Module TSL 3103 ELT Methodology for PISMP TESL Semester 2
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Transcript of Module TSL 3103 ELT Methodology for PISMP TESL Semester 2
TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
TOPIC 1 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING – KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES
1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to language acquisition and learning. It provides insights to the nature of language, language learning process, and characteristics of the effective language learner. It also makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning.
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to:
define the nature of language
describe the language learning process in early childhood
list the learner characteristics that affect second language learning
differentiate between language acquisition and language learning
1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
1
Language Acquisition
and Learning – Key Concepts
and Issues
Nature of Language
Language Learner Acquisition
versus Learning
Language Learning Process
TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
CONTENT
SESSION ONE (3 Hours)
1.2 Language Acquisition and Learning – Key Concepts and Issues
It is important for you to develop an awareness of the properties of language and
an understanding L1 language development in children. Your understanding of
what language is and how the learner learns will determine to a large extent, your
philosophy of education, and how you teach English: your teaching style, your
approach, methods and classroom technique. In short, this knowledge of the
nature of language and the language learning process would enable you to teach
your learners to learn a second language more effectively.
1.2.1 Nature of Language
Exercise 1: What is your definition of language?
Write down in twenty-five-words-or-less a definition of language.
Share your definition with another friend or in a small group.
Compare differences and similarities.
What is Language? There are many ways in which we could describe language.Your definition of language (in the above) probably yield something that sounds
similar to the following composite definition: A language is considered to be a
system of communicating with other people using sounds, symbols and words in
expressing a meaning, idea or thought. This language can be used in many
forms, primarily through oral and written communications as well as using
expressions through body language.
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Language is defined as "a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings
by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures or marks having
understood meanings." (Webster New International Dictionary of the English
Language, 654), and "is a tool for communication" (Emmet, 22). In most
common use of language, these signs are the words which we employ in such a
way that they may communicate ideas or feelings.
There are many possible theoretical positions about the nature of language.
Commonly, three different views are explicitly or implicitly reflected in current
approaches to language learning. They are:
The structural view of language
The structural view of language is that language is a system of structurally
related elements for the transmission of meaning. These elements are
usually described as:
phonological units (phonemes)
grammatical units (phrases, clauses, sentences)
grammatical operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming
elements)
lexical items (function words and structure words)
The target of language learning, in the structural view, is the mastery of
elements of this system.
The communicative view of language
The communicative view of language is the view that language is a vehicle
for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and
communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the
grammatical characteristics, although these are also included. The target
of language learning is to learn to express communication functions and
categories of meaning.
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The interactional view of language
The interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means
for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for
performing social transactions between individuals. The target of
language learning in the interactional view is learning to initiate and
maintain conversations with other people.
Tutorial Task:
Language can be likened to an ocean. Like the ocean, language is never still. It
has many moods and shapes. It seems to be endless. It carries people and their
goods. Can you suggest another metaphor to describe language?
What is your image of language?
Make a simple sketch or drawing of your image of language.
Then, write down all the ways in which language reflects the image you
see.
Share your image with a friend.
Note features of your images which you have in common.
Note significant differences between your images.
Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.
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1.2.2 Language Learning ProcessChildren go through a number of different stages as language develops, from the
earliest stage of producing cooing sounds through being able to produce
complex, multi-word sentences.
Babbling first stage of language development
known as the pre-linguistic, babbling or cooing stage
period typically lasts from the age of three to nine months
babies begin to make vowel sounds such as oooooo and aaaaaaa
by five months, infants typically begin to babble and add consonant
sounds to their sounds such as ba-ba-ba, ma-ma-ma or da-da-da.
Single Words second stage is known as the one-word or holophase stage of language
development
around the age of 10 to 13 months
children will begin to produce their first real words
only capable of producing a few, single words at this point, but important
to realize that they are able to understand considerably more
infants begin to comprehend language about twice as fast as they are able
to produce it
Two Words third stage begins around the age of 18 months
children begin to use two word sentences
sentences usually consist of just nouns and verbs
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E.g. “Where daddy?”
"Puppy big!"
Multi-word Sentences around the age of two
children begin to produce short, multi-word sentences that have a subject
and predicate
E.g. a child might say "Mommy is nice"
or "Want more candy“
As children age, they continue to learn more new words every day. By the time
they enter school around the age of five, children typically have a vocabulary of
10,000 words or more.
Developmental Sequences Developmental sequences reflect linguistic elements in children’s
cognitive understandings
Examples
Grammatical Morphemes
Negations
Questions
Grammatical Morphemes Roger Brown’s longitudinal study (1973)
Present progressive –ing
Plurals –s
Irregular past forms
possessive ’s
Copula
Articles the and a
Regular past –ed
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Third person singular simple present –s
Auxiliary be
Acquisition of Grammatical morphemese.g., “wug test” –
i. Here is a wug. Now there are two of them. There are two ______.
ii. John knows how to bod. Yesterday he did the same thing.
Yesterday, he_______.
Through the tests, children demonstrate that they know the rules for the
formation of plural and simple past in English.
By generalizing these patterns to words they have never heard before,
they show that their language is not just a list of memorized word pairs
such as ‘book/books’ and ‘nod/nodded’.
Acquisition of Negation
Lois Bloom’s study (1991) – four stages
Stage 1: ‘no’ – e.g., “No go”. “No cookie.”
Stage 2: subject + no – e.g., “Daddy no comb hair.”
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Stage 3: auxiliary or modal verbs (do/can) + not
(Yet no variations for different persons or tenses)
e.g., “I can’t do it “, “He don’t want it.”
Stage 4: correct form of auxiliary verbs (did/doesn’t/is/are) + not
e.g., He didn’t go. She doesn’t want it.
But sometimes double negatives are used
e.g., I don’t have no more candies.
Acquisition of Questions
By the age of 4:
Most children are able to ask questions, give commands, report real
events, and create stories about imaginary ones with correct word order
and grammatical markers most of the time.
They have mastered the basic structures of the language or languages
spoken to them in these early years.
They begin to acquire less frequent and more complex linguistic structures
such as passives and relative clauses.
They begin to develop ability to use language in a widening social
environment.
The six stages of children’s question-making can be illustrated as follows:
Stage 1: using single words or single two- or three-word sentences with
rising intonation
(“Mommy book?” “Where’s Daddy?”)
Stage 2: using the word order of the declarative sentence (“You like this?”
“Why you catch it?”)
Stage 3: “fronting” - putting a verb at the beginning of a sentence
(“Is the teddy is tired?” “Do I can have a cookie?”)
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Stage 4: subject-auxiliary inversion in yes/no questions but not in wh-
questions
(“Do you like ice cream?” “Where I can draw?”)
Stage 5: subject-auxiliary inversion in wh-questions, but not in negative
wh-questions
(“Why can he go out?” “Why he can’t go out?”)
Stage 6: overgeneralizing the inverted form in embedded questions
(“I don’t know why can’t he go out.”)
Then, share your thoughts with a friend.
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Reflect on your own language learning experience
First 3 years
Pre-school years
School years
TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.
1.2.3 Language Learner
A lot of research has been carried out into what makes a good language learner.
Here is a brief summary of the latest theories:
The good language learner thinks about how she is learning. She tries to
find out what works for her and what doesn't. If she doesn't understand the
purpose of a particular exercise, she asks the teacher.
The good language learner is willing to experiment and take risks. For
example, she will try out different ways of learning vocabulary until she
finds the way that suits her best. She is also not afraid of making
mistakes, because she knows that these will help her.
The good language learner is realistic. She knows that it will take time
and effort to become proficient in English, and that there will periods
where she does not seem to be making much progress.
The good language learner is independent. She does not expect to learn
English just by sitting in the classroom, and does not rely on the teacher to
totally direct her learning.
The good language learner is organized and active. She uses her time
to learn English sensibly, and is always looking for opportunities to
develop her language both inside and outside of the classroom.
The good language learner has a balanced concern for communication
and accuracy. Some students are experts at communicating their thoughts
but do not care that they make many mistakes in doing so. The good
language learner, on the other hand, is concerned with both
communicating and doing so as accurately as possible.
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Although these are the qualities that have been found in the most efficient
language learners, there are still many other factors that influence how quickly a
child will learn English.
Source: © Copyright Paul Shoebottom (1996-2011) The Good Language Learner. Retrieved 8 December 2011, from http://esl.fis.eduFactors affecting language learning
There are various factors that affect successful language learning. They could
stem from the learner’s own mind (internal factors) or from the environment he
lives in (external factors).
Internal factors are those that the individual language learner brings with him or
her to the particular learning situation, for example, age of the learner,
personality, motivation, experiences, cognition abilities and his native language.
External factors are those that characterize the particular language learning
situation,some of which include the curriculum in use, mode of instruction, and
the opportunity to interact with native speakers both within and outside of the
classroom.
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Exercise 2
The following are some factors that are known to affect second language
acquisition and learning. Determine whether each factor is related mainly to the
student, to the family or to the environment of the second culture. Use the
following code:
S = factors primarily in the student
F = factors primarily in the family
E = factors primarily in the environment of the second culture
1. Age _______
2. Socioeconomic status _______
3. Classroom culture _______
4. Cognitive development in L1 _______
5. Family support _______
6. Whether environment provides adequate L2 input _______
7. Literacy level _______
9. Opportunities for language use in school _______
11. Motivation _______
15. Proficiency in the home language _______
17. Role models in the community _______
19. Personality _______
20. Whether student has enough opportunities to use English _______
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24. Teacher’s expectations _______
25. Preferred learning styles _______
Adapted from Maitland, K. (1997). Adding English: Helping ESL Learners Succeed. Good Apple. ISBN 1-56417-903-6.
Now check your answers below.
Answers:
1S, 2F, 3E, 4S, 5S, 6E, 7F, 8E, 9S, 10S, 11E, 12S, 13E, 14E, 15S
Tutorial Task:
In your experience, as an English learner:
i. Are there personal characteristics that make you more successful than
another learner?
ii. Which characteristics seem to you most likely to be associated with
success in L2 acquisition?
Iii, Share your opinion with your group members. Find three most important
and three least important learner characteristics.
Individual DifferencesResearch findings reveal that every person has a learning style; therefore, there
is no particular teaching or learning method that can suit the needs of all
learners. Learning styles are also value-neutral; that is, no one style is better
than others. Learning styles exist on wide continuums, although they are often
described as opposites. Learners should therefore be encouraged to “stretch”
their learning styles so that they will be more empowered in a variety of learning
situations.
Age is only one of the characteristics which affects the learner’s L2 learning. The
opportunities for learning (i.e., context - both inside and outside the classroom),
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the motivation to learn, and individual differences in intelligence , aptitude ,
personality , and learning styles have also been found to be important
determining factors in both rate of learning and eventual success in learning.
1.2.4 Acquisition versus LearningIt is sometimes thought that acquisition and learning refer to the same processes.
According to linguists there is an important distinction between language
acquisition and language learning.
Language AcquisitionAcquisition occurs passively and unconsciously through implicit learning.
Experts suggest there is an innate capacity in every human being to acquire
language. Language acquisition in children just seems to happen. Children do
not need explicit instruction to learn their first languages but rather seem to just
‘pick up’ language in the same way they learn to roll over, crawl and walk.
Language acquisition, therefore, is the process whereby children acquire their
first language. As you may well have noticed, children acquire their mother
tongue through interaction with their parents and the environment that surrounds
them. Their need to communicate paves the way for language acquisition to take
place. rather seem to just ‘pick up’ language in the same way they learn to roll
over, crawl and walk.
Language LearningAs opposed to acquisition, learning occurs actively and consciously through
explicit instruction and education. Language learning is the process whereby
humans past the critical period learn second languages. In other words, older
children and adults need explicit teaching to learn their second languages. It is
the result of direct instruction in the rules of language. In language learning,
students have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that
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knowledge. However, studies have shown that knowing grammar rules does not
necessarily result in good speaking or writing.
We should not ignore the differences between language acquisition and
language learning. While all children before the critical period can innately
acquire their first languages, most older children and adults past the critical
period must learn second languages through explicit education and instruction.
L1 and L2 acquisition are quite complicated processes. To understand these
processes will enable the language teacher to be more sensitive to the factors
involved. While L1 and L2 acquisition reveal some similarities, they also show
differences. Similarities in First and Second Language Acquisition theories are of
great interest to teachers and learners as they can be utilized to improve
language teaching and learning methods.
Nature vs NurtureMuch debate has taken place concerning the importance of nature (what is
innate) and nurture (environmental factors) in the acquisition of language. Is
language acquisition and development innate or taught? The debate about
nature versus nurture in language acquisition has drawn heated testimony from
both sides.
The following chart compares nature and nurture in language acquisition.
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Tutorial Task: Comparing First and Second Language Acquisition
Activity 1:There are similarities and differences in first and second language acquisition. It
is clear that a child or adult learning a second language is different from a baby
acquiring a first language in terms of personal characteristics and conditions for
learning. Language teachers must have theoretical knowledge of how
languages are acquired.
How is learning a second language like learning a first?
How is it different?
How will this knowledge help you plan classroom experiences?
Write a paper (4-6 pages) citing at least four research articles to support
text reading.
Activity 2:
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NatureInformalParents & SocietyExperiences
EnvironmentExposureAcquisition
NurtureFormalTeachersSyllabus
ClassroomSystematicLearning
TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
As teachers, it is our duty to make sure that our students ‘acquire’ rather than
‘learn’ the language. Discuss.
TOPIC 2 THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING
2.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 2 provides you with an overview of four influential learning theories that underlie the
instruction of a teacher’s classroom practice. More specifically, it examines in detail the key
principles of Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Social Constructivism and Humanistic orientations
to language learning.
2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this Topic, you will be able to:
define terms relevant to some theories of language learning
explain the main principles of each language learning theory
distinguish the application of behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist and
humanist principles in the classroom
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2.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION ONE (3 Hours)
2.2 Theories of Language Learning
The main goal of any teaching is to bring about learning. Generally, we
have not been able to say with certainty how people learn languages although
a great deal of research has been done into this subject. Various theories have
emerged over the years to study the process of language acquisition. The four
main schools of thought which provide theoretical paradigms in guiding the
course of language acquisition are: behaviourism, cognitivism, social
constructivism and humanism.
2.2.1 Behaviourism
The behaviourist approach in studying learning can be traced to the
philosophic traditions of Aristotle, Descartes and Locke. The founders and
proponents include John B. Watson in the early 20th century, Ivan Pavlov,
B.F.Skinner, E.L. Thorndike, Bandura and others. They argued that behavior
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can be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, by manipulating
and giving a certain stimulus, a certain response can be produced. Motivation to
learn was assumed to be driven by drives such as hunger, rewards and punish.
General perception is that there is no difference between the way one
learns a language and the way one learns to do anything else. According to
the psychologist Skinner, language is a ‘conditioned behaviour’: the stimulus
response process (Stimulus Response Feedback Reinforcement). The popular
view is that children start out as clean slates and language learning is the
process of getting linguistic habits printed on these slates through positive and
negative reinforcement or punishment. Both positive reinforcement and
negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior
will happen again. On the other hand, punishment decreases the likelihood
that the antecedent behavior will happen again.
Learners are essentially viewed as passive and learn language step by
step, i.e. Imitation - Repetition - Memorization - Controlled drilling -
Reinforcement. They learn to speak by imitating the utterances heard around
them and strengthen their responses by the repetitions, corrections, and other
reactions that adults provide. Therefore, language is practice based. The
main focus is on inducing the child to behave with the help of mechanical drills
and exercises. Learning is controlled by the conditions under which it takes
place and that, as long as individuals are subjected on the same condition,
they will learn in the same condition. In summary, the behaviourist is not
concerned with how or why knowledge is obtained, but rather if the correct
response is given. Learning is defined as nothing more than the acquisition of
new behaviour.
The following is a list of behaviourist principles quite often applied in
teaching and learning in the classroom:
Use a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and learning.
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Provide immediate and frequent feedback for complex and difficult
concepts
Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts
Break down complex task into smaller and manageable subskills
Sequence material from simple to more difficult to enhance
understanding
Model the behaviour students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations
when necessary
Reinforce when students demonstrate the modeled behaviour
State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and
students
Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what
rewards will be given
Critics of behavioural methods point to two basic problems that may arise in
the classroom. Some teachers fear that rewarding students for all learning will
cause students to lose interest in learning for its own sake. Using a reward
system or giving one student increased attention may have a detrimental effect
on other students in the classroom. Also, another problem with this view of
learning includes the fact that imitation does not help the learner in real-life
situations. Learners are continually required to form sentences they have
never previously seen. A finite number of pre-practiced sentences are not
enough to carry on a conversation.
Exercise 1
Which of the behaviourist principles listed in the above do you think are widely
practised in the classrooms? Give specific examples.
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Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.
2.2.2 Cognitivism
In the 1950’s there was a realization that behaviourism did not fully explain
human learning. Although behaviourism emphasized learning that was
observable and measurable, they did not account for what goes on in the minds
of the learner when he or she is learning or thinking. Cognitivists felt that it was
necessary to investigate how learners make sense of what they learn even
though such mental events are difficult to observe and measure objectively.
The term cognitivism refers to a group of psychological theories which
draw heavily on the work in linguistics of Noam Chomsky. It replaced
behaviourism in 1960’s as a dominant paradigm. Cognitive theories of learning,
based on empirical evidence, indicate that learning is a multi-faceted, complex
and dynamic process. Cognitivism focus on the mind or ‘black box’ and attempt
to show how information is received, assimilated, stored and recalled.
According to the cognitivists, people are not ‘programmed animals’ that
merely respond to environmental stimuli. People are rational beings that require
active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of
thinking. Changes in behaviour are observed, but only as an indication of what is
occurring in the learner’s head. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as
computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain
outcomes.
Cognitivists view learning is as a process of relating new information to
previously learned information, In other words, learning is defined as a change in
the learners’ schemata. Learning is most likely to occur when an individual can
associate new learning with previous knowledge. Unlike in behaviourism,
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learners are not passive receivers of environmental conditions. Rather, they are
actively involved in the learning process and can have control over their own
learning. Errors are also accepted as part of the learning process.
In contrast to behaviourism, the cognitivst perspective focus more on the
learner as an active participant in the teaching-learning process. It believes that
teachers can be more effective if they know what prior knowledge the student
already possesses and how information is processed and structured in the
learner’s mind. Therefore, it is important that teachers provide effective
instruction to help the learner acquire knowledge more effectively by teaching
students how to learn, remember, think and motivate themselves.
The following is a list of cognitivist principles quite often applied in
teaching and learning in the classroom:
Present information in an organized manner
- Show a logical sequence to concepts
- Go from simple to complex when presenting new material
Bring to mind relevant prior learning
Provide for review and repetition of learning
Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information, e.g.
inquiry-oriented projects
Help students process information in meaningful ways so that they can
become independent learners (Staged scaffolding)
Like Behaviourism, Cognitivism is also not without its critiques. It has
been criticized for not accounting enough for individuality and for giving little
emphasis on the affective characteristics of the learners.
The following table sums up very briefly what we have discussed so far:
Behaviourist vs. Cognitivist
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Focus Bahaviourist Cognitivist
View about the
mind
A blank slate.
Basically alike’
An active organizer.
Varied, with multiple
intelligences and learning
styles.
S-T Roles
Teacher plans and sets
goals for learning.
One ‘best’ way of
teaching.
Students participate in
planning and goal-setting.
Teacher teaches with variety.
Motivation Reward is motivation. Learning is a motivator.
Curriculum Content
Students are taught ‘what’. Students are taught ‘what’
and ‘how’
Assessment
Teacher assess.
Product is important.
Students are involved in peer
and self-assessment.
Product and process are
important
Source: Diaz-Rico, L.(2008). Strategies for Teaching English Learners, (2nd
edn.) Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Exercise 2
Which of the cognitivist principles listed in the above do you think are being
practiced in the classrooms? Give specific examples.
CONTENT
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SESSION TWO (3 Hours)
2.2.3 Social ConstructivismJust as Cognitive Learning Psychology began replacing the predominant
Behavioural Psychology in the 1970’s, Constructivist Learning Psychology has
been challenging the cognitive approach from the 1990’s. A reaction to didactic
approaches, constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized
process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Constructivism is a
perspective of learning that has its origins in the works of Bruner, Piaget and
Vygoysky. It is Vygotsky’s social development which is one of the foundations
for constructivism.
Constructivists emphasize that learning is a social activity. They believe
that often it is social experiences rather than what is taught in schools which
accounts for much of the variation in student learning. Cooperative, collaborative
and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas, beliefs and
values with their peers and teachers. They also argued that the responsibility of
learning resides with the learner. Learners interpret what they hear, read and
see based on their previous learning, habits and experiences. Students who do
not have appropriate background knowledge will be unable to to accurately ‘hear’
or ‘see’ what is before them. Unlike previous educational viewpoints where the
responsibility rested with the teacher to teach and where the learner played a
passive role, social constructivism emphasizes the importance of the learner
being actively involved in the learning process with the teacher playing the role
as facilitator. Learning is enhanced when students learn how to learn, engage in
serious discussion, and have shared responsibility for applying what they know to
new situations.
What does this mean for classroom learning? As active learners exploring
and going beyond the information given, thus students should be provided with
authentic and challenging projects that encourage them to work together with
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one another. Authentic settings would provide learners with opportunities to see
a problem from different perspectives as well as negotiate and generate solutions
through sharing and exchange of ideas. In an authentic environment, learners
assume responsibilities for their own learning. The aim is to create a situation
more closely related to collaborative practice in the real world.
The following is a list of constructivist principles quite often applied in
teaching and learning in the classroom:
Encourage student autonomy and initiative
- Students take responsibility for their own learning
- Respect students’ ideas and encourage independent thinking
Promote higher order thinking amongst students
- Ask questions that will influence student response
- Challenge students to analyze, justify and defend their ideas
Engage students in meaningful learning
- Provide students opportunity to express their ideas
- Involve students in real-world situations
The main critique of Social Constructivism is that it is often seen as
being less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction.
Exercise 3
Discuss some problems related to implementing constructivist principles in the
classroom. Describe with specific examples.
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Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.
2.2.4 Humanism
Humanism refers to a movement in psychology which emerged in the
1960’s and 1970’s. Humanism has its roots in counseling psychology and
focuses its attention on how individuals acquire emotions, attitudes, values and
interpersonal skills. Perhaps the most well-known applications of humanism in
ELT are those of Gattegno (1972) and Curran (1976).
Humanistic psychologists believe that how a person feels about learning is
as important as how the person thinks or even behaves. They describe
behaviour not from the viewpoint of the teacher as do behaviourists but rather
from the vantage point of the student who is performing the activity.
Humanists, led by such famous authors as Abraham Maslow and Carl
Rogers, are especially concerned with the idea of self-actualization, the growth of
a person to achieve whatever degree of individual satisfaction they are capable
of achieving. Learning is not an end in itself: it is the means to progress towards
self-development. A student learns because he or she is inwardly driven (self-
motivation), and derives his or her reward from the sense of achievement that
having learned something affords. Hence, much of a humanist teacher’s effort
would be put into developing a student’s self-esteem. This form of education,
known as student-centred, is typified by the student taking responsibility and
owning their learning.
The humanist teacher is a facilitator and not a disseminator of knowledge.
He or she creates an educational environment that fosters self-development,
cooperation, positive communications, and personalization of information. In
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particular, the humanist teacher needs to have a thorough grasp of both how
students learn and what motivates them to learn. Participatory and discovery
methods would be favoured instead of traditional didacticism. As well as the
student’s academic needs the humanist teacher is also concerned with the
student’s affective or emotional needs. Feeling and thinking are very much
interlinked. Humanists believe that feeling positive about oneself facilitates
learning.
The following are some principles in the classroom based on humanistic
principles:
Establish a warm, democratic, positive and non-threatening environment
for the students to work in.
Provide learning experiences that will lead to the development of habits
and attitudes that teachers want to foster.
Teachers should be role models and set good examples for students to
emulate.
Students are given choices (with limitations) and freedom (with
responsibilities) to plan and carry out activities.
Teacher facilitates the learning process and share ideas with students.
Learning is based on life experiences, discovery, exploring and
experimenting.
Respect student’s feelings and aspirations.
Provide opportunity for success.
De-emphasize rigorous, performance-oriented, test-dominated
approaches.
Students are allowed to set their own goals and follow their own pace
Experiential learning is encouraged.
Exercise 4
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To what extent do you think schools give attention to the affective (emotions,
feelings) aspects of learning? Discuss by citing specific examples.
Summary.
What conclusions can we draw from this discussion of various theories of
learning? Instructional learning theories are centred on the major schools of
educational psychology. From these so-called schools have evolved modern
thinking and practice about how learning occurs and how your instruction in the
classroom ultimately affects that learning. Each has its own merits and each has
shortcomings that may make them inappropriate in certain learning situations.
Your understanding of the basic principles and assumptions of Behaviourism,
Cognitivism, Constructivism and Humanism is critical to your approach to
classroom teaching. However, looking back over the current practices in our
classrooms, it becomes abundantly clear that they are a composite of the many
different theories we have learnt.
Tutorial Task
Based on what you have read in this unit, compare the four major theoretical
perspectives explaining human learning. Then, in your view as a teacher, state
your personal beliefs about the teaching-learning process.
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TOPIC 3 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES (I) KRASHEN’S MONITOR MODEL
3.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 3 provides input on a predominant Second Language Learning Theory
called Krashen’s Monitor Model. There are five components or hypotheses
which form the basis of the model. These are Input Hypothesis, Affective Filter
Hypothesis, Acquisition Learning Hypothesis, Monitor Hypothesis and Natural
Order Hypothesis. The topic also deals with the implications of this model for
teaching.
3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
1. demonstrate an understanding of Krashen’s Monitor Model
2. explain the five hypothesis of the Monitor Model
3. identify the relationship between the five hypothesis of the Monitor Model
4. explain the implications of this model for teaching.
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3.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION THREE (6 Hours)
3.2 Krashen’s Monitor Model
Second language acquisition theory seeks to explain how and by what
processes individuals acquire a second language. A predominant theory of
second language acquisition was developed by Steven Krashen from the
University of Southern California. Krashen is a specialist in language acquisition
and development and his influential theory is widely accepted in the language
learning community.
The following are some quotes from Krashen (1982) about language
acquisition.
"Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious
grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill."
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"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language -
natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the
form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and
understanding."
“The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input'
in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to
hear. These methods do not force early production in the second
language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready',
recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and
comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production."
"In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are
willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful."
Krashen explains five fundamental components - which he calls
hypotheses - as the basis for his language teaching model. Each of the
components relates to a different aspect of the language learning process. The
five components are as follows:
1. The Input Hypothesis
2. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
3. The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis
4. The Monitor Hypothesis
5. The Natural Order Hypothesis
3.2.1 Input Hypothesis
Krashen believes that the main factor in acquisition is not language use but language input, in other words what the learner hears and reads. The most
useful form of input has to be understandable and it should be just a little
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beyond the learner's present capacity. If it is too far beyond, the learner will not
pay attention to the input, and if it is not far enough, the learner will learn nothing.
The learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she
receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of
linguistic competence. If a learner is at a stage 'i', acquisition takes place when
he/she is exposed to 'comprehensible input' that belongs to level 'i + 1‘. Here “i”
refers to the current language level the learners are at. “i + 1” means a level
higher than the level the students are at or the next level along the natural order.
Natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, thus ensuring
that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her
current stage of linguistic competence.
Karshen suggests that teachers should give rough-tuned input and a wide variety of materials, supported by visual cues and realia which gives it a context within which the learner may guess at the content. As such,
language teachers must make input comprehensible by contextualizing it.
Evidences for the input hypothesis can be found in the following situations:
Effectiveness of caretaker speech from an adult to a child/ people speak
to children acquiring their first language in special ways.
Adults speaking to children modify their language in order to aid
comprehension. Adults roughly-tune to child’s level of linguistic
competence. These include use of baby-talk and short simple sentences.
Teacher-talk from a teacher to a language student.
Teachers simplify their language to make L2 learners understand or go
down to L2 learners’ comprehension.
Foreigner-talk from a sympathetic conversation partner to a language
learner or acquirer
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Some of the ways a foreigner talks to a language learner include slower
pronunciation, omission of features of connected speech, heavier stress
on key words, short responses, use of gestures and demonstrations.
L2 learners often go through an initial Silent Period.
A learner is silent to build up competencies in 2nd language via listening.
Speaking only emerges after the learner has enough competence in the
language.
Krashen indicates that the comparative success of younger and older
learners reflects provision of comprehensible input. The more comprehensible
input the greater the L2 proficiency. The lack of comprehensible input delays
language acquisition. As such teaching methods work according to the extent
that teachers use comprehensible input. One finds that immersion teaching is
successful because it provides comprehensible input. As for bilingual
programmes, they succeed to the extent teachers provide comprehensible input
3.2.2 Affective Filter Hypothesis
This hypothesis describes external factors that can act as a filter that
impedes acquisition. These factors include motivation, self-confidence, and
anxiety. If a learner has very low motivation, very low self-confidence, and a high
level of anxiety, the affective filter falls into place and inhibits the learner from
acquiring the new language. On the other hand, learners who are motivated,
confident, and relaxed about learning the target language have more success
acquiring a second language.
Barriers to learning can also be found in any negative feelings that a learner has
about the language, the method used, the institution or the teacher. These
feelings become a kind of filter, which keeps the input out. Hence, the teacher's
job is to make language learning free of stress and enjoyable.
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3.2.3 Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
Krashen elucidates two systems of language acquisition that are
independent but related namely the acquired system and the learned system.
The acquired system relates to the unconscious aspect of language
acquisition. When people learn their first language by speaking the language
naturally in daily interaction with others the acquired system is at work. Here
speakers are more concerned with the act of communicating meaning than the
structure of their utterances.
On the other hand, the learned system relates to formal instruction where
students engage in formal study to acquire knowledge about the target language.
One example of the learned system is the studying the rules of syntax.
The differences between acquisition and learning are depicted in Figure 1
below:
Acquisition Learning
implicit, subconscious explicit, conscious
informal situations formal situations
uses grammatical 'feel' uses grammatical rules
depends on attitude depends on aptitude
stable order of acquisition simple to complex order of
learning
Fig. 1: Differences between acquisition and learning
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3.2.4 Monitor Hypothesis
The monitor hypothesis seeks to explain how the learned system affects
the acquired system. According to Krashen, the formal rule system acts as the
Monitor in the acquired system. When second language learners monitor their
speech, they apply their understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and
initiate their communication. This action can only occur when speakers have
ample time to think about the form and structure of their sentences.
The Monitor is best used when:
we have to be very careful
when language is necessarily formal
e.g. writing letters of application, speaking to a hierarchical superior in a
formal situation.
There are three conditions required by the Monitor:
Time
The learner must have time to use the monitor. Using the monitor
requires the speaker to slow down and focus on the form of language.
Focus on correctness of form
The learner must be focused or thinking about the form of language. A
learner may find it difficult to focus on meaning and form at the same time.
Knowledge of rules
The learner must know the rules. This means that the speaker must have
had explicit instruction on the language form that he or she is trying to
produce.
There three types of monitor users – over-users, under-users and optimal-
users. Monitor over-users try to always use their monitor, and are so concerned
with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency. Monitor under-
users have not consciously learned or choose not to use their conscious
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knowledge of the language. Error correction by others has little influence on
them, as they can often correct themselves based on a "feel" for correctness.
Teachers should aim to produce optimal monitor users, who use the
monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with communication.
They do not use their conscious knowledge of grammar in normal conversation,
but will use it in writing and planned speech. Optimal monitor users can
therefore use their learned competence as a supplement to their acquired
competence
Krashen suggests that we should leave the monitor unemployed most of
the time, and concentrate upon the meaning that we wish to convey, rather than
on the form of our utterances.
3.2.5 Natural Order Hypothesis
According to this hypothesis there is a natural order to the way second
language learners acquire their target language. Krashen states that there is a natural order in which learners pick up a language and this order is roughly
the same for all learners regardless of their linguistic background.
Research shows that this natural order seems to go beyond age, the
learner's native language, the target language, and the conditions under which
the second language is being learned.
Mistakes made by learners are a necessary part of language learning.
These mistakes are not random, but are very similar to the errors that children make when learning their first language. The mistakes that students
make through time lie in a rough sequence.
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In addition, the sequence of errors for acquired language is not the same
as the sequence of learned grammar items. Some grammatical morphemes
which appear simple from the learning point of view are in fact acquired late - the
's' of PTS. Chinese learning English make the same mistakes, and will learn in
more or less the same order as the French. According to Krashen, this indicates
that there is a natural order in which learners pick up a language. In addition, these mistakes will be made in the same order whether the learners have been taught the grammar or not, and that teaching grammar will not help them change the order.
The combined model of acquisition and production is shown in the
diagram below.
Combined model of acquisition and production
3.2.6 Implications for Teaching
Krashen’s Monitor Model has its implications for ESL/EFL teaching. Input
hypothesis focuses on comprehensible input at “i + 1” level. To enable learners
to advance in language acquisition, teachers need to expose them to large
amounts of authentic language. The language need not be specifically graded in
terms grammatical progression, but adapted to the students’ interests and
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purposes for learning the language. A wide variety of input, supported by visual cues and realia should be contextualized in a way that the learner can
understand a large amount of spoken or written language.
According to Krashen comprehension precedes production. As such, L2
learners often go through an initial Silent Period. Teachers should provide time
for silent period to allow learners to build up acquired competence in a language
before they begin to produce it.
In line with the Affective Filter Hypothesis, language acquisition should be
done in relaxing and friendly conditions. Affective-humanistic activities such as
dialogues, interviews, personal charts and tables are encouraged.
Tutorial Task
How does the Krashen’s Monitor Model help a teacher better to understand how
his/her second language students learn?
Design materials and tasks suitable for primary school learners in relation to
Krashen’s Monitor Model
Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready.
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TOPIC 4 OVERVIEW: APPROACHES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES – ELT METHODS
4.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 4 introduces you to the
4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:
4.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
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Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques – ELT Methods
ELT Methods
Grammar-Translation Method
Direct Method
Audio-Lingual Method
Silent Way
Suggestopedia
Community Language Learning
Total Physical Response
TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
CONTENT
SESSION FOUR (6 Hours)
4.2 Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques – ELT Methods
4.2.1 Grammar-Translation Method
4.2.2 Direct Method
4.2.3 Audio-Lingual Method
4.2.4 Silent Way
4.2.5 Suggestopedia
4.2.6 Community Language Learning
4.2.7 Total Physical Response
Tutorial Task
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TOPIC 5 ELT METHOD: COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
5.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 5 introduces you to the
5.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:
5.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION FIVE (3 Hours)
5.2 ELT Method
5.2.1 Communicative Approach
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ELT Method
Communicative Approach
TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
TOPIC 6 ELT METHODS: LEXICAL AND ECLECTIC APPROACHES
6.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 6 introduces you to
6.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:
1. understand how figurative language is used in communication
2. use figurative and phrasal verbs in spoken and written language
6.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
SESSION SIX (3 Hours)
6.2.1 Lexical Approach
6.2.2 Eclectic Approach
Check your answers with your tutor!
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ELT Methods
Lexical Approach Eclectic Approach
TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
TOPIC 7 SYLLABUS DESIGN – MALAYSIAN PRIMARY SCHOOL ENGLISH CURRICULUM
7.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 7 introduces you to
7.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:
7.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION SEVEN (3 Hours)
7.2. Syllabus Design - Malaysian Primary School English Curriculum
7.2.1 Principles
7.2.2 Techniques
7.2.3 Strengths/Limitation
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Syllabus Design
Principles
Role of teacher, learners, and resources
Scheme of work – weekly, semesterTechniques
Strengths/Limitation
TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
7.2.4 Role of Teacher, Learners, and Resources
7.2.5 Scheme of Work – Weekly, Semester
Tutorial Task
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TOPIC 8 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES (II)
8.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 8 introduces you to
8.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:
8.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION EIGHT (6 Hours)
Universal Grammar Why a Universal Grammar What does a Universal Grammar consist of? Universal Grammar and first language acquisition Universal Grammar and second language acquisition
TOPIC 9 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN THE 45
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CLASSROOM
9.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 9 introduces you to some issues of second language learning pertaining to
audiolingualism. It also introduces the PPP procedure in language learning.
9.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
1. identify some issues of second language learning pertaining to
audiolingualism
2. explain the different stages in the PPP procedure
3. devise a teaching plan using the PPP procedure
9.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
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SESSION NINE (3 Hours)
9.2.1 Issues of Second Language Learning
The issues that will be discussed here are related to audiolingualism as it
were these issues that resulted in the introduction and use of the PPP Approach
or procedure in the Communicative Language Teaching Method.
Exercise 1: 1. What is the language learning theory that audiolingualism is
based on?
2. State the principles of audiolingualism.
3. Name three techniques used in audiolingualism.
4. What are some of the shortcomings of audiolingulism?
You would have gone through in detail about audiolingualism or the audio-
lingual method in Topic 4. What we will discuss here briefly are the issues
related to audiolingualism which resulted in the use of PPP Approach.
Audiolingualism which is based on Behaviourist Learning Theory relied
heavily on drills to form habits in language learning. Emphasis on accuracy of
the language through repetition of correct utterances was supported by positive
reinforcement. However much of the audio-lingual method of language learning
remained at sentence level. There was limited placing of language in real-life
context. Hence, there grew a need to place language in clear situational context.
This lead to introduction of the PPP Approach.
9.2.2 The PPP Approach
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The "Three Ps" procedure is a variation of the audiolingual method. PPP
stands for presentation, practice and production. It is based on structural-
situational teaching where the focus is to place language in clear situational
contexts. It is very important to understand what "Presentation", "Practice" and "Production" really are, and to see how they work in together to create
effective communicative language learning.
Presentation is the beginning or introduction to learning language, with
production being the end product of the learning process, whereby a learner
becomes a "user" of the language in contrast to a "student" of the language.
Practice is the process that helps a learner to progress from the initial stage
through to the final one.
This is how it works. At the beginning of a lesson, the teacher introduces
a situation which contextualizes the new language to be taught. Then the
language or linguistic "model" is presented. With this "model" in mind, the
students practise the new language through a variety of "controlled" activities
such as coral repetition, individual repetition and cue-response drills. After
sufficient practice, the students move into "productive" activity, where a situation
calls for the language to be used naturally without correction or control. For
example the students can construct their own sentences. In general, for
communicative language learning to be most effective, the three stages need to
occur and flow smoothly from one stage to the next.
PRESENTATION
This is the first and the most crucial stage of the language learning
process. Presentation involves the building of a situation requiring natural and
logical use of the new language. When the students recognize and understand
the "situation", they will then start building a conceptual understanding of the
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meaning behind the new language, and why it will be relevant and useful to
them. When the situation surrounding the new language and the conceptual
meaning of it has been achieved, the new language is introduced through a
linguistic "model". It is this linguistic model or language presented that the
students will go on to practise and achieve naturally during a productive activity
without help.
It is important for the teacher to build on whatever English the students
have already learned or have some access to when introducing a situation and
getting the students to build the concept underlying the new language. At
primary levels, using pictures and body language are common ways of
presenting new language. Dialogues and text can also be used when the
students have progressed.
There are a various ways in which new language items or linguistic
‘models’ can be presented. What is important is that these presentations should
have at least some of the following features: meaningful, memorable and realistic
examples; have logical connection; contextualized; clear models; sufficient
meaningful repetition; are brief and can be recycled
PRACTICE:
The practice stage is the important middle stage to communicative
language teaching. Sometimes this stage is “over-done" or used ineffectively.
This may be due to a poor or no presentation stage. In some cases it is not used
as a natural progression or step towards production.
The type of practice activities should be appropriate to the language being
learned as well as the level and competence of the students. Practice is done to
ensure that the students get the accurate language as well as to get the students
to be familiar with the language. Hence an effective practice stage is one where
repetition leads to competence and accuracy.
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Practice activities need to be clear and understandable and should
promote a degree of confidence in the students. A well planned practice activity
will generate the students' motivation. Practice activities should be challenging,
but within the reach of the students.
Practice activities usually involve moving the students from the individual
drills to pair work such as chain pair-work, closed pair-work and open pair-work.
It is this communicative practice that leads to final stage of production.
PRODUCTION:
The production stage is the most important stage of communicative
language teaching. A good indicator of a successful production is when students
move from being "students" or learners of the language to "users" of the
language.
The production stage involves creating a situation which requires the
students to use the language that was introduced in the presentation stage
independently. The situation should allow the students produce more
personalized language. A successful production stage depends on an effective
practice stage. This is because if the practice stage is not able to build the
students’ confidence in the language then they will naturally be hesitant to
independently "use" it in the production stage.
One of the most important things you have to remember is that production
activities should not "tell" the students what to say. In the practice stage, the
students have most or all of the information required, but in the production stage
they do not have the information and therefore must think. As such it would be
good if ‘real life" situations are given in the production stage. Getting students
engaged in productive classroom activities can require a certain level of cognitive
ability. Hence, as teachers you should prepare well thought out and planned
activities.
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Some good examples of effective production activities include situational
role-plays, debates, discussions, problem-solving, narratives, descriptions,
quizzes and games.
The following demonstrates the use of the PPP procedure:
PRESENTATION:
The teacher shows the students the following picture and elicits some facts about
it.
The teacher points to the man carrying the Malaysian flag to elicit the sentence
“He is carrying the Malaysian flag” by asking “What’s the man doing?”
The teacher then models the sentence “The man is carrying the Malaysian flag”.
This is repeated with the other people in the picture.
PRACTICE:
The teacher gets the students to repeat the sentences in chorus.
The teacher picks individual students to repeat the sentences.
The teacher gives a cue (woman in yellow) and gets the students to respond.
PRODUCTION:
The teacher asks students to construct their own sentences e.g. think about what
their family members are doing at the moment.
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Tutorial Task
Devise a teaching plan to show your understanding of the PPP procedure.
Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready.
TOPIC 10 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN THE
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CLASSROOM
10.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 10 provides you with input on alternatives to Presentation, Practice, and
Production. It also deals with the teaching implications of these alternatives in
the primary ELT classroom.
10.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
1. name the alternatives to Presentation, Practice, and Production
2. explain the alternatives to Presentation, Practice, and Production
3. explain the teaching implications of the alternatives in the primary ELT
classroom
10.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
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SESSION TEN (3 Hours)
10.2.1 Alternatives to Presentation, Practice and Production
The PPP Approach or procedure in the Communicative Language
Teaching Method which was introduced in the mid 1960’s came under criticism in
the 1990’s.
Exercise 1: 1. Do you use the PPP procedure in your classroom? Why?
2. What are the strengths of the PPP procedure?
3. What are the shortcomings of the PPP procedure?
One of the main criticisms of the PPP procedure is that it is teacher-
centred. This is in contrast with the humanistic and learner-centred approach that
was prevalent in the 1990’s. The fact is that the PPP procedure assumes
learners learn ‘in straight lines’, that is, starting from no knowledge, through very
structured sentence-based patterns straight to instantaneous production was not
favourable to many. According to Woodward (1993) language cannot be broken
down into small bits and pieces to learn as it is full of ‘interlocking variables and
systems’. Lewis (1993) was not in favour of the PPP approach as he felt that it
did not reflect neither the nature of language nor the nature of learning. It could
also be a waste of time and demotivating especially if you might be teaching
what the students already know.
One of the first people to suggest an alternative to the PPP procedure was
Keith Johnson in 1982. His suggestion called the ‘deep-end strategy’ was a
variation of the PPP procedure. He encouraged students into immediate
production, in other words throwing them in the deep end. The teacher can see if
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and where the students have difficulties in the language in the production stage.
The teacher goes back to either the presentation or practice stage after the
production stage if deemed necessary.
Byrne (1986) had similar views as Johnson. However, he joined the three
stages of presentation, practice and production into a circle. Here teachers and
students can decide at which stage to begin the procedure. Figure 1 below
shows Byrne’s alternative approach.
.
Figure 1: Byrne’s Alternative Approach
Harmer (2007) suggested ESA: Engage, Study and Activate as an
alternative to the PPP procedure. E is for engage. Getting the students
emotionally engaged with what is going on is important to ensure effective
learning. S stands for study. Here the focus of the teaching and learning
process is on how something is constructed. The study may focus on forms of
the language such as relative clauses, specific intonation patterns, developing a
paragraph etc. The teacher can draw the attention of students to the form of the
language during a communicative task or the students themselves may notice
the form of the language. A stands for activate. At this stage students are
encouraged to use all or any of the language they know. Teachers can plan
communicative activities to activate students’ knowledge. Reading for pleasure
or interest also helps students activate their language knowledge.
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There are three basic lesson procedures in ESA. The first is the ‘Straight
Arrows’ lesson procedure. This procedure is sequential in nature. The teacher
engages the students via the presentation of situations, pictures or other means.
The study stage involves the explanation of meanings and forms of the language
by the teacher. The teacher models the forms of the language and the students
repeat and practise them. Activation of the new language is done when students
use the language to form their own sentences.
The second basic lesson procedure is called the ‘Boomerang’ procedure.
The order here is EAS. First the teacher gets the students emotionally engaged
with the lesson. Then the teacher gets the students to do a task for example a
written task, a simulation activity or a communicative game. After the activity, the
students study some aspects of the language that were incorrectly used by them
or what they lack.
The final procedure is known as the ‘Patchwork’ lesson procedure. Here
the teacher may follow various sequences. The teacher may get the students
engaged first, followed by activating their knowledge before studying some
language forms before moving on to other activation activities. These may be
followed by re-engaging the students and ending with more study on language
forms.
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Figures 1 to 3 depicts the different lesson procedures of ESA.
Exercise 2:1. List the alternatives to PPP procedure.
2. Explain the ESA procedure.
3. Discuss the similarities and differences between the three
lesson procedures of ESA.
10.2.2 Teaching Implications of the Alternatives in the Primary School Classroom
The various frameworks suggested as alternatives for the PPP procedure
such as Johnson’s ‘deep-end strategy’, Byrne’s alternative approach and
Harmer’s ESA imply that teachers should shift from a sequential, teacher-
centred approach to a more humanistic and leaner-centred approach. Teachers
should bear in mind that getting students emotionally engaged is vital for
effective learning. As such, teachers should minimize their criticism and
encourage their young learners to be engaged in what is going on in the
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classroom. Students should have positive feelings about what and how they are
learning.
The teacher should be well-versed in the forms of the language. There
would be teachable moments where the teacher needs to focus on the forms of
the language. This is something that the teacher must be prepared for. In other
words preparing for eventualities for the study phase.
The teacher should be creative to design communicative tasks that will
activate students’ language knowledge. Activities prepared should encourage
students to use of much knowledge of the language that they have. These
activities should develop a desire for the students to communicate.
Tutorial Task
Devise a teaching plan using any of the alternative frameworks discussed above.
What are the possible challenges you might face in carrying out the teaching
plan?
Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready.
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