might not be suitable to other. consequently,the state government needs to determine the mostappropriate procedure for the use in their respec-tive areas. In Section 2, respondents were asked toselect the open space guideline application that isput into practice by the las they work with. the pur-pose of the question is to calculate the percentagefor each methods of open space policy applicationused. Before proceeding with the question, theresearch needs to explore the distribution numberof las for the 11 states in peninsular malaysia.
table 4 presents the statistics of las basedon their status that are bounded under act 172. Itwas observed the state of Kelantan, Kedah,pahang, perak, Johor and Selangor have morethan 10 las for each state regardless of council sta-tus. three states has the least number of las whichare perlis (1); pulau pinang (2); followed by the stateof melaka (4). last but not least, the state ofterengganu has 7 las and the state of negeriSembilan has 8 las. the number of las in eachstate is indeed important in the survey because itwill affect the estimated potential respondents.
table 5 shows the percentage of guidelineapplication that was put into practice by respon-
dents involves in the survey. out of five types guide-line approaches used by the 11 states in peninsularmalaysia; total of land development method scoresthe highest percentage of 50.9% (n = 112). In thismethod, the size of open spaces in an area will bebased on calculation; 10 percent out of total devel-opment size.
as expected this method will have the high-est fraction because four states adopted thisapproach4. the second highest percentage scoreis the total of housing unit method and three statesopted for this approach5 with 21.4% (n = 47) ofrespondents indicated this technique is put intopractice by the las they work with. In this methodthe amount of open spaces need to be provided ina development will depend on the numbers ofhouses built. the general approach which is imple-mented by the state of Kelantan and negeriSembilan, scores the third highest percentage with19.5% (n = 20) followed by the land ownershipapproach with 6.4%. (n = 7) applied interengganu. the lowest percentage of 1.8% (n =4) is the ergonomic space approach which wasimplemented by a single state in peninsularmalaysia; pulau pinang. considering the distribu-tion of las in table 3 confirm the percentage andnumber of responses obtained in the survey. It wasdifficult to accomplish higher number of respon-dents in the states that have a few las. other thanthat the types of guideline application opted by thestate government also play important roles in antic-ipating the result.
E f f ec t i v e ne s s o f t he JB PD 7/2 00 0gu idel ine .
although the 11 states have options of implement-ing the open space policy in different ways the JBpd7/2000 guideline plays an important role to prevailthe general parameters with regards to open spaceprovisions. as an attempt to investigate views on theeffectiveness of the JBpd 7/2000 guideline amonglas town planners and technical assistants; series ofquestions were asked to elicit their opinion withregards to the stated guideline. the identified attrib-utes listed to measure effectiveness in the study are(1) do the respondents feel the guideline is impor-tant for open space planning; (2) to what extend therespondent think the guideline is a useful planningtool; (3) usage of the guideline as a referencematerial in daily work.
as expected; majority of respondents feelthat JBpd 7/2000 guideline is indeed a very impor-tant guideline. table 6 shows a total of 53.3% (n =128) agree the guideline is indeed significant foropen space planning. the remaining 27.5% dis-
Table 5. Guideline Application.
Table 4. Statistics of Local Authorities According to Status.
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agree with the statement and 18.9% was unsure.even though there was a big difference in agree-ment for this, table 6 also indicates almost half ofthe respondents (49.2%, n = 118) agree theguideline is a useful planning tool. this is becausethe guideline indicates detail parameter pertainingto open space planning. the results provide anidea that the guideline is considered fundamentalwith respondent’s nature of work. the JBpd7/2000 guideline can be said as an essential ref-erence material in the preparation of conduciveopen spaces.
the effectiveness of the guideline furtherexamined with regards to its usage as a referencematerial. the result indicated 44.6% (n = 107) ofrespondents stated they always use the JBpd7/2000 guideline in their daily work and 29.6%indicated they seldom use the guideline. of thosewho responded, only 59 (24.6%) said they neveruse the JBpd 7/2000 guideline. the research pre-dicted this is probably because of the nature of theirwork. the planning department in las have variousunits such as planning control, GIS and researchand development unit. therefore, it was envisagedrespondents who never use the guideline does notinvolve in process of planning permission.
the research further interested to knowusage rate among three council groups namely;city council, municipal council and district council.Based on the descriptive analysis obtained, therewere differences observed between the means.district council had achieve the highest meansscore (m = 4.76, Sd = 1.660) followed by munic-ipal council (m = 4.83, Sd = 1.700) and citycouncil (m = 3.77, Sd = 1.765). however itshould be noted; higher mean scores for the districtcouncil group does not signify respondents fromother councils is less using the JBpd 7/2000 guide-line. It was observed higher number of respondentsa single council group will contribute to highermean scores. other than that, the output of levene’for equality of variances test confirmed the datadoes not violate the homogeneity of varianceassumption with p value of 0.053.
at first a one way analysis of variance wasconducted to examine the usage rate among thethree council groups. an interesting finding was dis-covered in term frequency of usage by respondents
working in city council, municipal council and dis-trict council. the result in table 7 indicates; therewas a significant difference in the usage of theguideline among the groups [f(2,233) = 6.855, p= 0.001]. despite reaching statistically significancethe effect size, calculated using eta squared was0.0555. this mean only 5.55% of the variances inJBpd 7/2000 guideline usage is explained by thedifference among the levels within the council sta-tus. according to the guidelines proposed bycohen (1988, p.284-7) for interpreting the valueof eta squared; 0.0555 is considered small. Inaddition, a post hoc comparison using Scheffe testwas carried out to identify the differences occurbetween the three council groups. the output of thepost hoc test indicated that the difference in themean scores between city council (m = 3.77, Sd= 1.765) and municipal council (m = 4.83, Sd =1.700) and between city council (m = 3.77, Sd =1.765) and district council (m = 4.76, Sd =1.660) are statistically significant with p = 0.001.however, the difference between municipal council(m = 4.83, Sd = 1.700) and district council (m =4.76, Sd = 1.660) was observed to be not statisti-cally significant.
8 .0 discuss ion
clearly, policies with respect to open spaces adopt-ed by the states in peninsular malaysia differ fromone another. this is because the JBpd 7/2000guideline issued by fdtcp is a general guideline.the guideline describes the need for open spacesin every development. It outlines several approach-es that must be adopted by all parties involved inensuring the provision of open spaces for publicuse. for that reason, all state governments havetaken the initiative to produce guidelines specifical-ly to assist their respective las to carry out their tasksin realizing the government’s vision for malaysia tobecome a garden nation. high awareness levelamong town planners and technical assistantsregarding different application of the JBpd 7/2000guideline was expected since as a decision makerand planning administrator in the las; both townplanners and technical assistants are the mainimplementer of the open space policy at their juris-diction. therefore, respondents are aware openspace policy adopted by the states governments is
Table 7. Usage of the JBPD 7/2000 Guideline.
Table 6. Important Policy and Useful Planning Tool.
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approaches that have been discussed will raiseissues and problems.
even though the fdtcp has set a policy of10 percent for open spaces for each developmentapplication, the 10 percent policy of open spacesfor each development maybe difficult to implementin states with developed status. a good example ispulau pinang, with its excellent geographical loca-tion and very rapid development. however, the sizeof the main areas on the island is rather small mak-ing it difficult for pulau pinang to cope with therapid development in the state. this has resulted inmost housing developments being high-rises. thestate government has provided an alternative,which is the provision of ‘roof top gardens’ toreplace the open spaces. roof top gardens seemto be a good solution to overcome the land short-age in pulau pinang. however, roof top gardens inthe context of the definition of open spaces in thetown and country planning act 1976 (act 172), donot conform to open spaces for public use as high-lighted in the said act. roof top gardens are clear-ly not for public use because it is the exclusive rightsof the owner of the high-rise.
the research also interested to investigatethe effectiveness of the JBpd 7/2000 guideline inthe opinion of las town planners and technicalassistants. however, review of Koomen, dekkers etal. (2008) states, the effectiveness of a policy is dif-ficult to be analysed. this is because according toIngram and mann (1980) the success or failure ofan established policy is very subjective dependingon the person who evaluates it. Based on the resultobtained, it can be assumed the JBpd 7/2000guideline has been productively helping las plan-ning professionals in the matter of open spacesplanning. In term of usability of JBpd 7/2000guideline between councils, the researcher expectsthe differences occur between respondent’s work-ing in city council and district council is because ofdevelopment situation. It is well known that devel-opment rate in rural areas are less compare tourban areas therefore respondent’s working in citycouncil might receive more application for plan-ning permission. thus it will lead to more usage ofthe JBpd 7/2000 guideline for reference purposes.therefore higher usage of the guideline as a refer-ence material is expected from respondents work-ing in urban areas because the planning adminis-tration and decision maker need to be more strin-gent in term of open space matter since urbanareas are experiencing land shortage and highdemand from the public.
on the other hand, there are several fac-tors that contribute to the ineffectiveness of policiesinitiated by the government. the demand or the
need for open spaces is a factor in determining theeffectiveness of an implemented policy. populationdensity, especially in large towns, causes residentsto demand provision of more open spaces for themto release stress from the daily hustle and bustle aswell as congestion of urban environments. It isbelieved that las in states experiencing rapid devel-opment like Johor are more stringent in ensuringthat the open space policy is implemented proper-ly. the Johor state government stresses the need fora 7 percent absolute open space out of the 10 per-cent required of developers. the “no compromise”approach by the perak state government requiringdevelopers to provide open spaces irrespective ofthe development size should be an exemplary.there are other scenarios in states experiencingslow economic development as in perlis andKelantan. the need for open spaces by residents inthe two states is not as critical as that faced by theresidents of Selangor and pulau pinang. this maybe due to an abundance of unused areas, and sub-sequently, the states possess plenty of green areas.the las are believed to be concentrating on themain affairs such as formulating strategies andensuring the provision of good infrastructure in theirrespective areas. thus, it is not surprising that theimplementation of policies with respect to openspaces in these states is not as stringent comparedto that for states that are experiencing more rapiddevelopment.
9 .0 conc lus ion
It can be summarized that the above discussionclearly shows that the different applications andimplementation of the provision of open spacespolicies by the states implied in the town andcountry act 1976 (act 172) may have severalimplications within the context of the government’starget to provide 2 hectares of open spaces forevery 1,000 residents as achieved by developedcountries (as; new york, melbourne and toronto).In line with Vision 2020 for malaysia to become adeveloped country, several important steps must betaken to ensure that this target can be achieved.the issuance of the JBpd 7/2000 guideline byfdtcp is a prudent move to ensure that the provi-sion of open spaces for public use is not neglected.however, a uniform guideline should be issued byfdtcp to standardize the application and imple-mentation of open spaces policies in all states. theuniform guideline should focus on the various typesof development rate undergone by the states. thisis difficult task but important in order to avoid theimplementation of open spaces policy in states thatare not facing a critical need for open spaces.
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fdtcp should not focus solely on the total averageof open spaces for each state, but should recognizethe differences of size and growth rates. In otherwords, the policy formulated should be responsiveto growth pressures and at the states level the will-ingness to change the state policy environments.as discussed, the introduction of the alternative rooftop gardens to replace the provision of openspaces for high-rise housing in pulau pinang is aneffort at conforming to the criteria in terms of defi-nition, and thus the definition of open spaces as inact 172 and its related policy application should beexpanded.
acknowledgement
the authors would like to thank the research anddevelopment Unit, federal department of townand country planning, peninsular malaysia(fdtcp) for the information and support given.
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uham
mad y
uso
ff, p
ute
ri h
ary
ati
Ibra
himMalaysia: history and legislation, Universiti Sains malaysia,
penang.
lUKman, Z. m., mohd yUSoff, h. and aZmI, a. 1999,
Urban crime: Planner's obligation. habitat malaysia human
Settlements Journal of malaysia Vol. 2: 37-45.
marUanI, t. and amIt-cohen, I. 2007, Open space plan-
ning models: A review of approaches and methods. landscape
and Urban planning 81: 1-13.
phanG, S. m. 2006, Local government, in: Zakaria, a. (ed.).
Government and politics (1940 – 2006) the encyclopedia of
malaysia, archipelago press, Kuala lumpur.
ZaKarIa, a. 2006. Federal territories, in: Zakaria, a. (ed.).
Government and politics (1940 – 2006) the encyclopedia of
malaysia, archipelago press, Kuala lumpur.
1 all the 11 states are Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, melaka,
negeri Sembilan, pahang, pulau pinang, perak, perlis,
Selangor, and terengganu.
2 ergonomics as in the concise oxford dictionary of current
english (8th' edition, 1991) means the study of a person’s com-
fort in their work environment.3 the questionnaire survey was conducted for a period of three
months from 1st January 2011 and ended on 31st march
2011 using a mail method. Since the study will be focusing on
the execution of the Planning Standards and Guidelines for
Open Space and Recreational Areas (JBPD 7/2000) among
local authorities in peninsular malaysia; for the purpose of writ-
ing, this guideline will subsequently be referred as the JBpd
7/2000 guideline.4 melaka, perak, Johor and Selangor.5 Kedah, perlis and pahang.
author(s):
Safiah @ yusmah dato' muhammad yusoff, phdcoordinator/Senior lecturerUrban Studies & planning programmefaculty of arts and Social SciencesUniversiti malayaemail:[email protected] or [email protected]
I.putri haryati, department of landscape architectureKulliyyah of architecture and environmental designInternational Islamic Universityp.o. Box 10, 50728 Kuala lumpurmalaysia.
m.d. melasutra, Urban Studies and planning programfaculty of arts and Social SciencesUniversity of malaya, lembah pantai50603 Kuala lumpurmalaysia
m. y. Safiah yusmah, Urban Studies and planning programfaculty of arts and Social SciencesUniversity of malayalembah pantai, 50603 Kuala lumpurmalaysiaemail: [email protected]
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i n t roduct ion
urbanization magnifies the microclimate andglobal carbon cycle. the changes of the landphysical surface from natural or semi-naturalecosystems to build structures create typicallydarker surfaces while emitting large amounts ofco2 due to energy consumption and trans-portation (akbari et al., 2001; sani & sham,2007; chen et al., 2011; strohbach et al.,2012). Moreover, Jim and chen (2009) foundout that the rapid urbanization and massiveinfrastructure developments affect the urbanplant diversity and landscape patterns.therefore, much research on the landscapehas been carried out recently in achieving sus-tainable development and a healthier environ-ment especially in urban areas (Vileniske,2008; Matsuoka, 2010; selman, 2010; Ling &dale, 2011; thompson, 2011; Zheng et al.,2011).
based on a case study in guangzhou,china, he and Jia (2007) proposed a frame-work of three dimensions for implementing sus-tainable concepts in residential landscapes inthe urban context, which includes ecology,socioeconomic and cultural aspects. then, Lauand yang (2009) have discussed introducingthe natural space and its potential role with theobjective of creating a health-supportive and
sustainable campus environment through fourdesign strategies. 1. enhance visual connec-tions of the healing gardens and their sur-roundings, 2. Manipulate space morphologyto improve user perception, 3. careful plantselection and, 4. use of green roof gardensand green walls. these four strategies are rel-evant to the area with compact and high-den-sity profiles when the existing green spaces donot encourage large groups of people toaccess them and which the common phenom-enon now in urban areas is.
the presence of a landscape providesbetter environments than open sky (Monteiro &alucci, 2009) when significant filtration capa-bility of the tree canopy contributes to reduceterrestrial radiation, cooling the ground sur-faces by promoting more latent heat, reducingair temperature by promoting more evapotran-spiration and effectively improves the outdoorthermal comfort particularly in tropical openspaces (shahidan et al., 2010). according totooke et al. (2011), trees on average reduce38% of the total solar radiation received by res-idential building rooftops and strong correla-tions were found between measures of treestructure (average height, three height variabil-ity, and normalized tree volume) and intercept-ed direct radiation in the summer. then, thepotential and capability of landscapes; as well
ADI AINURZAMAN JAMALUDIN, NILA KEUMALA, ATI ROSEMARY MOHD ARIFFIN, HAZREENA HUSSEIN
Abstract
Three residential colleges located in a university campus at the capital city of Kuala Lumpur and built in different
decades were selected for landscape studies with respect to species and position of the trees, as well as the effects of
the current landscapes as a shelter in reducing solar radiation on buildings, as a pre-assessment for the Low Carbon
Cities Framework (LCCF) and assessment system. These landscape designs were carefully studied through on-site
observation. The name and location of the matured plants were redrawn and visualised with standard normal pho-
tographs. The studies revealed that the old residential college landscape is dominated by tropical forest trees which are
able to provide a significant shade to the buildings and offered a potential to achieve sustainable development due to
a higher rate of carbon sequestration. While, palm and hybrid fruit plants were most extensively cultivated in the land-
scape of new residential colleges due to low maintenance and being fast growing.
Keywords: Residential College, Landscape Design, Low Carbon Cities Framework (Lccf), Sustainable Development,
Tropical.
Landscape and sustainabiLity: three residentiaLcoLLege buiLdings in the tropics
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as of specific species of tree, as carbon seques-tration by fixing co2 during photosynthesisand storing the excess carbon through its bio-mass (nowak & crane, 2002; gratani &Varone, 2006) have been extensively docu-mented especially in urban areas gratani&Varone, 2007; tratalos et al., 2007; hutyraet al., 2011; strohbach & haase, 2012).
in Malaysia, the landscape was high-lighted as an element to support holistic sus-tainable development. the urban greenery andenvironmental quality is one of the perfor-mance criteria for the Low carbon citiesFramework (LccF) and assessment system, asan urban environmental element. the LccF isan extension of Malaysia national greentechnology policy to contribute towards theprime Minister’s commitment at united nationsclimate change conference copenhagen(cop15), where a conditional voluntary targetto reduce carbon emission intensity of up to 40per cent of gross domestic product (gdp) ascompared to 2005 levels, where greenhouse
gas (ghg) reduction approach is used in thisdocument (Kettha, 2011).
generally, there are four key elementsof LccF and its assessment system namelyurban environment, urban transport, urbaninfrastructure and building as shown detailed intable 1.
under these four key elements, thereare further 13 performance criteria and 35sub-criteria to help stakeholders to compre-hend the carbon footprint, as well as to assistin taking the applicable reduction measures(Kettha, 2011). Focusing on performance cri-teria ue 3 - urban greenery and environmen-tal quality, carbon emission reference and rec-ommendations for carbon emission reductionwere detailed out as presented in table 2.
regarding the sub-criteria ue 3-2green open space and ue 3-3 number oftrees, there are two relevant carbon factorswhere the environmental quality can beimproved through strategic plans which are, 1.increase in green open space/trees resulting in
Table1. The breakdown of 13 performance criteria and 35 sub-criteria of LCCF (with reference to KeTTHA, 2011)
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an increase in carbon sequestration, and 2.the types of trees and vegetation determine thequantity of co2 being sequestered (Kettha,2011).
nevertheless, the rate of carbonsequestration depends on the growth charac-teristics of the tree species, the conditions forgrowth and where the tree is planted (gratani&Varone, 2005), whilst it is the greatest in alarge tree with relatively long life spans (nowaket al., 2002). then, the amount of co2sequestered in a tree can be estimated giventhe tree’s age, trunkdiameter and height (Kettha, 2011).
the aim of this work is to study thelandscapes of three residential colleges whichwere built in three different decades, withrespect to species and position of the trees. thelandscape design of residential colleges and itseffects as a shelter in reducing solar radiation
on the building were studied. indirectly, itbecomes a pre-assessment of the approachesof the LccF and assessment systems under theperformance criteria of urban greenery andenvironment quality.the approach will only be mitigated a particu-lar selected sector as described in the main cri-teria and not all the criteria in the LccF will beconsidered (Kettha, 2011).
research method and i t s app l i ca -t ionRes ident i a l col l ege desc r ip t ion
three residential colleges with different years ofestablishment were chosen in this study, name-
Table 2. Details of performance criteria UE 3 – Urban greenery and environmental quality (with reference to KeTTHA, 2011)
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ly, dayasari residential college (cs-a),Kinabalu residential college (cs-b) andungku aziz residential college (cs-c). Withdifferent configurations and layout, all theseresidential colleges are located within theuniversity of Malaya campus in the capital cityof Kuala Lumpur and provide residences formore than 2,400 students including local andinternational students. table 3 shows thedescription of these three residential colleges.
cs-a is the oldest residential college,established in 1966 and is designed with aninternal courtyard arrangement, which clearlydiffers from cs-b. cs-b which was establishedin1985 with a linear arrangement.
as the new residential college, established in1997, cs-c shows some evolution in terms ofbuilding design as it has been arranged with aninternal courtyard and balcony. With respect toenclosures and façade, all residential collegesare designed with glare protection withadjustable and fix ventilation as an option.each residential college is made up of oneadministrative block and four to five residentialblocks. all administrative offices were
equipped with air-condition by using split unitsystems, while all the residential units/rooms inthe residential blocks were non-conditionedand provided with a ceiling fan and a fluores-cent lamp.
Landscape des ign s tud ies
the buildings’ drawings, which include a siteplan, architectural and landscape drawings,were the main source of data for the landscapedesign studies. site observations on each resi-dential college were also carried out in order togauge actual conditions, since most of thedrawings were drawn 30 to 40 years ago, andsince then, numerous renovations and add-onshave been carried out.
the landscape design of each residen-tial college was re-drawn to illustrate preciselythe species and location of the matured plants,which gave significant influences of shade. thestandard normal photographs were also takenon bright days to analyse the effects of land-scape as a shelter in reducing sunlight radia-tion and penetration in the buildings. the suit-ability of photographs as a visual landscape
Table 3. Description of the three residential colleges.
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assessment has been expressed extensively bysevenant and antrop (2011), who alsorevealed standards of normal photographs,appeared to be more suitable for measuringcertain variables rather than in situ landscapeand panoramic photographs.
resu l t s and d iscuss ionThe landscape des ign of CS-A
cs-a has the second largest ratio of soft andhard landscape area, which is 61:39 com-pared to other two residential colleges.nevertheless, most of the trees in the cs-alandscape is well matured and the treecanopies cover the ground and also give shadeto the residential building from maximum sun-light penetration.
the cs-a is surrounded by a highlyvegetated area with high diversity of plant aslocated next to the foothill of rimba ilmu, trop-
ical botanical garden (university of Malaya,2005) as shown in Figure 1 and 2.
the presence of Cinnamomum sp., A.champeden, N. lappaceum, P. longifolia, D.suffruticosa, M. malabathricum and M. gigen-tea significantly reduces the late afternoonsolar radiation to block e by filtering, reflectingand scattering the sunlight (Figure 2a).Whereas, the presence of C. inophyllum andM. atropurpurea in one row shades block bfrom excessive morning sunlight (Figure 2b).the same situation also occurs in block d withthe presence of C. nucifera, J. chinensis, C.lanceolatus and C. lakka (Figure 2c).unfortunately, it only covers a certain level andarea especially the ground floor and balcony.in block c, which is located at a higher alti-tude, the east wall is freely exposed to morningsunlight even though there is a green area atthe front of it (Figure 2d).
Moreover, a row of P. pterocarpum, andL. floribunda at the north orientation of block
Figure 1. Landscape plan of CS-A (with reference to Said et al., 2004; LaFrankie, 2010; Jabatan Perangkaan Bandar dan
Desa, 1995).
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Figure 1 Continued.
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a (Figure 2e), and a line of M. atropur-purea(Figure 2f) and a dense canopy of P.indicus(Figure 2g) at north and south orienta-tion of block b, directly moderates solar radi-ation which reflects from the tarmac. in otherwords by creating a recreation ground for theresidential community and providing a shelterfor the wildlife such as Acridotherestristis,Macacafascicularis, and Gallusgallus, andother small plants to grow under their canopies
(elevith, 2006). the higher populations ofwildlife and plant diversity are visibly presenceat the north, south, and west of cs-a which isdominated by Bambusa sp., M. gigente, E.guineensis, D. suffruticosa, and Calameae sp.(Figure 2h&i).
although there is a row of plants whichconsist of N. lappaceum, Shorea sp., and G.manggostana, the height and canopy of thesetrees are not able to be a shelter in reducing
Figure 2. Images of a).The presence of Cinnamomum sp., A. champeden, N. lappaceum, P. longifolia, D. suffruticosa, M.
malabathricum and M. gigentea at the west of Block E, b).A row of C. inophyllum and M. atropurpurea at the east of BlockB, c).A row of C. nucifera, J. chinensis, C. lanceolatus, and C. lakka, d).Block C is freely exposed to morning sunlight, e).Arow of P. pterocarpum and L. floribunda at north orientation of Block A, f).A line of M. atropurpurea. Images of g).A densecanopy of P. indicus, h).i).The higher plant diversity which dominated by Bambusa sp., M. gigente, E. guineensis, D. suffruti-cosa and Calameae sp., j).The low height and small canopy of N. lappaceum, Shorea sp. and G. manggostana are notable to be a shelter in reducing solar radiation at the east orientation of Block E especially at the higher level, k).The shad-ow of C. inophyllum is only covering the adjacent field, not reaching to Block A, l).A row of T. orientalis as a border betweencourt and Block A; as well as Block C
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g) (h) (i)
(j) (k) (l)
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Figure 3. Landscape plan of CS-B (with reference to Said et al., 2004; LaFrankie, 2010; Jabatan Perangkaan Bandar dan
Desa, 1995).
Figure 3 Continued.
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solar radiation at the east orientation of blocke especially at the higher level (Figure 2j). thesame condition also occurs at block a whenshadow of C. inophyllum covers the adjacentfield (Figure 2k)., With the presence of T. orien-talis as a border between the court and blocka, as well as block c, the solar radiation fromthe direct reflection of sunlight on the court waspresent especially during the afternoon (Figure2l).
Landscape des ign o f CS-B
as located in hilly and valley area, not so manybig trees were planted due to safety issues.
Figure 4. Figure 4. Images of a).A court between residential block and the shading effect of adjacent residential buildings
and slopes, b).S. samarangense were planted between Block A and B, Block D and E, c).A row of V. merrilli and P.macarthurii at the some part surrounding to the court, d).A row of C. lakka and P. longifolia along with Block A, e).A row ofC. nucifera together with P. macarthurii, D. zibethinus and P. indicus by the side of Block C, f).A row of C. mitis, V. merrilli,Citrus sp., P. granatum and P. guajava at the side of Block F. Images of g).Block A and Block E especially at the end of theblock is shaded with a row of D. suffruticosa and A. auriculiformis which planted at the outside of CS-B area at higher alti-tude, h).A row of J. chinensis at the north area, i).D. suffruticosa and A. auriculiformis at the south area, j).P. indicus and C.lakka at the east area, k).M. elengi and P. longifolia at surrounding of parking lots, l).A row of P. macarthurii, C. lutescens,C. nucifera and M. indica in front of prayer hall/musollah.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g)(h) (i)
(j)
(k) (l)
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eineven though, cs-b was the greenest with
72:28ratio of soft and hard landscape areacompared to cs-a and cs-c. Most of the riskyareas were planted with grass,Paspalumconjugatum, small decoration plants,fruit plants and palms (Figure 3 & 4).
generally, the landscape of cs-b wasnot intended to give shading effects to the res-idential building from maximum sunlight pene-tration. Most of the areas between residentialbuildings were either built with hard surfacestructures or planted with small fruit trees andpalms. there is a tennis court between block eand block F while a basketball court betweenthe block b and block c (Figure 4a). at theback of block a and block d, there have cov-ered parking lots for motorcycles. in generatinga typical scene of the village house, S. sama-rangense were planted between block a and b,block d and e (Figure 4b) while a row of V.merrilli and P. macarthurii were planted in thesome part surrounding the court (Figure 4c).on reducing sunlight penetration and heatradiation, cs-b is dependent on the shadingeffect of adjacent buildings and slopes (Figure4a). a row of C. lakka and P. longifolia alongwith block a (Figure 4d), and C. nuciferatogether with P. macarthurii, D. zibethinus and P.indicus by the side of block c (Figure 4e) is
incapable of providing a full shelter from thedirect west-east sunlight penetration. there isalso a row of C. mitis, V. merrilli, Citrus sp., P.granatum and P. guajava at the side of block F(Figure 4f). nevertheless, some part of block aand block e especially at the end of the blockis shaded with a row of D. suffruticosa and A.auriculiformis which was planted on the outsideof cs-b area at a higher altitude (Figure 4g).
For a boundary, a row of J. chinensiswere planted on the north area (Figure 4h), D.suffruticosa and A. auriculiformis at the southarea (Figure 4i). Whilst, P. indicus and C.
lakka in the east area (Figure 4j), whichplays a role in soil conservation when the treecanopy absorbs the impacts of rain while andits roots help retain the water in the soil(thomson, 2006). indirectly, it also provides ashelter from the sun for the recreational areanearby which is dominated by palm trees.
a role of trees for shade can furtherbe identified at parking lots close to the mainentrance when this area is surrounded by M.elengi and P. longifolia(Figure 4k), while a rowof P. macarthurii, C. lutescens, C. nucifera andM. indica gives a shading effect to the prayerhall/musollah from afternoon sunlight (Figure4l).
Figure 5. Landscape plan of CS-C (with reference to Said et al., 2004; LaFrankie, 2010; Jabatan Perangkaan Bandar dan
Desa, 1995).
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Landscape des ign of CS -C
noted as a new residential college on campus,established in 1997, there is only a small areacovered by trees especially at the northeastboundary which plays a role as a buffer zonebetween the residential area and the anak baturiver cs-c has the lowest ratio of soft and hardlandscape areas (58:42) compared to theother two residential colleges. the landscapeplan of cs-c is presented in Figure 5.
a typical scene of the village housecompound is shown at cs-c when the green-ery is dominated by the fruit trees and palms. arow of S. samarangense, N. lappaceum and G.manggostana were planted as a boundary
between cs-c area and the experimentalfarm, as well as tennis court other than a chainlink fence (Figure 6a& b). all these trees are stillsmall and incapable of providing shelter fromthe sun for the residential building. some partsof block b, particularly facing the east receivehigh radiation from excessive morning sunlightand is the hottest area in cs-c (Figure 6c). thepresence of a high elevated highway, sprinthighway at the northeast gives shade to thecourt and other multipurpose areas locatednearby.
a row of B. nobilis and A. alexandrae atthe front area is able to give a shading effectto the administrative block (Figure 6d)whereasblock c is freely exposed to solar radiationfrom the west in the early afternoon (Figure
Figure 5 Continued.
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6e). nevertheless, the large double storeybuildings of the sport centre on the elevatedground opposite to block c shorten the dura-tion of exposure. the open space which alsohouses the parking lots next to block c and dwere shaded by two E. guineensis(Figure 6f).Whilst, a group of C. nucifera which was plant-ed near the administrative block only gives anaesthetic value to that area (Figure 6g).
the trees of Leucaena sp. which growsat the buffer zone between residential areasand anakbatu river gives a significant shadingeffect to the some part of block d especially forthe room that faces the north (Figure 6h).the tree canopies cover the ground and direct-ly reduce the temperature, whereas the pres-ence of A. alexandrae, L. grandis and N. lap-paceum enhance the absorption of excessiveradiation (Figure 6i). theoretically, this area isthe coolest area with high humidity in the cs-c area.
conc lus ions
initially, cs-a has a big potential to achievesustainable development according to perfor-mance criteria ue 3 - urban greenery andenvironmental quality. there are diversities ofmature tree species that help to increase therate of carbon sequestration, although cs-bhas the highest percentage of green openspace, which is only based on the ratio of softand hard landscape area. as a new residentialcollege on campus, the numbers of tree andvegetation coverage at cs-c is still small com-pared to other residential colleges. thus, fastgrowing, decorative and low-maintenancetypes of vegetation have been highly consid-ered in creating a sustainable environment.
the acceptance, suitability and effec-tiveness of tropical forest trees in residentialcollege landscapes have been accepted to theold residential colleges, cs-a is dominated by
Figure 6. Figure 6. Images of a).b).A row of S. samarangense, N. lappaceum and G. manggostana were planted as a
boundary, c).Block B; particularly that facing to the east, receive high radiation from excessive morning sunlight and definedas the hottest area in 11th RC, d).A row of B. nobilis, and A. alexandrae at the front area. e).Block C is freely exposes tosolar radiation from west in the early afternoon, f).The open space which also parking lots were shaded by two E. guineen-sis), g).A group of C. nucifera which planted near to the administrative block, h).The Leucaena sp.tree which grow at thebuffer zone between residential area and Anak Batu River, j).the presence of A. alexandrae, L. grandis and N. lappaceumenhance the absorption of excessive radiation.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g) (h) (i)
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tropical forest trees. there are C. inophyllum,M. atropurpurea, P. pterocarpum and L. flori-bunda. With large crowns and decent growthrates, these types of trees are able to provideshade to the building from excessive sunlightpenetration, which reduces the cooling cost ofthe building and improves urban air quality(akbari et al., 2001; Jamaludin et al., 2011).Moreover, the selection of tropical forest treesis a key to successfully improving its urbangreen infrastructure, which has been describedby thaiutsa et al. (2008), who have done anassessment on urban green space, street treeand heritage large trees in bangkok, thailand.according to Kettha (2011), one hectare oftropical forest absorbs 4.3 tco2/year to 6.5tco2/year, whilst one tree absorbs approxi-mately 1,000 kg of co2. regrettably, throughobservation, the cleaning work of fallen leavesbecome a long term issue.
the trees of D. suffruticosa is widelyused as a border or natural fences when thisspecies is a large, evergreen shrub with contin-uous yellow flowers and can easily be grownespecially in swampy ground (corner, 1998).unfortunately, this species is wildly grown andindirectly creates a small secondary forest atthe border area of cs-a and cs-b.
then, to generate a village scene andhome living environment, fruit plants such as D.zibethinus, S. samarangense, N. lappaceum,G. manggostana, A. champeden, A. hetero-phyllus, M. indica, P. guajava, D. longan, A.carambola, M. kauki, P. grantum,and Citrussp.have been used in the landscape of resi-dential colleges which have been built in the1980s onwards, such as cs-b and cs-c.With new hybrids and the development of syn-thetic seeds of fruit plant species, plant dis-ease resistance was increased and it helps tolower the maintenance and able to establish alarge canopy of trees in a shorter duration(roberts, 2007; rai et al., 2009).
palms were most extensively cultivatedin the landscape of residential colleges whenthese types of plants are easy to take off, ableto survive in various condition of climate andpossess prominent leaves with a characteristicshape (Jones, 1995; stewart, 1994) which pro-vides a shelter from the direct sunlight. thus, ithelps to maintain the humidity level and lowersthe water requirement which directly createsmicroclimates within the landscape area byencouraging partial shade and full shadeplants to grow (bergman, 2011). aesthetically,the E. guineensis was also used in the residen-tial college landscape. the matured plants
able to provide a dense canopy which createsa heterogeneous habitat (potts &Luskin,2011).the trunk offers conditions for bird’snest ferns, Aspleniumnidusto grow and providea stable microclimate in a hot and dry area(Fayle et al., 2010).as the world’s largest pro-ducer and exporter of palm oil (sumati et al.,2008),this plant became a part of nationalidentity.
the Leucaena sp. is a suitable plant inthe buffer zone between residential collegeareas and river side as ability to grip theground and provide stability in the bank/slopeswhen this plant increase soil penetrability andshear strength, presumably due to the out-standing biomass and extensive root system(osman & barakbah, 2011). Moreover, it givesa significant shelter and shading to the buildingclassified as fast growing plant and neededleast maintenance compared to the otherplants. the same potential was also discoveredwith P. indicus where the tree has excellentpotential for windbreaks planting where spacepermits, soil stabilization, especially alongdrainage lines and flood plains, due to itsadaptation to such sites, large buttresses, andextensive, spreading, near-surface root systems(thomson, 2006). unfortunately, cleaningwork of fallen leaves will become an issue.
in summary, there are lots of improve-ments at residential college landscapes inurban area towards sustainable development.the empty spaces, especially between the resi-dential buildings should be planted with highrate of carbon sequestration trees that are alsocapable to give shade in reducing solar pene-tration.
acknow ledgement
the authors would like to thank all residentialcolleges in the university of Malaya campus fortheir permission to observe and including fullsupport in supplying data to be used in thisstudy. this work was conducted as part of thefulfilment of the requirement for the degree ofdoctor of philosophy and financially supportedby the ippp, uM under ppp (pV063/2011a)managed by upgp.
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author(s):
adi ainurZaMan JaMaLudin1,institute of biological sciences, Faculty of science,university of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.email: [email protected]
niLa inangdadepartment of architecture, Faculty of built environment, university of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.
ati roseMary Mohd ariFFindepartment of architecture, Faculty of built environment, university of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur
haZreena husseindepartment of architecture, Faculty of built environment, university of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.
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While focusing on the architectural and planning aspects of Doha's
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Demystifying DohaOn Architecture and Urbanism in an Emerging City
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DECISION MAKING FOR FLEXIBILITY IN HOUSING
by Avi Friedman
The Urban International Press
ISBN: 1- 872811 - 11 - 6
Soft Copy, 20cms x 22cms, 136 pages.
Price: 40 USD or 25 GBP
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BOOK REVIEW
by Dr. Jia Beisi,
Department of Architecture, The University of Hong Kong.
Although experimental buildings have been built around the world, the difficulties of implementation on a larger
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strategies for the builders and designers. The research on flexible buildings address the technical components, but
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The objectives of the book are premised on the understanding that flexibility has not been generally accepted
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The book is informative and serves as a conceptual instrument for the housing decision makers, including
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styles as well as in benefits from monetary savings and better living standards during their residency.
Selected keywords: Flexibility, implementation, strategies, economics, alternatives.
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