Index [assets.cambridge.org]assets.cambridge.org/97805218/71648/index/9780521871648... · 2014. 2....

593

Index

Achaimenids, 322 Acheulean tradition tools. See tools, stone acid rain, 525 , 544 Adam, ancestral, 87 . See also Y-chromosome Adena culture, North America, 310 Africa

AIDS, 537 economic growth, 536 , 537 land clearance emissions, 488 , 497 megadroughts, 78 , 86 , 87 , 91 , 92 mitochondrial DNA, 84 , 91–2 population, 470 rifts, 63 , 66 shared genetics by all humans, 96 spread of crops, 152 spread of language, 162 survival of megafauna, 138–9 tectonic movement of, 58 See also human evolution ; specifi c

countries, regions, and cultures African Monsoon

and desertifi cation of the Sahara, 211 during Holocene, 134 , 172–4 , 555 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 155 , 174 ,

178 , 184 during Younger Dryas, 133 at end of LGM, 132 mega-monsoons, 150

African Red Slip Ware, 333 , 344 Afroasiatic languages, 161–2 Agassiz, Lake, 159 agrarian societies, 7 , 10 , 218 , 529 , 553 agriculture

annual biomass energy, 416 and B ø lling-Aller ø d intervals, 143 and calorie consumption, 127 , 191–2 , 416

characteristics of development of, 151–2 , 163

crop failures, 276 , 458 , 489–90 , 494 crop rotation and diversifi cation, 462 driven by climate, 156 during Early Modern period, 420 ecological problems developing

from, 163 English Agricultural Revolution, 461–2 environmental hazards of, 501–2 and failure of the feudal/manorial

system, 428–9 fertilizers and pesticides, 461–2 , 533 ,

544 , 562 fl ood-water farming, 147 future threats to, 566 and globalization of food, 435–7 , 472 , 476 and the Green Revolution, 532 hearths of, 126 and human mobility, 128–9 hybrid high-yield crops, 533 during interglacial period, 6 during Late Holocene, 276 during Little Ice Age, 458 mechanization of, 505 during Medieval era, 373 , 376–8 and mortality and fertility rates, 226–8 and NPP, 128 origins of, 121 , 135–6 plantation system, 430–1 , 436 and population, 106 , 217 , 312–14 prerequisites for, 125–6 as response to stress, 143 rise of agro-ecologies, 122–3 and secondary products revolution,

191–4 , 287

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Index594

and slavery, 430–1 spread of, 157–62 , 238–9 transition to, 128 , 150–2 in tropics, 152–3 warming effects of, 477 See also domestication of animals ;

domestication of plants ; horticulture ; land clearance ; methane

AIDS/HIV, 532 , 537 , 545 , 563 ‘Ain Ghazal, Anatolia, 159–60 , 198 Ainu culture, Japan, 327 , 474 air pollution, 524–8 , 554 . See also emissions,

industrial Akkadian empire, 281 , 289 , 293 Akkadian event, 292–6 alarmists, 571–4 Alaska, 567 albedo, 68 , 69 , 477 , 498 alcohol, 223 , 436 , 464 algae, 42 , 574 Algaze, Guillermo, 207 , 209 , 241 Allen, Harriet D., 275 allopatric selection, 26 , 29 , 43 , 48 alpacas, 153 alphabets, 306 Altai Mountains, Central Asia, 369 Alvarez, Walter, 27–8 , 50 America, colonial, 475 , 478 , 486 , 487 , 499 .

See also United States “American Century,” 534 Americas. See New World Amerindians, 223 , 431–4 , 439–40 , 488 .

See also disease, fi rst contact ; smallpox amino acids and origins of life, 37 Amorites, 293 anaerobic sediments, 159 Anatolia

colonization of, 158 during Bronze Age Crisis, 292 during Classical Optimum, 325 fl oods, 341 Hittite kingdom, 290 during Little Ice Age, 449 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 159–60 during Preclassical Crisis, 299 rise of Ottomans, 419 water mills, 320

Andaman Islands, 94 Andean cultures

agriculture, 153 during Classical Optimum, 327 during Dark Ages, 354

fertility rates, 239 during Little Ice Age, 371 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 181 , 182 during Preclassical Crisis, 308 , 309–10 and rise of the state, 189 , 190 See also specifi c cultures

Anderson, Greg, 188 anemia, 315 Angel, Lawrence, 335 , 338 Angola, 443 animals

animal labor, 202–3 , 319 , 420 , 462 , 492 consumption of, 332 , 338 secondary products revolution, 192 and zoonotic diseases, 221–3 , 233–4 , 563 See also carnivores ; domestication of

animals ; herbivores ; megafauna ; specifi c animals

Antarctica, 58 , 62 , 66 , 131 , 564 . See also ice cores, Greenland or Antarctic

Anthropocene early modern-modern landuse emissions

and, 402 , 478–9 , 487 , 495–8 , 499 First Industrial Revolution emissions and,

478 , 479 greenhouse effect in, 398 , 402 , 404 , 476–8 ,

495 , 548–50 Ruddiman early agriculture greenhouse

thesis, 286–7 Ruddiman epidemic drawdown

greenhouse thesis, 396 , 440–2 Second Industrial Revolution emissions

and, 403 , 407 , 408 , 479 , 525–8 , 546–52

seven phases of, 408 , 553–8 See also climate and climate change ;

Industrial Revolution ; Ruddiman, William

antibiotics, 563 Antipater of Thessalonica, 339 Antiquity. See Classical Antiquity Antonine Plague, 343 , 344 apes, 62–3 , 64 Arab Spring, 569 Arabia, 90 , 92 , 94–5 Arabian Sea, 292 Aral Sea, 58 archaeans, 38 , 40 Archaic period

in North America, 157 , 226 , 240 , 310 in South America, 183 See also Mesolithic period

Archean Eon, 38

agriculture (cont.)






Index 595

Archean/Paleo-Proterozoic crisis, 38–42 Arctic, 67 , 164 , 546 , 564 , 565 , 567 .

See also ice cores ; Laurentine meltwater events

Arctic Oscillation (AO), 168–9 . See also North Atlantic Oscillation

Ardipithecus ramidus, 65 Arkwright, Richard, 484 Arrhenius, Svante, 495 , 526 arthritis, 221 Asia, 417–19 , 429–30 , 536 . See also East

Asia ; South Asia ; Southeast Asia ; specifi c countries

Asian Monsoons during Anthropocene, 555–7 during Bronze Age Crisis, 294 during Dark Ages, 351–4 at end of LGM, 132 and ENSO, 170–1 during Holocene, 134 , 172–4 , 277 during Little Ice Age, 447 mega-monsoons, 150 during Mid Pleistocene Revolution, 77 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 155 , 174 ,

178 , 180 , 184 and orbital cycles, 68 , 71 origins of, 58 and Siberian Highs, 168–9 and West Pacifi c Warm Pool, 173 during Younger Dryas, 133 See also East Asian Monsoon ; South Asian

[Indian] Monsoon Assyria, 299 , 304 , 322 asteroids, 52 Aterian tradition artifacts and tools, 92 ,

93 , 107 Athens, 188 , 330 Atlantic Ocean, 45 , 64 , 67 , 366 , 437–8 atmosphere, 18 , 28 , 37 , 38–42 , 68 , 172–4 .

See also emissions, industrial ; greenhouse gases

atmospheric circulation during Early Holocene, 172–4 in Ferrell Cells, 167 , 168 , 171 , 172–4 , 277 in Hadley Cells, 132 , 167 , 170 , 171 ,

172–4 , 276 , 557 and Intertropical Convergence

Zone, 136 during Late Holocene, 166–71 at Mid-Holocene transition, 174–5 during Pleistocene, 171 during Pliocene, 171 in Polar Cells, 166 , 171

See also atmospheric pressure systems ; El Ni ñ o/Southern Oscillation ; monsoons ; North Atlantic Oscillation ; thermohaline pump ; westerlies

atmospheric pressure systems about, 167–8 Azores High-Icelandic Low, 168–9 Hawaiian High-Aleutian Low, 168 Siberian High-Tibetan Low, 168 See also Siberian Highs

Australia, 93 , 125 , 157 , 557 Australopithecus genus, 65 , 71–2 Austronesian languages, 162 automobiles, 510 , 522–3 , 524 , 574 Axial Age, 306 Aztec culture, 419 , 430 , 432 , 439

Babylon, 299 , 304 Badaran culture, Egypt, 185 Bailey, Mark, 378 Balsas Valley, Mexico, 152–3 bananas, 311 , 497 Bangladesh, 568 banks and banking, 330 , 465 Bantu-speaking peoples, 162 , 312 barbarians, 339–40 , 346 Barbary states, 422 barley, 129 , 147 , 294 Barnosky, Anthony, 30 basalt provinces. See superplumes Baten, Joerg, 378 beans, 435 Beijing, China, 418 , 445 Belgium, 421 , 494 , 504 , 511 , 516 , 527 Benedictow, Ole, 387 , 389 , 427 Bengal famine, India, 471 Bessemer furnaces, 509 Bible, 206 , 298 , 299 Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 573 Binford, Lewis, 140 , 145 Bintliff, John, 275 biomass energy, 416 , 422 , 436 , 549 biome changes, 137–8 , 139 biosphere, 28 , 38–42 bipedalism, 65–6 , 69 , 75 . See also hominins ;

homo species Biraben, Jean No ë l, 323 , 360 , 414 birth-control, 428 . See also fertility black carbon/soot, 477 , 549 , 578 .

See also emissions, industrial ; fossil fuels

Black Death. See bubonic plague Black Sea, 58 , 64 , 563






Index596

Bloch, Marc, 373 , 423 Bocquet-Appel, Jean-Pierre, 137 , 226–7 ,

228 , 238–9 . See also Neolithic Demographic Transition (NDT)

B ø lling-Aller ø d, 131 , 136–43 , 172 Bond, Gerard, 176 Bond events. See ice-rafting bones, human

Bronze Age, 312–14 and the bubonic plague, 379 , 385 chemical signature of diet in, 135–6 Classical Antiquity, 335–6 Denisovan, 96 Iron Age, 312–14 Neolithic, 221 osteological paradox, 225 Roman Empire, 337

Boone, James, 228 , 269 Boserup, Ester, 4 , 105 , 192 Boserupian intensifi cation

about, 4–5 , 105–6 in agriculture, 192 , 391 in China, 472 , 473–4 during Classical Antiquity, 264 and future prospects for the world, 560 in Medieval Europe, 264 , 372–3 , 375–7 and rise of the state, 195 and the Second Industrial Revolution, 538 and the Secondary Products

Revolution, 191–4 shaping human history, 9–10 during Upper Paleolithic, 105–6

bottle gourds, 124–5 bottlenecks, evolutionary

about, 29 , 43 , 54 abrupt climate changes, 79 , 103–4 Amerindian depopulation, 432–3 during Little Ice Age, 450 eccentricity-driven megadroughts, 60 , 62 ,

79 , 81 , 82 experienced by all human populations, 97 genetic changes and dietary shifts, 224 human dispersal, 90 impact of climate change, 570 Industrial Revolution food shortages,

489–90 Pleistocene population growth, 106–7 technological, 488 See also Boserupian intensifi cation

Boyle, Robert, 466 BP Deep Horizon oil-well rupture, 562 brain development, 72–3 , 87–9 , 124–5 Brazil, 431 , 432 , 497 , 537

Brenner thesis, 373 British East India Company, 471 British Isles

colonization of, 161 , 162 during Bronze Age, 313 height, 336 , 361 , 378 during Iron Ages, 313 during Middle Ages, 374 during Preclassical Crisis, 302 See also England ; Great Britain ; United

Kingdom bronze, 319 , 483 Bronze Age

climate, 553 division of, 289 horses, 282 human health, 312–16 metal weapons and tools, 282–3 and rise of the state, 10 soil erosion following societal

collapse, 273–5 trade and exchange, 289–91 , 297–9 , 304–5 See also Early, Middle and Late Bronze

Ages ; specifi c countries or cultures Bronze Age general crisis

Early-Middle, 292–6 Late Bronze Age-Iron Age, 300–4 Middle-Late, 293 and Mid-Holocene Transition, 287 , 292–5 ,

297–8 See also Hallstatt solar minima ;

Preclassical Crisis ; Santorini eruption ; Siberian Highs

Bronze Age Optimum, 288–300 Brook, Timothy, 444 Brown, Peter, 350 bubonic plague/Black Death

about, 384–90 aftermath, 423–9 during Bronze Age Crisis, 298 in China, 358 , 360 during Early Modern period, 424–8 in England, 379 , 425 , 454–7 and epidemiological transition, 514 as fi rst contact disease, 432 impact of, 10 Justinian Plagues, 343 , 345–6 during Little Ice Age, 258 , 457–8 as Malthusian inevitability, 373 , 375 in Mediterranean, 360 origins of, 348–9 and pandemic-driven cooling

theory, 440–1






Index 597

as Schumpterian creative destruction, 380 See also East Smithfi eld Plague cemetery,

London burial (mortuary) rituals

Hopewell culture, 310 of Late PrePottery during Neolithic B,

149–50 of Natufi an people, 145 , 147 , 199–200 in North America, 153 of PPNB, 199–200 , 233 of Uruk people, 205

Burma, 363 Burroughs, William, 102 burrowing worms, 43 Byzantine Empire, 345

C 3 plants, 129 , 130 , 151–2 cacao trade, 436 Cahokia culture, Illinois, 366–7 calories, dietary, 127 , 191–2 , 416 , 435–6 ,

474 , 491 , 540 , 542 Cambrian period, 43 , 47 , 50 camelpox, 223 camels, 192 , 223 , 442 Campbell, Bruce, 377 , 380 , 384 , 388 , 458 canals, 484 , 488 Cann, Rebecca, 84 cap-and-trade systems, 576 , 577 capitalism, 5 , 305–6 , 330 , 373 , 461 , 507 , 512 Capitalism and Slavery (Williams), 487 carbon, 43 , 532 . See also black carbon/soot carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), atmospheric

and 1000 year eccentricity cycle, 77–8 and C 3 plants, 129 , 151–2 during Cenozoic epoch, 66 current levels, 467 , 477 and development of agriculture, 129 at end of LGM, 131 frozen in tundra, 565 during the Early Holocene, 150 and human evolution, 62–3 Icehouse-Greenhouse cycles, 57 , 68 during LGM, 130–1 during Little Ice Age, 396 , 440–2 , 477 and origins of life, 38 and origins of the earth, 37 during Phanerozoic supercycles, 46 and plant growth, 125 during Pleistocene, 101–3 and reduction in emissions, 576–8 and superplumes, 35 , 39 warming effects of, 477 and weathering, 42 , 47 , 477

carbon dioxide emissions during Anthropocene Epoch, 469 coal burning, 478 , 495 conversion to quicklime, 574 during First Great Interruption, 553 and GDP, 577 historical data, 403 and human economic activity, 286–7 ,

549–51 increase of since Late Neolithic and Bronze

Ave, 286–7 from land clearance, 487–8 , 495–7 ,

553 , 565 during Second Great Interruption, 554 during Third Great Super-Cycle, 555 warming effects of, 477 See also emissions, industrial

carbon-14 dating, 135 , 136 Carboniferous period, 45 , 48 Cardial (Neolithic), 160 Cariaco Basin sediment, Venezuela, 278 ,

355–6 , 382 Caribbean region, 432 Caribbean Sea, 58 caries. See teeth as health indicators Carnegie, Andrew, 509 Carneiro, Robert, 188 , 195 .

See also ecological circumscription carnivores, 138–9 Carson, Rachel, 544 , 560 Caspian-Crimean region, 387 , 388 cassava/manioc, 152 , 156 , 435 Casting, James, 40 Ç atalh ö y ü k, Anatolia, 159–60 , 198 , 232 catastrophism, 6 cattle

animal labor, 202–3 consumption of, 332 , 338 domestication of, 149 , 156 among Halaf and Ubaid peoples, 202 impact on energy resources, 237–8 and lactose intolerance, 223–4 and methane emission, 477 milk and milk products, 236 of nomadic peoples of the Sahel, 442 origins of, 303–4 oxen, 205 , 373 rinderpest-like disease, 384 , 388 and secondary products revolution, 192 and sleeping sickness, 214 and zoonatic diseases, 222

Caucasus, 58 Caucasus Mountains, 160






Index598

celiac disease (glutin intolerance), 223 Cenozoic Icehouse, 20 , 56–7 Central America, 162 . See also specifi c

countries and cultures Central Asia, 304 , 369–70 . See also specifi c

countries and cultures ceramics. See pottery cereals, 122–3 , 125 , 144–52 Ceylon/Sri Lanka, 430 , 518 , 531 CFCs. See chlorofl ourcarbons (CFCs) Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, 366 Chalcolithic Halaf. See Halaf culture Chamberlain, Thomas C., 26 Champa culture, Vietnam, 363 Charlemagne and the Carolingian

Empire, 358 Charles II (England), 465 Charv á t, Petr, 202 , 205 Chaucerian anomaly, 458 Chavin culture, 183 , 309–10 cheetahs, 214 chemical pollution, 510 , 545–6 , 563 chenopod domestication, 153 Chernobyl, Russia, 545 Cheyette, Fredric, 341 Chicago, IL, 505 , 506 chicken-pox, 222 Chicxulub crater, 50 Childe, V. Gordon, 121 , 145 childhood diseases, 234 , 241 , 280 , 426 , 515 .

See also specifi c diseases children, 88 , 226–7 , 235–6 , 337 , 390 , 491 ,

492 . See also fertility ; infant mortality Chile, 537 chimpanzees, 64 Chimu empire, Peru, 371 China

during Anthropocene, 557 during Bronze Age, 288 , 295 , 313 bubonic plague in, 386 , 472 during Classical Antiquity, 322–3 during Classical Optimum, 326 and climate change, 249 , 252 coal production and use, 544 colonization of, 161 as colonizers, 162 competition for rare minerals, 570 during Dark Ages, 352 , 357–8 , 360 droughts, 439 , 498 during Early Modern period, 415 economic growth, 367–8 , 470 , 480 , 482 ,

536 , 540–1 empire building, 472

energy consumption, 541 , 551 fertility, 472 , 532 fl oods, 195–6 , 206 , 295 , 557 and foods from the New World, 472 health, 313 during Holocene Optimum, 195 and Homo erectus, 75 human settlement in, 143 industrial emission, 555 during Iron Age, 313 , 318–20 land clearance emissions, 496 , 526 during Little Ice Age, 439 , 444–6 , 472–3 and Malthusian crisis, 499 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 367–9 during Mesolithic, 140 methane emissions from rice paddies, 286 ,

477 , 478 , 495 , 553 monsoons and political change, 308–9 ,

326 , 357–8 , 367–9 , 444–5 mortality, 519 during Neolithic, 150–2 , 186 , 195 ,

238 , 295 origins of agriculture, 122 , 150–2 population

Anthropocene Epoch, 470 Classical Antiquity, 322–3 Dark Ages, 353 Early Modern period, 415 , 436 , 475 end of Little Ice Age, 470 Han dynasty, 335 Little Ice Age, 472–4 Medieval Climate Anomaly, 370 Neolithic, 238 predictions, 542

during Preclassical Crisis, 307 , 308–9 rebellions, 326 , 444 , 472–3 , 494 and rise of the state, 186 , 189 , 190 ,

249 , 252 rising sea levels, 568 spices and tea, 430 , 436 successful civilizations of, 194–6 volcanic ash, 348 water supply, 568 See also specifi c cultures and dynasties

chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 546 chlorofl uorocarbons (CFCs), 545–6 ,

549 , 554 chocolate, 436 , 464 Choga Mami. See Samarra cholera, 337 , 506 Christian, David, 263 Christianity, 346–7 , 361 , 426–7 Cimmerians, 304






Index 599

cities, 503–4 , 506–7 , 508 . See also urbanization ; specifi c cities

city governments, 506–7 city-states, 209 , 305 civilization stress, 220–4 Clark, Grahame, 85 Clark, Gregory, 377 , 455 Classical Antiquity

and Boserupian intensifi cation, 264 and climate change, 267 , 276–9 and disease, 267 , 280–1 ecologically robust situations, 266–7 economic intensifi cation, 264 effl orescence and crisis, 264–5 and empire building, 322–3 endogenous degradation model, 265–6 exogenous rough world model, 267 iron and coal, 284 Malthusian trap or Smithian

growth, 261–2 population, 269–70 as punctuated equilibrium, 285–7 Schumpeterian growth, 318 stagnation model of, 261–2 technological, governmental and economic

innovations, 284–5 , 321 See also Han dynasty, China ; Roman Empire

Classical Optimum, 323–4 , 325–7 , 335–9 , 347–9 , 355

clay seals, 201 , 281 Clean Air Act (U.S.), 544 climate and climate change

abrupt climate change, 79 , 194 , 103–4 , 190 , 211 , 233–4 , 267

evidence for, 2 , 546–8 , 564–5 historical data, 250 , 251 , 398 overview of human causes, 476–7 See also Anthropocene ; Archean/Paleo-

Proterozoic crisis ; atmospheric circulation ; atmospheric pressure systems ; B ø lling-Aller ø d ; Cenozoic Icehouse ; Early Holocene ; Icehouse-Greenhouse cycles ; Late Holocene ; Mid-Holocene Transition ; Neoproterozoic crisis ; Oligocene epoch ; Pleistocene epoch ; Pliocene epoch ; snowball earth events ; Younger Dryas

climate change deniers, 571 climate change pessimists, 571–2 climate change pragmatists, 572–4 climate science, 134–5 clover, 462

CO 2 . See carbon dioxide coal production and use

and acid rain, 544 in China, 367 CO 2 emissions from burning, 478 , 495 coal deposits, 48 coke, 483 , 488 consumption, historical, 409 demand for, 466 during Early Modern period, 416 English tax policy, 466 environmental impact of, 524 , 543 , 544 and industrial emissions, 495 , 526 during Industrial Revolution, 484 , 492–3 during Little Ice Age, 460–1 post World War II use, 535 and science, 466 and urbanization, 504 U.S. usage, 522

cocoa, 497 cocoliztli fevers, 432 , 440 , 441 coffee trade, 436 , 464 , 497 coffeehouses, 437 , 464 Cohen, Mark Nathan, 140 Cohn, Samuel, 425 coke, 483 , 488 Collard, Mark, 88 collective identity, 199 colonizers. See human dispersal Columbia (or Nuna), 41 , 44 Columbus, Christopher, 430 , 435 commercialization model of Medieval

economy, 372–3 , 374 communal violence, 144 communications, 510 , 539 communism, 507 , 520 , 535 Compton, Samuel, 484 computers, 482 , 539 concurbita squash, 152 Congo, 570 conservation movement, U.S., 508 Constantinople, 419 constitutional monarchy, 465 consumer products, demand for, 453 ,

479–80 , 481–2 , 487 , 511 , 512 , 534 continental drift, 27 Coolidge, Frederick, 88 Coppen, Yves, 64 copper, 199 , 305 , 309 , 311 coral reefs, 565 core drilling. See ice cores Corn Laws (England), 486 , 489 ,

505 , 507






Index600

corn/maize and Amerindians, 434 and corn-syrup, 540 domestication of, 129 , 152–3 during Neolithic Demographic Transition,

239–40 globalization of, 435 , 472 Maiz de Ocho variety, 365 in Mesoamerica, 310 in Peru, 308 slash-and-burn agriculture, 156

cornucopianism, 560 , 571 Corrupting Sea, The (Horden and

Purcell), 274 Cort, Henry, 484 , 489 Cort é s, Hern á n, 430 , 439 cosmic rays, 53 , 176 cottage industries, 484 , 486 cotton agriculture, 497 Cotton Pre-Ceramic culture, 183 , 308 Court Jester hypothesis, 30–1 , 54 , 58 .

See also bottlenecks, evolutionary Cox, Allan, 27 Crafts, Nicholas, 452 , 484 creative destruction. See Schumpeterian

growth Cretaceous period, 47 Crete, 158 , 198 , 290 , 297 , 304 , 315 Crick, Francis, 4 , 26 crisis mortality

of cities, 503 and demand for consumer products, 480 and disease, 100–1 , 241 and eccentricity-driven megadroughts, 101 fi rst order, 456 during Little Ice Age and Early Modern

period, 455–6 mitigated by language development, 108 mortality and fertility rates, 228–9 in New World, 431–4 during Paleolithic, 99–101 , 269 and predictability of controlled food

production, 219–20 second order, 456 and social hierarchy, 234–5 of World War I, 518 See also bubonic plague/Black Death ; food

shortages and famines Cronon, William, 505 crop failures, 276 , 458 , 489–90 , 494 .

See also food shortages and famines

Crystal Palace Exhibition, England, 494

cultivation of plants. See agriculture ; horticulture ; specifi c plants or places

cultural ecology, 99–101 culture and technology, 97 , 104–5 , 287 currents, ocean. See oceans and currents Cuyahoga River, OH, 543 cyclones, 566 Cyprian’s Plague, 343 , 344 Cyprus, 158 , 304

D” layer, 39 , 52 Dalton Minimum, 469 , 471 , 486 Dansgaard-Oeschger events (D-O cycles),

102–3 , 130 , 141–2 Danube River Valley, 160 Darby, Abraham, 483 , 488 Dark Ages, 271–2 , 323–4 , 336 , 347 , 350–8 ,

360–2 , 440–1 . See also Medieval era Darwin, Charles, 3–4 , 26 , 29 date palm orchards, 202 Davis, Mike, 472 , 498 Davis, Robert C., 422 Dawkins, Richard, 30 DDT usage, 531 , 544 de Vries, Jan, 417 Dead Sea (Israel), 82 , 302 Deep Horizon oil-well rupture, BP, 562 deforestation, 196 , 477 , 478 , 563 , 565 , 568 .

See also land clearance degenerative diseases, 426 demand for consumer products, 480 , 481–2 ,

487 , 511 , 512 , 534 demography

demographic convergence, 532 , 542–3 Demographic Revolution, 470 ,

513–18 , 530–3 and economy, 411 See also crisis mortality ; epidemiological

transitions ; fertility ; mortality ; Neolithic Demographic Transition (NDT) ; population

dendrochronological data. See tree-ring temperature estimates

dengue fever, 432 , 567 Denisovans, 96 Denmark, 313 , 335 , 361 , 389–90 Dennett, Daniel, 30 dental structure, 65 deserts, 123 . See also Sahara desert developed world. See First World ; less

developed world ; Second World Devonian period, 45 , 48 , 49 DeWitte, Sharon, 390






Index 601

diabetes, 540 , 563 Diamond, Jared, 8 , 126 , 266 diesel, 510 diet and nutrition

of Amerindians, 433 , 434 chemical signature in bones, 135–6 and corn-syrup, 540 of Homo habilis, 73 in Medieval Europe, 378 in Roman Empire, 333

dinosaurs, 27–8 , 48 disease

childhood diseases, 234 , 241 , 280 , 426 , 515

and climate change, 233–4 , 241–2 , 388–9 , 396

and crisis mortality, 100–1 and decline of the Roman Empire, 343–9 disease confl uences, 280 , 298–9 , 337 , 343 ,

346 , 348–9 , 391–2 domestication of, 279 epidemics, 279–81 , 298–9 , 343–9 epidemiological transitions, 410 , 416 fi rst contact diseases, 431–4 future threat of, 566 globalization of, 545 , 563 and human agency, 2–3 and human dispersal, 214–15 innovation and research, 516 and mice, 348 of Natufi an peoples, 233–4 origins of, 122–3 , 241–2 of PPNB peoples, 233–4 and sustainability of society, 267 and trade, 280 , 298–9 , 337 , 343 , 348–9 and war, 280 , 346 , 391–2 zoonotic diseases, 221–3

dispersal. See human dispersal Disunity era, China, 357 DNA, 26 , 33–4 , 84 , 87 , 90 , 91–2 Dobyns, Henry, 433 dogs, 141 , 151 domestic architecture

and climate change, 304 , 315 conical houses of Halaf, 201 and electricity, 522 of Hassuna and Samarra, 200–1 during Little Ice Age and Early Modern

period, 459–60 long-houses, 160 of Natufi an and PPNB, 199–200 rectangular houses, 148 round huts, 145 , 147

domestic goods. See consumer products domestication of animals, 122–3 , 149–50 ,

156 , 214 , 221–3 , 287 . See also specifi c animals or places

domestication of plants, 10 , 129 , 135–6 , 144–53 , 287 . See also specifi c plants or places

Dongge Cave sediment, China, 382 donkeys, 192 , 202–3 Dorians, 303 droughts

during Bronze Age Crisis, 292–5 during Dark Ages, 354–6 and emergence of Goths and Huns, 348 during First Great Interruption, 556 during Industrial Revolution, 488 and La Ni ñ a, 170 , 175 , 182 , 308 , 344 ,

358 , 365 during Little Ice Age, 444 , 445–6 , 448 ,

449 , 471 during Medieval Climate Anomaly,

363–7 , 369 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 184 , 211 and migration, 303–4 and rise of Arab Islam, 364 and rise of the state, 190 secondary products revolution, 201 , 207 since during Industrial Revolution, 498 world-wide effects of climate change, 568 See also eccentricity-driven megadroughts ;

megadroughts ; specifi c countries, cultures, or regions

Duffy negativity, 215 dust layers, 70 , 75 , 77 , 196 , 292 Dutch. See Netherlands Dyer, Christopher, 378

Early Bronze Age, 184 , 195 , 223 , 239 , 289 , 293 , 292–3 , 476 . See also Bronze Age

Early Holocene climates about, 133 , 147 , 152–3 , 166 , 172–4 ,

175 , 279 in the Americas, 112 in China, 116 , 195 and disease, 222 ecological impact of, 137–8 and emergence of agriculture, 156 ending of, 155 , 276 , 277 and ENSO, 182 historical data, 116 in the Levant, 230–1 and population, 158 in South Asia and East Asia, 114






Index602

in Southwest Asia and Northern Africa, 113

Early Horizon, Peru, 309 Early Intermediate, Peru, 310 , 327 , 354 Early Modern period

and bubonic plague, 423–9 and empire building, 430–1 growth and divergence, 417–22 and the Little Ice Age, 438–44 and militarized states, 418–19 overview of, 416–17 population, 414–16 terminology of, 413

Early Neolithic China, 150 earth (planet)

and evolution of life, 18 , 25 , 37–8 gradualist model of history and

evolution, 26 magnetic fi eld, 35 , 52 , 566 origins of, 37–8 punctuated equilibrium model of history

and evolution, 6–8 , 26 , 29–34 See also climate and climate change ; orbital

cycles ; solar cycles ; tectonics Earth Day, 544 earthquakes, 300 , 520 , 566 earth-systems approach, 27 , 28 East Africa, 59–60 , 71 , 79 , 82–3 East Asia, 114 , 186 , 223 , 480 , 539 East Asian Monsoon, 150 , 179 , 186 , 295 East Smithfi eld Plague cemetery, London,

379 , 385 , 389 Eastern Europe, 537 , 541 , 542 eccentricity. See orbital cycles eccentricity-driven megadroughts, 59–60 ,

70–2 , 75 , 79 , 82–3 , 86–7 , 101 ecological circumscription, 139 , 143 , 188–90 ,

195 , 205–6 , 207–9 , 210 economic growth

2008 global crisis, 540 , 542 during Dark Ages, 362 during Early Modern period, 437–8 ,

453–4 , 464–5 effl orescences of (premodern)

about, 264 , 285 , 317 after technological and organizational

innovation, 269 , 281 , 284 during Bronze and Iron Ages, 317–18 during Classical Antiquity and Medieval

era, 264–5 , 414 and ecological resilience, 267

during Little Ice Age, 452–3 and electrical consumption, 560–1 global economic dysfunction, 536 and industrial emissions, 501 during Industrial Revolution, 480 ,

484–5 , 521–4 inequities of, 480 , 539–40 , 542 linked with government and technological

development, 509 , 523 , 538 long waves model of economic swings, 482 during Medieval Europe, 372–8 parallels between Asian and European,

417–19 , 420–1 post World War II, 534–43 and protectionist economic policies, 535–6 of Roman Empire, 329–35 See also Schumpeterian growth ; Smithian

growth ; super-cycles of modern economic growth

economy, world, 328 , 411 , 523 ecosystems, defi nition of, 123 Ecuador, 152 , 153 , 182 Edison, Thomas, 511 education and literacy, 531 Eemian interglacial [MIS 5], 91 , 92 , 106 ,

124 , 126 effective population size, 97–9 Egypt

and Antonine Plague, 344 and Bronze Age kingdoms, 289 and bubonic plague, 428 early human settlements, 143 health in Bronze and Iron Ages, 312 , 313 Intermediate Periods, 292 , 297 kings, 185 , 304–5 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 363–4 during Preclassical Crisis, 299 , 303 and rise of the state, 185 , 189 , 190 successful civilizations of, 194–5 urban populations, 241 See also Classical Antiquity ; West Nile period

Ehrlich, Paul, 560 , 571 El Chichon volcano, Mexico, 382 El Ni ñ o pattern

during Anthropocene era, 555–8 and Bronze Age Crisis, 294 and climate change, 564 during Dark Ages, 351–4 and increased emissions, 498 during Industrial Revolution, 488 during Little Ice Age, 383 , 439 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 155 , 157

Early Holocene climates (cont.)






Index 603

during Pleistocene, 171 and Polynesian colonizers, 162 during Preclassical Crisis, 301 , 307 , 309 and rise of the state, 183–4 and Siberian Highs, 278

El Ni ñ o/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) about, 169–71 during Anthropocene Epoch, 469 and climate change, 498 , 564 during Dark Ages, 351–4 and glaciation, 171 historical data, 253 Indo-Pacifi c and Atlantic tropics, 306–12 during Late Holocene, 276–7 during Little Ice Age, 371–2 , 439 , 471 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 364–7 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 174–5 ,

182 , 211 and South American Monsoon, 173

Elamo-Dravidian languages, 161–2 Eldridge, Niles, 6 , 29–34 , 391 .

See also punctuated equilibrium electricity, consumption and production

and economic waves, 482 effi ciency gains, 537–8 electric lighting, 510 , 513 electric motors, 512 “electrical revolution,” 522 hydro-electricity, 523 innovation and research, 509–10 post World War II, 535 , 537 and Second Industrial

Revolution, 481 in the tropics, 560–1

elements, sorting of, 37 Elizabeth I (England), 463 Ellenbaum, Ronnie, 364 Eller, Elise, 98 emergence (evolutionary)

Gould and, 32–3 and heat shock proteins, 43 vs. natural selection, 31–2 and punctuational stress, 60 , 104 See also punctuated equilibrium model

emigration, 463 , 490 emissions, industrial

and climate change, 545–52 and coal, 495 , 544 during First Great Super-Cycle, 524–8 early Industrial Age, 553 and economic growth, 501 historical data, 402 , 403

overview of, 524–8 post World War II, 556 reduction of, 576–8 during Second Great Super-Cycle, 554 during Third Great Super-Cycle, 555 world emissions, 407 See also carbon dioxide ; methane ; sulfur

dioxide empire building

during Bronze Age, 290 during Classical Antiquity, 322–3 during Classical Optimum, 326 during Early Modern period,

418–19 , 430–1 and economic waves, 482 and global markets, 497 and rise of manufacturing, 487–8 stages of, 422 and transition to modernity, 10 See also specifi c countries

enclosure movement, 454 , 461 endogenous model, 8 , 265–6 , 268 , 272–5 energy

annual biomass, 416 benefi ts of technological innovations, 265 effi ciency, 282–3 , 550 energy capture of food, 124 , 129 energy supplies and post World War II

economic growth, 535 globalization of food, 435 historical data, 400 impact of cattle and milk, 237–8 post World War II consumption of,

541 , 550–1 prime and second-order sources of, 37 role in natural species and ecosystems,

123–30 and rotary power, 284 Second Industrial Revolution

consumption, 512 shift from animal to mechanical, 513 slavery, 285 solar and wind, 574 urban energy defi cit, 490–3 use of animal power, 192 world consumption, 406 See also coal ; First Industrial Revolution ;

natural gas ; nuclear technology ; oil energy revolutions, 194 .

See also domestication of animals ; domestication of plants ; state and state institutions






Index604

Engels, Friedrich, 5 , 507 England

Bank of England, 465 Board of Trade, 465 and bubonic plague, 379 , 425 , 454–7 coal burning, 478 , 524 , 543 during Early Modern period, 423 , 453–4 economic growth, 421 , 453–4 empire building, 422 , 430 , 451–2 , 464–5 Glorious Revolution (1688), 450 , 465 height, 491 Hundred Years War, 423 during Industrial Revolution, 488 and the Industrial Revolution, 480 ,

481 , 483–4 during Little Ice Age, 450 , 452–3 , 459–66 and Malthusian crisis, 499 markets during Early Modern period, 464–5 New World settlements, 432 political crises, 450 , 465 Poor Laws (1601), 457 , 507 population, 423 , 453 , 454–7 , 488 Royal Society, 466 tax policy for coal, 466 temperatures, historical data, 547 textile industry, 488 Wars of the Roses, 423 See also British Isles ; Great Britain ; United

Kingdom English Agricultural Revolution, 461–2 enhanced working memory, 88 ENSO. See El Ni ñ o/Southern Oscillation environmental hazards and impacts, 501–2 ,

524–8 , 543–6 , 562 . See also emissions, industrial ; greenhouse gases ; radioactive waste

environmental movements, 508 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 544 environmental punctuation. See punctuated

equilibrium Eocene epoch, 57 epidemics

during Bronze Age, 298–9 , 314–15 cattle, 384 , 388 dynamics of, 279–81 fi rst contact diseases, 431–4 during Industrial Revolution, 488 during Iron Age, 314–15 during Little Ice Age, 370 , 454–7 and pandemic-driven cooling

theory, 440–2 during Roman Empire, 343–9 Spanish Infl uenza, 518–19

See also specifi c diseases epidemiological transitions

and bubonic plague, 424–5 , 514 during Early Modern period, 416 , 456–7 historical, 410 and human agency, 2–3 during Industrial Revolution, 485 during the Neolithic, 220–4 smallpox, 515 stages of, 414 , 426 , 514–15

epigenetics, 32–3 , 219–20 . See also emergence (evolutionary)

Epipaleolithic period (Southwest Asia). See Mesolithic period

Epstein, Stephen, 418 equatorial seaways, 47–8 , 58 , 67 , 69 equinoxes, precession of, 68 Eritrea (Red Sea), 92 Erlitou, China, 186 , 308 . See also Xia

state, China escalations. See evolution Essay on the Principles of Population

(Malthus), 475 Ethiopia, 302 Etruscans, 303 eukaryote cells, 28 , 33–4 , 38 , 40 Eurasia, 82–3 , 94 , 138–9 , 152 , 447 Europe

during Bronze Age, 312–13 and the bubonic plague, 423–9 coal production and use, 544 during Dark Ages, 360–1 demand for domestic goods, 464–5 demand for U.S. grain, 505 during Early Modern period, 417–19 ,

437–8 Eastern Europe, 537 , 541 , 542 economic growth, 417–19 , 421 , 534 electricity and automobiles, 522–3 emergence of, 419–20 empire building, 419 , 437–8 energy consumption, 541 fi nancial regulations, 521 food shortages and famines, 276 , 375 ,

379 , 458–9 foods from the New World, 435–6 health, 312–13 , 378–80 , 449–50 heat waves, 568 height, 335–9 , 360–1 , 378–80 industrial emissions, 526–7 during Industrial Revolution, 480 , 494–5 during Iron Age, 312–13 and lactose intolerance, 223






Index 605

during Little Ice Age, 372–80 , 449–50 , 458–9

during Medieval era, 378–80 mortality rates, 515–16 mountain building, 58 multiregional evolution, 83–4 population

Anthropocene Epoch, 470 B ø lling-Aller ø d interval, 137 Classical Antiquity, 323 Dark Ages, 353 , 362 Early Modern, 415 , 436 Little Ice Age, 372 , 470 Paleolithic period, 137 Roman Empire, 333

spread of agriculture, 160 and spread of the wheel and plow, 208–9 spread zones, 238–9 trade with Asia, 429–30 See also Upper Paleolithic ; specifi c

countries, empires, and eras Eve, mitochondrial, 87 .

See also mitochondrial DNA evolution

biological, 27 , 33 emergence vs. natural selection, 31–2 escalations of, 44 , 49 of life, 25 and punctuated equilibrium, 29–34 , 105 saltation, 32–3 See also emergence (evolutionary) ;

hominins ; human evolution exogenous model

about, 8–9 during Classical Antiquity and Medieval

era, 267 and collapse of civilizations, 391 and end of the during Middle Ages, 380–1 mediated by war, 391–2 not an actor in China’s population

crisis, 473–4 and world-systems model, 268 See also climate and climate change ; disease

exploration, voyages of, 422 , 429–30 , 445 extinctions

after major geologic events, 6 after rifting and subsidence, 51 of dinosaurs, 27–8 of human societies, 97 Jurassic period, 49 mass extinctions, 49–52 megafauna, 138–9 mitigated by language development, 108

recolonization model, 98–101 and sea level changes, 51 supercontinent cycles, 44 , 49–52 and superplumes, 51–3 See also impactor theory

extraterrestrial impacts, 26

family units, 199 , 200–1 , 234 , 361 famine. See food shortages and famines Federal Reserve (United States), 521 Ferdinand and Isabella (Spain), 424 Ferrell Cells. See atmospheric circulation Fertile Crescent, 126 , 141–2 , 158 , 159–61 .

See also Southwest Asia fertility

and Demographic Revolution, 516–17 during Industrial Revolution, 486 and intensive agriculture, 237 during Neolithic, 218–20 , 225–41 during Paleolithic, 218–20 post World War II, 531–2 See also birth-control ; Neolithic

Demographic Transition (NDT) ; population ; specifi c countries or cultures

fertilizers and pesticides, 533 , 544 , 562 Findley, David, 375 Finland, 220 Finley, Moses, 329 fi re, 76 , 80 , 483 , 506 First Industrial Revolution, 479 , 481 ,

483–95 , 502 , 543–6 First World

and climate change, 551–2 , 566–7 economic growth, 534 genocide against global south, 570 population, 530 and responsibility for environmental

mitigation, 543–4 Flannery, Kent, 140 , 188 fl eas, 385 , 458 fl ints, 135 , 291 , 305 fl ood basalts, 46 , 47 , 52 , 58 .

See also superplumes fl oods

during Anthropocene Epoch, 557 during Bronze Age Crisis, 295 destruction of natural water control

systems, 562 during Little Ice Age, 384 during Preclassical Crisis, 324 and rise of the state, 186 , 190 in Roman Empire, 341






Index606

secondary products revolution, 206–7 during West Nile period, 140–1 See also specifi c countries

fl y ash, 525 Fogel, Robert, 269 folate regulation, 215 food intolerances, origins of, 223–4 food production, 124–5 , 219–20 .

See also agriculture ; domestication of animals ; domestication of plants

food shortages and famines during Bronze Age, 309 during Dark Ages, 271 and fertility, 220 and global depression, 542 and the Green Revolution, 532 during Industrial Revolution, 489–90 during Little Ice Age, 381 , 384 , 388 , 445–6 during Medieval era, 276 , 375 , 379 mitigation by political institutions,

281–2 , 425 and smaller phenotypical size, 101 World Wars I and II, 519 See also specifi c countries or cultures

foraging societies, 129 , 139 , 163 , 227–8 Ford, Henry, 511 , 512 Ford Foundation, 573 forests, 48 , 123 , 139 . See also deforestation ;

land clearance Formative period

Early Formative, 239 , 310 Late Formative, 327

fossil fuels, 5 , 10 , 477 , 549 , 551 , 561 . See also carbon dioxide ; coal ; natural gas ; oil ; petroleum

fossil record, 29 , 60–1 , 65–6 , 72–3 , 79 , 89–90 founder crops. See barley ; corn/maize ; millet ;

rice ; wheat Four Asian Tigers. See Hong Kong ;

Singapore ; South Korea ; Taiwan France

bubonic plague, 425 colonization of, 160 Cyprian’s Plague, 344 fertility, 516 fl oods, 341 GDP, 511 and the Hundred Years War, 423 and the Industrial Revolution, 481 , 494–5 mortality rates, 516 nuclear power, 535

population, 423 , 504 and public welfare, 520 See also World Wars I and II

Frank, Andre G., 421 Franklin, Benjamin, 3 , 475 Franklin, Rosalind, 26 French Revolution, 471 fuel crisis, 367–8 , 460 Fukushima nuclear facility, Japan, 560 , 562 fungi, 42

Gaia-earth systems hypothesis, 26 , 28 , 35 , 40 . See also Lovelock, James

garbage and sewage disposal, 506 , 513 , 562 Garnsey, Peter, 330 gasoline, 510 , 544 . See also petroleum GDP (Gross Domestic Product), 474 , 484 ,

511 , 540–1 , 577 . See also economic growth

genetics and domestication of plants, 136 genetic assimilation, 95–6 and language skills, 88–9 mitochondrial DNA, 84 , 87 , 90 , 91–2 population expansion, 136 shared African genetics, 96 and single-point migration, 90 and wave of diffusion (hybridization

account), 98 Y-chromosome, 87 , 90 , 91–2 See also epigenetics ; human evolution

Genghis Khan, 369 geo-engineering interventions, 574 geographical isolation. See allopatric

selection geomagnetic fi eld, 35 , 566 geosphere, 28 , 38–42 Germany

economic leadership, 480 foods from the New World, 435 GDP, 511 industrial emissions, 527 and the Industrial Revolution, 494–5 innovation and research, 510 Keynesian economics, 521 military-industrial complex, 538 mortality rates, 516 and public welfare, 520 and the Thirty Year’s War, 449 urban population, 504 See also Prussia ; World Wars I and II

Gibbon, Edward, 339

fl oods (cont.)






Index 607

Gilgamesh Epic, 211–12 glaciation

41K year eccentricity cycle, 70–2 100K year eccentricity cycle, 77–9 and agriculture, 125 Antarctic, 62 and cosmic rays, 53 and crisis mortality, 101 eccentricity-driven megadroughts, 70–2 ,

77–9 , 82–3 , 86–7 , 101–3 and ENSO, 171 and human evolution, 59 , 62–3 interruption of cycle, 546 on Kenorland, 40 melting of, 564 , 568 during Neoproterozoic era, 42 North Atlantic continental, 69 orbital theory of, 67 during Pleistocene, 130–1 during Pliocene epoch, 67 polar, 68 during Preclassical Crisis, 309 , 324 and synthesizing vitamin D, 216 See also Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) ;

oxygen isotopes global warming. See climate and climate

change ; emissions, industrial globalization

of disease, 545 , 563 erosion of biotic complexity, 563 of food, 435–7 , 476 global economy, 468 , 497 See also economic growth

Glorious Revolution of 1688 (England), 465 glutin intolerance, 223 GNP (Gross National Product), 500–1 , 504 goats, 147 , 149 , 192 Gobelki Tepe temple, Anatolia, 148 Godzilla, 544 gold, 309 Golden Horde (Mongols), 387 , 388 Goldschmidt, Richard, 27 Goldstone, Jack, 255–65 ,

267 , 317–18 , 450–51 Gondwanaland, 49 Goody, Jack, 193 Gopher, Avi, 231 Gore, Al, 546 gorillas, 64 Goths, 347 , 348 Gould, Stephen Jay, 6 , 29–34 , 391 .

See also punctuated equilibrium

gradualist model of history about, 26 and China’s population, 370 and decline of the Roman Empire, 339–47 and economic growth during Industrial

Revolution, 484–5 , 521–4 and England Little Ice Age, 452–3 Malthus and Darwin, 4 and rise and fall of civilizations, 391

grain, demand for, 505 Grand Canal, China, 418 , 446 grasslands. See steppe/grasslands Great Britain

during Early Modern period, 437–8 , 475 empire building, 437–8 environmental mitigation, 543 GDP, 511 during Industrial Revolution, 485 investment in steam power, 511 mortality and fertility, 516 , 517 mortality rate, 515 , 516 population, 475 , 485 and public welfare, 520 See also British Isles ; England ; United

Kingdom ; World Wars I and II Great Depression, 520 , 523 , 527 Great Famine, 375 , 384 “great interruptions,” “great expansions.”

See super-cycles of modern economic growth

Great Oxidization Event, 40 Great Wall, China, 326 , 418 , 445 Greece, 160 , 312 , 322 , 329 . See also Classical

Antiquity Green Revolution, 532 , 560 , 562 Greene, Kevin, 321 Greenhouse. See Icehouse-Greenhouse cycles greenhouse gases and greenhouse effect,

38 , 42 , 68 , 477 , 501 , 548 , 554 , 573–4 , 576 . See also carbon dioxide ; chlorofl ourcarbons ; Icehouse-Greenhouse cycles ; methane ; nitrous oxide ; ozone

Greenland, 359 , 384 grinding implements, 135 , 150 Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 474 , 484 ,

511 , 540–1 , 577 . See also economic growth

Gross National Product (GNP), 500–1 , 504 groundnuts, 311 Grove, A.T., 274 guinea pigs, 153






Index608

Gulf of Mexico, 562 Gulf Stream, 169 , 359 , 382 Gupta Empire, India, 353 Guttians, 293

habitat tracking, 124 Habsburg Empire, 419 Hadean eon, 37 Hadley Cells. See atmospheric circulation hairlessness, 215 Hakluyts, Richard, Sr. and Jr., 463 Halaf culture, 198 , 201–4 , 234 , 235–8 Hallam, Anthony, 51 Hallam-Wignall supercontinent-hiccup

theory, 51 Hallstatt solar minima

about, 115 , 154 , 176 , 177 , 277–8 effects obscured during warm Early

Holocene, 177 future, 566 Little Ice Age, 277–8 , 324 , 382 , 414 ,

416 , 447 Mid-Holocene, 180 , 248 , 277–8 , 301 , 382 Preclassical, 248 , 277–8 , 288 , 301 , 307 ,

323 , 324 , 382 , 413 , 415 , 439 See also Little Ice Age ; Mid-Holocene

Transition ; Preclassical Crisis ; Siberian Highs ; solar cycles

halocarbons, 477 Han dynasty, China, 309 , 319 , 322 , 326 ,

335 , 357 Han language, 162 Hansen, James, 549 , 578 Hapsburg Empire, 449 Harappan culture, 185 , 190 , 296 , 307 , 313 Hargreaves, James, 484 Harlan, Jack, 152 Harley, Knick, 452 , 484 Harris lines. See teeth as health indicators Hassuna Tell, 197–201 , 234 , 235–8 Hatcher, John, 378 Hawaii, 162 , 188 Hayami, Akira, 417 hazardous wastes, 544 , 545 , 562 .

See also industrial wastes health, human

during Bronze Age, 312–16 during Classical Optimum, 335–9 during Dark Ages, 360–2 and education and literacy, 531 general environmental crisis of cities,

504 , 506–7 impact of poverty, 219–20 during Industrial Revolution, 485 , 491

during Iron Age, 312–16 during Little Ice Age, 449–50 , 454–7 during Medieval era, 378–80 during Natufi an period, 230 during Neolithic, 220–4 , 238 , 240–1 during Paleolithic, 99–101 , 213–16 , 229 and societal prosperity, 2 See also environmental hazards ; height,

human ; public health programs ; specifi c countries

hearth-based industries. See cottage industries

hearths of agriculture. See China ; Fertile Crescent ; Mesoamerica ; Sahel

heat shock proteins (HSP), 33–4 , 43 . See also emergence ; epigenetics

heat waves, 567 Heather, Peter, 340 Hebrews, 297 , 298 . See also Israelite

communities height, human

during Classical Antiquity, 335–9 during Dark Ages, 360–1 and health, 221 , 314–15 historical data, 117 , 254 , 400 during Industrial Revolution, 491 during Iron Age, 314–15 during Medieval era, 378–80 during Mesolithic, 221 during Neolithic, 221 during Paleolithic, 216 , 221 and standards of living, 458 and urbanization, 401 See also health, human ; specifi c countries

Heinrich events, 102 , 103 , 130 Hekla (volcano), Iceland, 302 Henry VII (England), 424 Henry VIII (England), 457 herbivores, 138–9 herding economy, 156 Herlihy, David, 376 , 454 Herodotus, 303 Hershkovitz, Israel, 231 Herto (Ethiopia), 87 Hess, Harry, 26 Hierakonopolis, Egypt, 241 hierarchical mode of society.

See stratifi cation, social High Andes, 153 Himalayas, 58 , 63 , 66 Hindu kingdoms, 371 Hinduism, 311 historical crises and optimums, 278–9 Hitler, Adolf, 471 , 519






Index 609

Hittite kingdom, 290 , 297 , 298 HIV/AIDS, 532 , 537 , 545 , 563 Hoffman, Paul, 43 Hole, Frank, 207 Holland. See Netherlands Holmes, Arthur, 26 Holocaust, 519 Holocene epoch

and climate change, 6 , 102 , 112 , 116 , 555–8 and the ITCZ, 172–4 and modern interglacial, 172 and origins of agriculture, 121 , 126 , 150 population, 216–20 and tropical domestications, 152–3 See also Early Holocene climates ; Late

Holocene climates ; Mid-Holocene Transition

Holocene Optimum/Holocene Megathermal. See Early Holocene climates ; Late Holocene climates

Homer, 299 Homeric minimum, 301 , 324 hominins, 64 , 65–6 , 69 , 71 Homo antecessor, 80 , 81 , 82 , 95–6 Homo erectus, 74 , 75–6 , 79 , 83 , 95–6 , 215 Homo fl oresiensis, 76 Homo habilis, 59 , 72–4 Homo heidelbergensis, 80–1 , 82–3 , 86 , 95–6 Homo neanderthalensis, 83 , 94 , 95–6 , 103 Homo sapiens, 79 , 83–104 Hong Kong, 536 , 540 Hongshan culture (Neolithic), China, 186 Hooke, Robert, 466 Hopewell culture, North America, 310 Hopkins, Keith, 330 , 334 Horden, Peregrine, 274 Horn of Africa, 90 , 92 horses, 192 , 282 , 319 , 373 , 377 , 442 , 492 horticulture, 122–3 , 140–3 , 163 , 227–8 .

See also agriculture houses. See domestic architecture Howiesons Poort, South Africa, 107–8 Huari culture, Peru, 354 Hubbert, M. King, 537 Hughes, Donald, 273 Hughes, Thomas, 488 Huguang Maar lake, China, 357 Huleh Lake, Israel, 146 , 149 , 159 , 196 human agency, 3 human dispersal

to the Americas, 94 to Arabia, 90 , 92 , 94–5 to Australia, 93 and climate change, 90–1

emigration, 463 , 490 to Eurasia, 94 and evolutionary bottlenecks, 90 and exposure to disease, 214–15 of Homo antecessor, 95–6 of Homo erectus, 95–6 to Horn of Africa, 90 , 92 and human physiology, 215 immigration, 505 , 516–17 to Indian subcontinent, 93 , 94–5 Late Natufi an period, 147 to the Levant, 92–3 , 107 and megadroughts, 78 , 87 , 91 during Middle Stone Age, 92–3 migration, 90 , 303–4 , 310 , 569 and mitochondrial DNA, 90 , 91–2 multiple dispersal model, 89–90 northward dispersal, 82–3 , 90 to Oceana, 94 out-of-Africa, 89–96 to Persian Gulf, 92 , 94–5 Recent African origins hypothesis, 83–104 single-point migration, 90 to South Africa, 107–8 to South Asia, 90 , 93 to Southeast Asia, 90 , 93 and spread of agriculture, 157–62 and Y-chromosome, 90 , 91–2 See also human settlement

human evolution B ø lling-Aller ø d interval, 136–43 brain development, 72–3 , 87–9 driven by climate change, 7 , 58–60 , 62–3 fossil record of, 72–3 genetics research on, 61 , 87 and glaciation, 59 , 62–3 interglacial periods, 79 , 86–7 and mitochondrial DNA, 84 , 87 , 90 , 91–2 from Old World apes, 62–3 , 64 origins debate, 97–104 during Pleistocene, 10 , 22 , 140 during Pliocene, 10 and punctuational stress, 104 savannah hypothesis, 58–9 Y-chromosome, 87 , 90 , 91–2 See also emergence ; hominins ; Homo

species human genome, 61 human resilience, 7–8 human settlement, 143 . See also human

dispersal human stature. See height, human Hundred Years War, 423 , 455 Hungary, 517






Index610

Huns, 347 , 348 , 353 hunter-gatherers, 99–101 , 129 , 199 , 230 Hurrians, 297 hurricanes, 557 , 562 , 564 , 566 huts. See domestic architecture Hutton, James, 26 hydraulic fracturing, 561 , 562 hydro-electricity, 523 hyenas, 214 Hyskos, 297

ice cores, Greenland or Antarctic about, 61 CO 2 levels, 527 evidence of glaciation, 67 and Little Ice Age, 383 , 439 and Mid-Holocene Transition, 159 , 180 and pandemic-driven cooling theory, 440 and Pleistocene, 101–2 polar, 134 pollution from Roman Empire, 331–2 potassium, 177 and sulfate aerosols, 525 sulphur traces, 175

icebergs, 180 , 359 . See also ice-rafting Icehouse-Greenhouse cycles

Cenozoic, 56–7 and climate change, 20 , 56–7 and CO 2 , 57 , 68 and extinctions, 49 and human emergence, 55–7 Mesozoic Greenhouse, 57 and NPP, 123 overview, 6 Phanerozoic supercycles, 46–8

Iceland, 302 , 359 , 384 Iceman, the (Tyrolean), 180 ice-rafting

and decline of the Roman Empire, 341 during Bronze Age, 294 during Dark Ages, 323 , 325 , 351–4 and end of Classical Optimum, 347 during Holocene Crisis, 159 during Late Holocene, 277–8 during Little Ice Age, 439 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 358–60 during Mid-Holocene Transition,

158 , 176–7 during Preclassical Crisis, 301

Ilopango (volcano), El Salvador, 348 immigration, 505 , 516–17 impactor theory

about, 35 , 50

asteroids, 52 and D” layer, 39 and extinction, 27–8 extraterrestrial impacts, 26 Hadean bombardment, 37 periodicity of, 50 and second-order source of energy, 37 Sudbury and Vredfort meteor impacts, 41 during Younger Dryas impact, 138

Inca culture, 183 , 419 , 430 , 432 Inconvenient Truth, An (Gore), 546 India

2012 electricity blackout, 561 during Classical Antiquity, 322–3 droughts, 448 , 471 , 498 during Early Modern period, 415 economic growth and leadership, 480 , 536 famine, 257 , 448 , 519 and high-tech industrialization, 540 during Little Ice Age, 371 , 439 , 447–8 during Medieval Climate Anomaly,

353 , 362–3 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 185 population, 322–3 , 415 , 448 during Preclassical Crisis, 310 as source of epidemics, 343 textiles and textile industry, 488 water shortages, 533 See also Indian subcontinent

Indian Monsoon. See South Asian [Indian] Monsoon

Indian Ocean, 58 , 296 , 445 Indian subcontinent, 58 , 93 , 94–5 , 158 , 161 ,

189 . See also India ; specifi c cultures Indo-European languages, 161–2 Indonesia

Homo erectus, 75 , 76 Mt. Tambora eruption, 470–1 Mt. Toba eruption, 90 , 93 , 103 seaways, 58 , 69 tectonic uplift of, 67

Indus Valley, India, 185 , 189 , 190 industrial emissions. See emissions, industrial Industrial Revolution

about, 480–3 demand as driver for, 479–80 , 481–2 and economic waves, 482 environmental hazards and impacts,

502 , 524–8 in Europe, 494–5 food shortages, 489–90 impact of, 5 population growth, 488






Index 611

as Schumpeterian growth, 475 See also First Industrial Revolution ; Second

Industrial Revolution ; Third Industrial Revolution

industrial wastes, 544 , 545–6 industrialization, 409 , 501–2 , 504 industrious revolution, 417 , 472 , 474 , 475 infant mortality, 218 , 229 , 426 , 490 ,

515 , 531 infanticide, 472 , 474 infl uenza, 222 , 518–19 , 545 , 563 Inikori, Joseph, 487 Initial Neolithic (China), 150 Initial Period, Peru, 308 , 309 innovation and research. See research and

innovation insects, 545 , 563 insolation, 68 , 130–1 , 154 , 174–5 , 276 , 301 intensive agriculture, 228 , 234–5 , 237 interaction sphere, 148 , 153 interglacial periods

crisis mortality in East Africa, 101 and current global climate, 172 and eccentricity-driven megadrought, 78 Eemian interglacial, 91–3 , 96 , 107 ,

124 , 126 and human evolution, 79 , 86–7 northern dispersal of species, 82–3 , 90 See also Marine Isotope Stages (MIS)

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 348 , 550 , 575–7

internal combustion engine, 481 , 482 , 510 , 512

International Monetary Fund, 573 international trade, 464–5 , 487 .

See also trade and exchange internet, 539 Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

about, 166–7 during Anthropocene era, 555–8 during Dark Ages, 351–4 during Holocene, 134 , 150 , 172–4 Indo-Pacifi c and Atlantic tropics, 306–12 during Late Holocene, 276–7 during LGM, 130 , 132 during Little Ice Age, 439 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 358–60 during Mid-Holocene Transition,

155 , 174–5 during Preclassical Crisis, 301–2 and Siberian Highs, 278 and solar variations, 176–7 See also atmospheric circulation

Inuit culture, 567 invasive species, 545 , 563 , 565 inventions. See research and innovation IPCC. See Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change Iran, 158 , 312 , 364 , 536 Iraq, 364 , 569 Ireland, 223 , 292 , 302 , 435 , 463 , 489–90 , 494 iridium layer, 27 , 50–1 Iron Age

dating of, 283–4 emergence of, 304–6 health, 312–16 height, 337 population, 322–3 and rise of capitalism, 305–6 rise of the state, 10 Schumpeterian growth, 318 slavery, 285 technological developments, 321 See also specifi c countries or cultures

iron and iron defi ciencies, 216 , 221 iron and iron technologies

in China, 319 , 367 during Early Modern period, 420 , 455 emergence of, 304–5 and Indian migrations, 311 innovations, 488–9 in Medieval Europe, 373 as prime mover, 483 weapons and tools, 283–4 in West Africa, 311 wrought-iron, 481 , 488–9

irrigated agriculture, 185 , 201–4 , 284 , 291 , 308 , 309 , 320

Islam, 348 , 349 , 353–4 , 364 , 426 , 428 Israel, 82 , 302 , 536 , 569 Israelite communities, 299 , 314 .

See also Hebrews Issyk-Kul, Kyrgyzstan, 389 Italy

and bubonic plague, 424 Cyprian’s Plague, 344 during Classical Optimum, 325 drought, 364 during Early Modern period, 421 , 424 , 438 and economic waves, 482 fl oods, 341 height, 336 infant mortality and fertility, 517 Keynesian economics, 521 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 364 spread of agriculture, 160






Index612

urban population, 504 See also Classical Antiquity ; World Wars

I and II ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone).

See Intertropical Convergence Zone

James II (England), 465 James River, Virginia, 439 Japan

during Anthropocene Epoch, 470 during Classical Optimum, 326–7 during Dark Ages, 360 during Early Modern period, 415 , 427 economic growth, 480 , 534 , 535 , 536 empire building, 519 environmental mitigation, 544 fi nancial regulations, 521 food shortages and famines, 447 Fukushima and tsunami, 560 , 562 isolation, 427 Japanese language, 327 during Little Ice Age, 446–7 , 474 mortality, 518 population, 327 , 415 , 427 , 446 , 470 , 474 Tokagawa shogunate, 417 , 427 See also Jomon culture ; World Wars I and II

jaw muscles, 72 Jemdet Nasr period, Mesopotamia, 184 jet streams, 167 Jevons, William Stanley, 495 , 508 Jews, 426 , 519 . See also Hebrews ; Israelite

communities Jin dynasty, China, 357 Joachim of Fiore, 426 Jomon culture, Japan, 186 , 295 , 326–7 Jones, David, 433 Jones, Eric, 264 , 317 , 374 Jones, Richard, 322 , 344 Jongman, Willem, 333 , 344 Jordan, 569 Jordan, William, 379 Jurassic period, 47 , 49 Jurchen tribal nomads, 369 Justinian Plagues, 343 , 345–6 , 348–9 , 386

Kaffa, Siege of, 387 Kassites, 297 Katrina, Hurricane, 562 Kay, John, 483 Kebaran peoples, 141 , 149 Keckler, Charles, 100 Kenorland, 39 , 40 , 44

Kenyanthropus species, 65 , 72 Keynes, John Maynard, 521 Keynesian economics, 521 , 523–4 , 540 Keys, David, 348–9 Khmer culture, Cambodia, 363 , 371 Kilimanjaro, Mount, Kenya, 179 , 180 , 207 ,

292 , 302 kings and kingship, 185 , 211–12 , 288 , 291–2 ,

304–5 , 318 , 319 knowledge revolution. See Third Great

Super-Cycle Expansion Koch, Robert, 516 Koepke, Nikola, 378 Komlos, John, 375 Kondratiev, Nikolai, 5 , 482 , 501 Korolenko, Yevgraf, 26 K-T (Cretaceous-Tertiary) boundary, 27–8 ,

49 , 50–1 , 52 Kublai Khan, 370 !Kung bushmen, 100 Kyoto Protocol, 576

La Nada pattern, 170 La Ni ñ a pattern, 169–71 , 173 , 175 , 182 , 359 ,

363–7 , 564 , 567 . See also El Ni ñ o/Southern Oscillation

labor, 210 , 338–9 , 377 , 474 , 490–1 , 512 , 536 . See also peasants

lactose intolerance, 223–4 , 237 laissez faire economic policies, 507 Laki Craters, Iceland, 470 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste and

Lamarckianism, 32–3 land clearance

and albedo, 477 , 498 CO 2 emissions from, 478 , 487–8 , 495–7 ,

526 , 553 , 565 and population growth, 532 post World War II, 550 warming effects of, 477

land ownership, 428–9 land shortages, 561 language, 80 , 84–5 , 88–9 , 107 , 108 , 157–8 ,

161–2 . See also specifi c languages Larsen, Clark, 433 Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) [MIS

2], 130–1 Late Antiquity, 350 Late Bronze Age, 289 , 290–1 , 296–7 ,

298–304 , 314–15 , 322 , 444 . See also Bronze Age

Late Holocene climates, 116 , 155 , 166 , 182 , 211 , 276–9 , 296 , 306–12 , 478

Italy (cont.)






Index 613

Late Middle Ages, 413 Late Neolithic, 186 , 192–3 , 194–7 , 199–200 ,

203 , 206 , 229 , 234–41 Latin America, 497 , 532 , 533 , 536 .

See also specifi c countries or cultures Latvian plains, 313 Laurentine meltwater events, 133 , 154 , 159 ,

172 , 178 , 201 Law Dome, Antarctica. See ice cores,

Greenland or Antarctic lead, 339 , 544 Leakey family, 60 legal systems, 328 , 374 leprosy, 215 , 223 less developed world, 531 , 533 Levallois method tools [Mode 3], 85–6 Levant (Eastern Mediterranean)

communal violence, 144 cultivation of wild plants, 147–8 droughts, 196 , 449 human dispersal, 89–90 , 92–3 , 107 human settlement in, 143 Late PrePottery Neolithic B, 149–50 during Little Ice Age, 449 during Mid-Holocene Transition,

178 , 181 origins of agriculture, 122 plant food collection, 141–2 during Preclassical Crisis, 299 PrePottery Neolithic A settlements, 147–8 soil erosion following societal

collapse, 274 during Younger Dryas, 145

Lewis, M.J.T., 339 Liangzhu culture (Neolithic), China, 186 Libyans, 303 lice, 215 Lieberman, Victor, 263 , 350 , 419 life, evolution of, 18 , 25 , 28 , 37–8 .

See also extinction life expectancy, 506 , 517 , 531 lifespan. See mortality Limits to Growth (Club of Rome), 560 Linear-Band-Keramik (LBK) (Neolithic),

160 , 223 lions, 214 literacy, 531 Little Ice Age

about, 324 , 370–2 atmospheric greenhouse gas levels during,

467 , 469 , 477 and bubonic plague, 258 , 388–9 ,

457–8

climate of, 250 , 251 , 252 , 277–8 , 369–72 , 380–4 , 415–16 , 439–40

climatic stages of (Proto, I, II), 370 , 383–4 , 396 , 438–9 , 442–3

and Early Modern period, 415–16 , 438–44 end of, 468–9 , 471 and English Energy Revolution, 459–66 and epidemic drawdown greenhouse thesis

(Ruddiman), 396 , 440–2 impact of, 10 , 347–9 , 442–3 , 444 , 446 ,

447 , 449 , 451 , 458 as millennial Siberian Highs/Hallstatt

Epoch, 278–9 , 316 , 324 , 381–2 , 416 , 439 , 444 , 447 , 470 , 555

political crises, 450 population, 270–1 , 415–16 as Schumpterian creative

destruction, 380 and slave trade, 442–3 transition from Medieval Climate

Anomaly, 366–7 , 369–72 , 380–4 , 431 and witchcraft accusations, 451 See also Hallstatt solar minima ; Medieval

era ; Siberian High Livi-Baci, Massimo, 101 llamas, 153 , 309 London, England, 460 , 461 , 524 “long waves” model of economic swings,

482 , 501 , 538 Longshan culture (Neolithic), China, 186 ,

195 , 238 , 295 Louis XI (France), 424 Lovelock, James, 28 , 40 , 571 Lower Paleolithic (or Early Stone

Age), 85 Lundhal, Mats, 375 Ly dynasty, Vietnam, 363

Madagascar, 162 Maddison, Angus, 420 , 460 , 484 magma. See fl ood basalts ; superplumes maize. See corn/maize malaria

Duffy negativity, 215 as fi rst contact disease, 432 future threat of, 567 immunity to, 162 during Iron Age, 316 reduction of, 531 in Roman Empire, 337 spread of, 222 in the U.S., 506

Mali, 442






Index614

malnutrition, 219–20 , 221 . See also food shortages and famines ; teeth as health indicators

Malthus, Thomas, 3–4 Essay on the Principles of Population, 475

Malthusian theory of technological limits and Boserupian intensifi cation, 192 , 265 during Bronze and Iron Ages, 317 in China, 472–4 during Classical Antiquity and Medieval

societies, 261–2 crisis of sustainability, 266 and decline of the Roman Empire, 340–1 during Industrial Revolution, 10 , 499 in Japan, 474 during Little Ice Age, 474 in Medieval Europe, 373 , 374–5 pending population crisis, 559–61 and Second Industrial Revolution, 538 shaping human history, 9

Mamluks, 428 mammals, 48 , 63 . See also animals Manchu-Qing dynasty, China, 445 , 446 ,

472 , 473 Manhattan Project, 538 manioc. See cassava/manioc manufacturing, 512 , 534 , 536 , 539 .

See also emissions, industrial ; mechanization and assembly lines

Marcus, Joyce, 188 Margulis, Lynn, 28 Marib Dam, 348 Marine Isotope Stages (MIS)

MIS 2 [Last Glacial Maximum], 130–1 MIS 3, 91 MIS 4, 86 , 93 MIS 5 [Eemian], 91 , 92 , 106 , 124 , 126 MIS 6, 93 MIS 7, 86 , 87 , 124 MIS 8 [Saale], 85 , 86 , 87 MIS 9, 86 MIS 13, 82 MIS 15, 82 MIS 19, 82 MIS 21, 82 MIS 22, 81 MIS 25, 82

marine transgression, 51 , 206 . See also sea level

marmots and bubonic plague, 386 , 388 , 389 marriage, 378 , 472 , 474 marsh elder, 153 Martin, Paul S., 138

Marwick, Ben, 88 Marx, Karl, 5 , 9 , 507 mass extinctions. See extinctions Maudlay, Henry, 489 Mauna Loa, HI, 551 Maunder Minimum, 176 , 382 , 439 , 451 maxima, solar. See solar maxima and minima Mayan culture, Mesoamerica, 239 , 327 ,

355–6 , 440 Mayr, Ernst, 26 , 29 McCormick, Michael, 362 McEvedy, Colin, 322 , 344 McKibben, William, 570 McNeil, John R., 263 , 274 McNeil, William H., 241 , 263 , 279 , 280 , 343 ,

349 , 368 measles, 222 , 343 , 344 , 360 , 432 mechanization and assembly lines, 512 Medes, 322 medicine and medical care, 425 , 480 , 481 ,

485 , 510 , 539 . See also public health programs

Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA) about, 323–4 , 352 , 358–60 , 550 , 564 effects on societies, 362–70 , 442 ,

447 , 567 transition to Little Ice Age, 366–7 , 369–72 ,

383–4 , 431 , 555–6 Medieval era

and abrupt climate change, 267 and Boserupian intensifi cation, 264 and crisis of sustainability/endogenous

degradation model, 266 and disease, 267 , 280–1 ecologically robust situations, 266–7 economic intensifi cation, 264 effl orescence and crisis, 264–5 endogenous degradation model, 265–6 exogenous rough world model, 267 during Late Holocene climates

change, 276–9 Malthusian trap or Smithian

growth, 261–2 and Medieval Climate Anomaly, 358–60 population, 269–70 , 374–5 as punctuated equilibrium, 285–7 Schumpeterian growth, 318 stagnation model of, 261–2 See also Dark Ages ; Little Ice Age

Medieval Warm Period. See Medieval Climate Anomaly

Mediterranean region during Bronze age, 289–91






Index 615

bubonic plague, 349 during Classical Antiquity, 321 , 322–3 during Classical Optimum, 325 Cyprian’s Plague, 37 , 344 , 346 Older and Younger Fill, 274 population, 322–3 , 333 rotary mills, 320 shipwrecks, 331 , 333 slave trade, 422 soil erosion following societal

collapse, 273–5 trade and exchange, 289–91

Mediterranean Sea, 58 , 64 , 155 , 159 , 160 , 173 , 178

megadroughts eccentricity-driven megadroughts, 59–60 ,

70–2 , 75 , 79 , 82–3 , 86–7 , 101 and human dispersal, 78 , 87 , 91 during Little Ice Age, 439–40 during Medieval Climate Anomaly,

364–7 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 174–5 in North America, 364–7 and the Sahara, 92 and technological breakthroughs, 86

megafauna, 138–9 mega-monsoons, 150 , 155 , 172–4 Melanesians, 96 meltwater events

Laurentine Crisis, 133 , 154 , 159 , 172 , 178 , 201

during Pleistocene ice-sheets, 175 Preboreal Oscillation, 133 during Younger Dryas, 133

Mendel, Gregor, 4 , 26 Mesoamerica, 310 , 327 , 355–6 Mesolithic period, 140–3 , 221 Mesopotamia

during Bronze age, 289–90 during Bronze Age Crisis, 293–4 dynastic emergence, 211 fl oods, 206–7 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 181 population, 329 during Preclassical Crisis, 299 and rise of the state, 184 , 189 , 190 , 211 salinization of, 293–4 during secondary products

revolution, 206–7 trade and exchange among Uruk, 207–9 village agriculture in, 196

Mesozoic Greenhouse, 57 Messinian salinity crisis, 64

metal and metallurgy, 199 , 282–3 , 318 , 561 . See also iron and iron technologies

metapopulation, 98 meteors. See impactor theory methane

from agriculture (mostly rice-paddies), 286 , 477 , 478–9 , 495 , 553

during Anthropocene Epoch, 469 and archaeans, 38 current levels, 477 and eccentricity cycle, 77–8 at end of LGM, 131 and evidence of climate change, 548 and greenhouse cycles, 68 during Holocene, 150 and human activity, 286–7 , 549–51 increase of since Late Neolithic and Bronze

Ave, 286–7 and land clearance, 532 during LGM, 130–1 during Little Ice Age, 477 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 154 and prokaryotes, 38 , 40 reduction of, 578 release of tundra and seabed, 565 Second Industrial Revolution, 528 warming effects of, 477 during Younger Dryas, 133

Meuse Valley, Belgium, 524 Mexico

Balsas Valley, 152–3 colonization of, 162 during Dark Ages, 354 development of villages, 153 domestication of corn, 152–3 droughts, 439–40 epidemics, 488 fi rst contact diseases, 432 during Industrial Revolution, 488 during Little Ice Age, 439–40 mortality and fertility, 239 , 518 and rise of the state, 188 soil erosion following societal

collapse, 274 See also specifi c cultures

Miao culture, China, 472 mice, 348 microbes, 563 Middle Ages, terminology, 350–1 , 413 .

See also Little Ice Age ; Medieval era Middle Bronze Age, 289 , 290 , 292–7 .

See also Bronze Age






Index616

Middle East, 428 , 533 , 569 . See also Levant (Eastern Mediterranean) ; specifi c country or culture

Middle Horizon cultures, Peru, 354 Middle Kingdom, Egypt, 289 , 297 , 312 , 313 Middle Neolithic, China, 186 , 195 Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Stone Age), 85 ,

92–3 , 105 , 125 Middle Paleolithic Revolution, 10 middle-class, 533 . See also stratifi cation,

social Mid-Holocene Transition

and climate change, 154–62 , 174–5 , 179 , 181 , 211

followed by Bronze Age, 287 in the Levant, 178 , 196 as millennial Siberian High/Hallstatt

Epoch, 155 , 159 , 177 , 278–9 , 416 and rise of the state, 183–91 and soil erosion, 275 See also Hallstatt solar minima ;

Siberian Highs Mid-Pleistocene Revolution, 77 migration, 90 , 303–4 , 310 , 569 .

See also emigration ; immigration Milankovitch, Milutin, 67 militarized states, 418–19 military-industrial complex, 518 , 538–9 milk and milk products, 135 , 202 , 223–4 ,

236 , 338 Milky Way, 53 millenarianism, 426 millennial Siberian Highs. See Siberian Highs millennialism, 418 millet, 129 , 150 , 156 , 195 , 238 Millet, Paul, 332 minerals, 570 Miner’s Friend, The (Savery), 466 Ming drought, 439 , 444 Ming dynasty, China, 370 , 418–19 , 444–6 minima, solar. See solar maxima and minima Minoan culture, 290 , 297 Miocene epoch, 21 , 57 , 62–4 , 66 MIS. See Marine Isotope Stages Mississippi River valley, U.S., 365–6 , 520 Mississippian culture, North America, 366 mitochondrial DNA, 84 , 90 , 91–2 mitochondrial Eve, 87 mobility, 128–9 , 211 , 429 Moche culture, Peru, 183 , 310 , 327 , 354 modern synthesis. See punctuated equilibrium modernity, 475 , 476 , 501–2 Mohammed, 348

Mokyr, Joel, 287 , 483 molecular biology, 33–4 money supply, 454 Mongolia, 472 Mongols

Golden Horde, 387 , 388 invasions of China, 369–70 , 418–19 , 445 invasions of India, 371 , 418–19

monsoons during Anthropocene era, 555–6 fl orescence of cultures in South and

Southeast Asia, 363 global, 167 and political change in China, 308–9 , 326 ,

357–8 , 367–9 , 444–5 See also mega-monsoons ; specifi c

monsoons Montreal Protocol, 546 , 563 , 576 moon, formation of, 37 Morris, Ian, 263 mortality

during Industrial Revolution England, 485 and intensive agriculture, 237 among Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic

cultures, 235–8 during Little Ice Age and Early Modern

period, 455–6 of Natufi an peoples, 230 , 231–2 during Neolithic, 218–20 , 225–41 during Paleolithic, 218–20 and pandemic-driven cooling

theory, 440–1 during Pleistocene, 106–7 and population growth, 514–15 of PPNB, 231–4 and temperature, 457–8 of World Wars, 518–19 See also crisis mortality ; disease ; wars ;

specifi c countries or cultures mortuary rituals. See burial (mortuary) rituals mosquito control, 531 Mozambique, 125 Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines, 549 , 554 Mt. St. Helens, 554 Mt. Tambora (Indonesia) eruption, 470–1 Mt. Toba (Indonesia) eruption, 90 , 93 , 103 Mughal conquest of India, 448 , 471 Muir, John, 508 Muller, Richard, 50 , 52 multiregional evolution hypothesis,

97–9 . See also human dispersal ; recent African origins hypothesis

mumps, 432






Index 617

Munro, Natalie, 143 , 145 , 146 Muslim Rebellion, China, 472 mutations, 29 , 33–4 , 215 , 216 , 222 .

See also bottlenecks, evolutionary Mycenae, 290 , 297 , 299 , 303

NAO. See North Atlantic Oscillation Napoleon and Napoleonic wars, 471 , 486 Naqada culture, Egypt, 184 , 185 , 186 Nasca culture, Peru, 310 , 327 , 354 Native Americans. See Amerindians Natufi an culture (Mesolithic), Levant

Early, 141–2 , 145–8 , 149 , 230 , 231–2 , 233–4

Late, 145–8 , 149 , 230 , 231–2 , 233–4 See also Mesolithic

natural gas, 510 , 527 , 535 natural selection, 4 , 6 , 26 , 31–3 nature, human relationship with

culture and technology, 97 deforestation and over-grazing, 196 and dynastic change in China, 308–9 ecological problems developing from

agriculture, 163 environmental hazards created by

man, 501 and Gilgamesh Epic, 212 and human health, 213–16 not an actor in China’s population

crisis, 473–4 and slow emergence of Medieval world, 349 See also Anthropocene ; greenhouse gases

Nature of Mediterranean Europe, The, 274 Nazi Germany, 519 NDT (Neolithic Demographic Transition),

160 , 216–20 , 226–7 , 235–6 , 238–40 . See also Secondary Products Revolution

Neanderthals. See Homo neanderthalensis Near East, 349 . See also Levant ; Southwest

Asia ; specifi c countries or cultures necessity as prerequisite for agricultural

development, 126 Needham, Joseph, 321 Nefedon, Sergey, 375 Nemesis, 50 Neolithic Demographic Transition (NDT),

160 , 216–20 , 226–7 , 235–6 , 238–40 . See also Secondary Products Revolution

Neolithic period agricultural dispersal, 162–3 in China, 150–2 , 186 , 195 , 238 , 295

in East Asia, 114 height, 221 and human health, 220–4 , 225–41 and Mid-Holocene Transition, 183–91 mortality and fertility, 218–20 , 225–41 in North Africa, 113 population, 216–20 , 240–1 , 514 slavery, 285 in South Asia, 114 in Southwest Asia, 113 See also Natufi an, Prepottery Neolithic,

Pottery Neolithic, Woodland, Formative, Cardial, Linear-Bank-Keramik, and Late Neolithic cultures

Neolithic Revolution. See agriculture, origins of

Neoproterozoic crisis, 42–3 , 53 Nesbitt, Mark, 146 net primary productivity (NPP), 123 , 126–7 ,

128 , 138 , 139 , 189 , 561 , 565 Netherlands

economic growth, 421 empire building, 422 , 430 , 451–2 energy production, 461 foods from the New World, 435 New World settlements, 432 struggle with Spanish Hapsburgs, 449 urban population, 504

New Deal (U.S.), 520 New Guinea, 125 New Kingdom (Egypt), 289 , 290 , 297 , 303 New Orleans, LA, 562 New World

droughts, 439–40 economic consequences of discovery

of, 265 fi rst contact diseases, 432–3 and globalization of food, 435–7 , 474 human dispersal, 94 megafaunal extinctions, 138–9 migration to, 463 origins of agriculture, 142 plantation system, 436 population, 415 silver from, 422 and spread of crops, 152 , 472 unsuccessful civilizations of, 194 See also Latin America ; North America ;

South America ; specifi c countries or cultures

New York, NY, 506 , 562 , 567 Newcomen, Thomas, 466 , 483






Index618

Nile River Valley, Egypt as bread basket, 330 during Bronze Age Crisis, 292 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 363–4 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 181 during Preclassical Crisis, 302 resource war evidence, 144 and rise of the state, 185 , 189 spread of agriculture, 160 West Nile period, 140–1

nitrates, 510 nitrogen, 565 nitrous oxide, 548 , 549 , 563 nomadism

during Bronze Age, 290 , 291 , 293 , 297 , 299 , 304

during the Dark Ages, 348 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 364 ,

369 , 370 , 442 during the Preclassical Crisis, 309 ,

324 , 325 and environmental circumscription

model, 188 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 185

Norse (Vikings), 349 , 359 North, Douglass, 374 “North, temperate.” See First World North Africa, 82–3 , 113 , 161 , 323 , 415 , 426 North America

colonization of, 162 droughts, 439–40 epidemics, 488 during Little Ice Age, 371 , 439–40 , 442–8 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 364–7 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 157 population, 432–3 , 441–3 , 470 during Preclassical Crisis, 310 spread zones, 239–40 transition to agriculture, 153 See also New World

North American Monsoon, 150 North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO)

during Anthropocene Epoch, 557–8 during Classical Optimum, 325 during Dark Ages, 325 , 352 and decline of the Roman Empire, 341 during Little Ice Age, 449 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 358–60 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 181 , 211 and modern world, 568 North Atlantic Oscillation/Arctic

Oscillation (NAO/AO), 168–9 , 174–5 , 179 , 276–7

during Preclassical Crisis, 301–2 secondary products revolution,

197–8 , 201 and solar variations, 176–7 See also atmospheric circulation

North Atlantic thermohaline pump. See thermohaline pump, North Atlantic

Norway, 515 , 517 , 523 NPP. See net primary productivity nuclear power, 535 , 545 , 560 , 562 nuclear technology, 538 nuclear weapons, 538 , 544 , 545 Nuna (or Columbia), 41 , 44

oak trees, 178 , 179 , 206 , 292 , 302 . See also pollen analysis ; tree-ring tem-perature estimates

oats, 462 Oaxaca Valley, Mexico, 188 obesity, 540 , 563 obliquity. See orbital cycles oceans and currents

equatorial seaways, 47–8 , 58 , 67 , 69 North Atlantic currents, 67 Oligocene, 57–8 Phanerozoic supercycles, 47–8 placidity of, 565 during Pleistocene, 102–3 polar seaways, 58 , 66 seabed methane, 565 See also sea level ; thermohaline pump,

North Atlantic oil, supplies, production and use

BP Deep Horizon oil-well rupture, 562 competition for, 570 corruption and misappropriation of

revenues, 536–7 creation of, 48 , 58 discovery and uses of, 510 embargoes, 536 as post World War II stress, 537 post World War II use, 535 and Second Industrial Revolution, 481 supply and demand, 543 , 561 and World Wars I and II, 519–20 See also petroleum

oil palms, 311 Old Kingdom (Egypt), 185 , 289 Older Dryas interval, 132 Older Fill, 274 Oldowan tradition. See tools, stone Oligocene epoch, 57–8 , 62 , 66






Index 619

olive orchards, 202 Olmec culture, 310 Oman, 92 , 278 , 302 Omo-Kibish region (Ethiopia), 87 Oort Cloud, 50 orbital cycles

and climate change, 63–4 , 67–9 , 71 , 130–1

cooling effects of, 477 eccentricity cycles, 67–8 , 77–8 equinoxes, precession of, 68 and glaciation, 67 during Mid Pleistocene Revolution, 77 Milankovitch and, 67 and modern interglacial period, 172 obliquity cycles, 67 , 71 , 131–2 , 172 , 276 precession cycles, 68 , 71 , 131–2 , 154 , 276 See also eccentricity-driven megadroughts

Ordovician-Silurian extinction, 49 Orrorin tugenensis, 65 osteological paradox, 225 Othalo II site, 141–2 , 230 Ottoman Empire, 419 , 425 , 428 , 449 over-grazing, 196 overkill hypothesis, 138 Overton, Mark, 377 Owen, Robert, 507 oxen, 202 , 205 , 373 oxygen, 42 . See also eukaryote cells ;

prokaryotes oxygen isotopes, 63 , 69 , 77 , 81 , 101–2 ,

131 , 180 ozone, 477 , 546 , 549 , 554 , 563

Pacifi c Ocean, 58 , 67 pack ice, 567 packing threshold, 139 Pagan kingdom, Burma, 363 , 371 Painted Gray Ware culture, 311 Pakistan, 533 , 557 , 568 palace economies, 304–5 , 318 , 319 paleo-biomass, 416 Paleoindian Clovis point tradition, 138 Paleolithic period

and climate change, 103–4 health, human, 99–101 , 213–16 , 221 , 229 mortality and fertility, 218–20 , 269 population, 99–101 , 137 terminology of, 85 See also Lower, Middle and Upper

Paleolithic periods Paleozoic era, 49 , 53 Panama, 58 , 67 , 69 , 152

Pangea, 44–5 , 46 , 49 Pannotia, 43 , 44 , 46 Pan’s Travail (Hughes), 274 Papin, Denis, 466 Papua New Guinea, 96 Paranthropus species, 72 Parker, Geoffrey, 436–7 , 424 Parthia, 329 Pasteur, Louis, 516 PCBs (chlorinated biphenyls), 546 , 563 peanuts, globalization of, 435 peasants

during Bronze Age, 291 during Dark Ages, 361 Egyptian, 428 and failure of the feudal/manorial

system, 428–9 in Medieval Europe, 376–8 and Mongol invasion, 370 in Mughal India, 448 in Roman Empire, 335 , 338 See also labor

peat, 461 Pegtoushan site (Neolithic), China, 151 penicillin, 531 , 538 Pennsylvanian subperiod, 45 Permian period, 49 Permian-Triassic crisis, 52 Persian Gulf, 92 , 94–5 , 201 , 206–7 pertussis, 222 Peru, 371 . See also Andean cultures pesticides and fertilizers, 533 , 544 , 562 petroleum, 510 , 527 . See also gasoline ; oil,

supplies, production and use Phanerozoic epoch, 19 , 44–8 , 49–52 , 53 Philippines, 557 , 568 Philistines, 299 photosynthesis, 123 physiology, human, 215 , 216 . See also bones,

human ; health, human phytoliths, 135 , 140 , 144 pigs, 149 , 151 , 192 , 202 , 222 , 332 , 338 pilgrimages, 148 Pirenne, Henri, 372 , 373 “Plague Orders” (England), 457 Plagues and Peoples (McNeil), 241 ,

280 , 343 plantation system, 430–1 , 436 plants, 128 , 140–3 , 545 , 565 .

See also agriculture ; domestication of plants ; specifi c plants

Plasmodium falciparum. See malaria plate tectonics. See tectonics






Index620

Pleistocene epoch climate changes, 57 , 101–3 , 130–4 and ENSO, 171 human emergence, 22 human evolution, 10 population extinctions, 98 population growth, 106–7 thermohaline pump, 102–3 and transition to agriculture, 129–30

Pliocene epoch, 10 , 21 , 57 , 66 , 99 , 171 plows, 192–3 , 205 , 208–9 , 373 , 420 pluralistic evolution. See punctuated

equilibrium Plutarch, 314 pneumonia, 337 , 515 pneumonic plague, 385 Polar Cells. See atmospheric circulation polar ice fi elds, 123 polar seaways, 58 , 66 polis, Greek, 305 political institutions

aftermath of bubonic plague, 423–9 city governments, 506–7 climate change and regime change,

308–9 , 326 , 357–8 , 367–9 , 444–5 , 450 , 569

crises during Little Ice Age, 450 as drivers of solutions, 579 and economic growth, 480 fi nancial regulations, 520–1 linked with technological and economic

development, 509 , 523 , 538 and mitigation of environmental

hazards, 543–4 national and international, 575–6 and public welfare, 520–1 response to bubonic plague, 425–7 See also city governments ; kings and

kingship ; palace economies ; public health programs ; state and state institutions

pollen analysis archaeological analysis of, 135 decline in oak pollen, 196 and domestication of cereals, 146 Huleh, 159 oak, 178 , 198 , 201 and Younger Dryas, 133

pollution. See air pollution ; emissions, industrial

Polynesians, 162 , 308 , 371 Pomeranz, Kenneth, 418 , 421 , 464 Poor Laws (England), 457 , 507

population 20th century, 470 and agriculture, 217 , 237 , 312–14 during Anthropocene Epoch, 470 B ø lling-Aller ø d interval, 137 of cities, 503–4 during Classical Antiquity, 269–70 and climate change, 246 , 398 , 408 , 470–3 and competition for resources, 3–4 current levels, 467 during Dark Ages, 353 , 360–2 decrease and rise of the state, 190 , 191 and demand for consumer products, 480 Demographic Revolution, 513–18 , 530–3 driven by Third World energy

consumption, 541–2 as driver for Industrial Revolutions, 481–2 during Early Modern period, 435 effective population size, 97–9 and endogenous degradation, 265–6 future predictions of, 542 genetics research on expansion, 136 global estimates, 247 , 414–16 and globalization of food, 435 growth, 270–1 , 514 historical data, 398 , 399 during Holocene, 216–20 impact of increased natural disasters, 558 during Industrial Revolution, 488 during Iron Age, 322–3 during Little Ice Age, 450 , 453 ,

454–8 , 462–4 during Medieval Climate Anomaly,

367–9 , 370 during Medieval era, 269–70 , 372 , 374–5 during Mesolithic, 140–1 metapopulation, 98 during Neolithic, 191–4 , 216–20 ,

238 , 240–1 during Paleolithic, 99–101 , 137 and pandemic-driven cooling

theory, 440–2 during Pleistocene, 106–7 post World War II stresses, 537 as response to Industrial Revolution, 485 sustainability of, 11 and transition to agriculture, 129 See also demography ; epidemiological

transitions ; specifi c countries or cultures

Portugal, 160 , 422 , 429 , 430 Postan, Michael M., 374 potassium, 177






Index 621

potatoes, 129 , 153 , 435 , 472 , 489–90 Potter, David, 553 pottery

in China, 151 Late Neolithic, 318 lead, 339 milk residue on sherds, 135 , 202 in Peru, 308 as prime mover, 483 in Roman Empire, 331 , 333 , 344 in Southwest Asia, 198–9 Uruk, 204

Pottery Neolithic, Levant, 149 , 160 , 197–201 Potts, Richard, 60 , 79 poultry, 222 poverty

and bubonic plague, 389–90 in developing world, 533 and economic inequity, 523 , 533 ,

539–40 , 542 and global depression, 542 and human health, 2 , 219–20 , 234–5 mitigation of, 573 and urban energy defi cit, 490–3

PPNB. See PrePottery Neolithic, Levant Preboreal Oscillation, 133 Precambrian epoch, 41 precession. See orbital cycles precipitation, 498 , 557–8 , 564 , 566 .

See also fl oods ; monsoons Pre-Classic Mayan culture,

Mesoamerica, 355 Preclassical Crisis, 278–9 , 299–304 , 306–12 ,

315–16 , 323 . See also Bronze age ; Hallstatt solar minima ; Siberian Highs

predators, humans as, 124 premodernity, 7–8 , 261–2 PrePottery Neolithic, Levant

human dispersal, 158 PrePottery Neolithic A (PPNA), 147 ,

148 , 149 PrePottery Neolithic B (PPNB), 149–50 ,

159–60 , 199–200 , 230–4 priesthood, 205 , 207 prime mover, defi nition of, 37 , 482 private property ownership, 374 Progressive movement, 508 prokaryotes, 28 , 38 , 40 protectionist economic policies, 535–6 Proterozic eon, 38–42 Protestant Reformation, 426 Proto-Hassuna period, 160 , 197

proto-humans. See Homo species ; human evolution

proto-Villanovan culture, 325 Prussia, 481 public health programs, 3 , 426 , 457 , 480 ,

485 , 531 . See also medicine and medical care

public welfare, 507–8 , 520–1 Pueblo culture, North America, 365 punctuated equilibrium model

about, 6–8 , 26 , 29–34 during Classical Antiquity and Medieval

era, 285–7 of climate and human history, 351 and Dark Ages, 271–2 and emergence, 33 geological events, 40–1 and “human revolution,” 105 and rise of the state, 188 Second Industrial Revolution as, 509 shaping human history, 9–10 . See also

Eldridge, Niles ; Gould, Stephen Jay Purcell, Nicholas, 274

Qadan hunter-gatherers, 141 , 144 Qin dynasty, China, 309 , 326 Qing dynasty, China. See Manchu-Qing

dynasty, China Quakers, 516 quarantines, 425 , 457 , 514–15 Quelccaaya glacier, Peru, 181 querns, rotary, 284 , 320 , 483 quicklime, 574 quinua, 153

Rackham, Oliver, 274 radioactive waste, 544 railroads, 409 , 481 , 482 , 492 , 494 ,

504–5 , 535 rain forests, tropical, 123 Ramses V, 299 rats, 298 , 348 , 458 . See also rodents Raup, David, 49 , 50 Reagan, Ronald, 540 , 545 Recent African origins hypothesis, 83–104 .

See also human dispersal recolonization (after extinction) model,

98–101 Red Eyebrow peasant rebellion, China jjj, 326 Red Queen’s hypothesis, 30–1 , 54 reforestation, 440–2 reform movements, 507–8 , 512 , 573 refugees, 207 , 210 , 211 , 303–4






Index622

regime capacity, 417 Reid, Robert, 32 religion, 306 , 309–10 , 311 , 507 .

See also specifi c religions reproductive women, effective population

of, 97–8 research and innovation, 480 , 509 .

See also science, applied and experimental ; technological development

resilience theory, 267–8 resource depletion, 495 resource stress, 159–60 resource wars, 144 , 423 respiratory disease, 426 Rethelford, John, 98 rice and rice farming

domestication of, 129 , 144 methane emissions, 286 , 477 , 478 , 495 , 553 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 156 paddy-rice cultivation, 286 , 327 , 367 and village agriculture, 195 wild rice harvesting, 140

rickets, 216 rifting and subsidence, 27 , 39 , 51 , 57 , 63 , 64 ,

66–7 . See also superplumes Rockefeller Foundation, 573 rodents, 223 , 348 , 440 .

See also marmots ; rats Rodinia, 41 , 42–3 , 44 Roman Empire

and climate change, 341–2 economic growth, 329–35 economy as intensifi cation of earlier

innovations, 321 effects of epidemics and wars, 423 fall of, 339–47 food shortages and famines, 330 population, 328–9 , 333 rise of, 322 , 325 , 328–39

Rome, ancient, 269 , 285 . See also Classical Antiquity

Roosevelt, Franklin D., 520 Roosevelt, Theodore, 508 Rosenstein, Nathan, 328 Rostow, Walter, 481 , 511 , 534 rotary power, 284 , 319 , 320 , 339 , 483 , 484 Royal Society, 466 rubber, 497 , 510 , 538 Ruddiman, William, 286–7 , 440–2 , 476 , 478 ,

546 , 558 Russia, 161 , 304 , 435 , 470 , 515 , 537 , 545 .

See also World War I

Russian Revolution, 519 rye, 147

Saale glaciation [MIS 8], 85 , 86 , 87 Saba, kingdom of, 348 Sagan, Carl, 38 Sahara desert, 64 , 92 , 107 , 155 , 156 ,

211 , 442–3 Sahel, 126 , 156 , 311 , 442–3 , 557 Sahelanthropus tchadensis, 65 Saito, Asamu, 447 salients, 488 saline density, 166–9 .

See also thermohaline pump salinity crisis, Messinian, 64 salinization of Mesopotamia, 293–4 Saller, Richard, 333 saltation, 32–3 Samarra culture, 197–201 , 234 , 235–8 San Francisco, CA, 506 , 520 sanitation, 230 . See also public health programs Santa Barbara oil spill, CA, 543 Santorini Eruption, 296 sapropel condition, 173 . See also anaerobic

sediments saqiya, 320 SARS, 545 , 563 savannah

creation of, 62–3 , 70 , 75 , 78 , 83 and evolution, 60 , 72 , 73 and exposure to disease, 214–15 and human physiology, 215 Savannah hypothesis, 58–9

Savery, Thomas, 466 , 470 , 481 Scandinavia, 378 , 515 scavenging, 73 Scheidel, Walter, 333 schistosomatic parasites, 222 Schreiber, Katherina, 188 Schumpeter, Joseph, 5 , 318 , 482 Schumpeterian growth

about, 5 , 262 during Ancient and Medieval Ages, 318 of industrial revolution, 475 Industrial Revolutions as, 484 , 509 during Iron Age, 318 shaping human history, 7–8 , 9–10 See also economic growth ; Smithian


science, applied and experimental, 10 , 465–6 , 481 , 538 . See also Industrial Revolution ; research and innovation






Index 623

Scythians, 304 , 324 sea level

and 1000 year eccentricity cycle, 77–8 and extinctions, 51 lowering of, 64 post-glacial rise, 206–7 rising, 564 , 565 , 566 , 567 and soil erosion, 275

Sea Peoples, 299 , 303 Second Industrial Revolution

about, 481 , 509–13 and climate change, 553 as economic super-cycle, 500 , 538 , 550 emissions, 403 , 407 , 408 , 479 , 525–8 ,

546–52 environmental impact of, 524–8 , 543–6 as punctuated equilibrium, 509 as super-cycle of economic growth, 509 temperatures, 555 and urbanization, 479

Second World, 535 , 536–7 , 541 , 542 , 550 Secondary Products Revolution, 191–4 , 201 ,

228–9 , 287 , 318 , 514 sedentarization, 201–3 seeds, 135 , 148 , 149 , 151–2 , 533 .

See also domestication of plants Seleucid Empire, 329 semi-conductors, 539 Sepkoski, John, 49 , 50 septisemic plague, 385 Seventeenth Century Crisis. See Little

Ice Age shaduf, 291 shale gas, 561 Shang dynasty, China, 308 , 309 sheep, 147 , 149 , 192 , 202–3 , 222 , 332 , 338 Shennan, Stephen, 104 , 269 Sherratt, Andrew, 191 , 205 , 208 Shindell, Drew, 578 shipwrecks, 331 , 333 Siberian Highs

at 6700–6000 BC (First), 154–5 , 278–9 about, 168 at end of LGM, 131 during Little Ice Age (Fourth), 278–9 ,

381–2 , 439 , 447 , 470 during Mid-Holocene Transition (Second),

155 , 159 , 278–9 , 416 millennial, 155 , 177 , 180 , 181 , 277–9 during Pleistocene, 131 , 171 during Preclassical Crisis (Third),

278–9 , 301 upcoming, 566

and winter weather patterns, 168 See also atmospheric pressure systems ;

Hallstatt solar minima ; Little Ice Age ; Mid-Holocene Transition ; Preclassical Crisis

sickle-cell trait, 222 sickles, fl int, 291 , 305 Silent Spring (Carson), 544 , 560 Silk Route and bubonic plague, 387 Silurian period, 47 silver mining and production, 309 , 332 , 422 ,

429 , 430 , 454 Simiand, Fran ç ois, 264 , 501 Simon, Julian, 560 , 571 Singapore, 531 , 536 , 540 single-point migration, 90 skin color, 215 , 216 slash-and-burn agriculture, 156 slave trade, 362 , 415 , 422 , 430–1 , 442–4 , 487 slavery, 285 , 328 , 335 , 430–1 , 436 , 497 , 505 sleeping sickness, 214 smallpox

Antonine Plague, 343 , 344 Cyprian’s Plague, 343 , 344 during Dark Ages, 360 as fi rst contact disease, 432 during Industrial Revolution, 488 inoculations, 426 , 485 , 515 origins of, 223 Ramses V, 299

smelting and casting, 199 Smil, Vaclav, 482 Smith, Adam, 3 , 4–5 , 265 , 507 Smith, Bruce, 128 , 191 Smithian growth

about, 4–5 during Bronze Age, 318 during Classical Antiquity and Medieval

era, 261–2 , 264 of industrious revolution, 261–62 , 264 ,

351 , 363 , 367 , 475 of the Roman Empire, 332–4 secondary products revolution, 192 ,

203 , 237 shaping human history, 7–8 world wide during Early Modern period,

417–19 See also economic growth ; Schumpeterian


smog, 524 , 543 , 563 smoke-stack source emissions. See emissions,

industrial






Index624

Snooks, Graeme, 374 , 420 snowball earth events, 40 , 42 , 53 .

See also Archean/Paleo-Proterozoic crisis ; glaciation ; Neoproterozoic crisis

Social Security System, 521 social skills, 73 , 104–5 , 107 social stratifi cation. See stratifi cation, social society, reorganization of, 193 , 199 ,

346–7 , 365–7 , 436–7 , 464–5 . See also Christianity ; stratifi cation, social ; urbanization

soil erosion or depletion, 273–5 , 341 , 374 solar cycles, 115 , 154 , 175–6 , 250 , 252 ,

258 , 276 , 408 . See also Hallstatt solar minima ; orbital cycles ; solar irradiance ; solar maxima and minima

solar irradiance, 179 , 277 , 550 , 553 , 554 , 556 , 575

solar maxima and minima Dalton Minimum, 469 , 486 and droughts and fl oods, 324 during Little Ice Age, 439 and Little Ice Age, 381–2 Maunder Minimum, 176 , 451 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 358–60 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 180 See also Hallstatt solar minima ; specifi c

maxima or minima Solomon Islands, 125 solstices, 68 Song dynasty, China, 367–9 Songhay empire, 442 soot. See black carbon/soot Soreq Cave, Israel, 142 , 180 sorghum, 129 , 156 “South, tropical.” See Third World South Africa, 107–8 South America, 157 , 183–4 , 309–10 , 568 ,

570 . See also specifi c countries or cultures ; specifi c cultures or countries

South American Monsoon, 173 , 174 , 364–7 South Asia

climate and famine, 257 and glacial melt, 568 Homo erectus, 75 human dispersal, 90 , 93 land clearance, 496 , 532 during Little Ice Age, 371–2 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 363 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 157 during Neolithic period, 114

during Preclassical Crisis, 307 and rise of the state, 185 . See also specifi c

countries or cultures South Asian [Indian] Monsoon

decline of, 196 during Dark Ages, 353 during Little Ice Age, 371–2 during Medieval era, 439 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 178 , 179 ,

180 , 184 , 211 origins of, 71 retreat from Levant, 206

South Korea, 536 , 540 South Pacifi c, 162 Southeast America, 433 Southeast Asia

during Bronze Age, 289–91 colonization of, 162 during Early Modern period, 415 human dispersal, 90 , 93 land clearance, 496 , 497 , 532 population, 415 rising sea levels, 568 trade and exchange, 289–91 , 436 .

See also specifi c countries or cultures Southwest Asia

during Anthropocene Epoch, 470 bubonic plague, 426 during Classical Antiquity, 323 during Early Modern period, 415 , 426 lactose intolerance, 237 during Little Ice Age, 449 during Neolithic period, 113 population, 323 , 415 , 470 successful civilizations of, 194–5 , 196–212 tuberculosis in, 237 See also Levant ; Middle East ; Ottoman

Empire ; specifi c cultures Soviet Bloc, 537 , 541 , 542 , 550 , 554 Spain, 344 , 422 , 430 , 432 , 438 , 504 , 517 species dispersal

of Homo erectus, 83 interglacial periods, 82 , 83 mammals, 63 northward movement of, 82–3 , 90 and single-point migration, 90 See also human dispersal ; multiregional

evolution speleothems, 134 , 142 spice trade, 422 , 430 , 436 Spier, Fred, 263 Sp ö rer Minimum, 382






Index 625

spread zones, 238–40 squash, domestication of, 152 , 153 Sri Lanka/Ceylon, 430 , 518 , 531 stagnation model, 261–2 standard of living, 11 , 264 , 453 , 480 , 490–3 Stanley, Steven, 55 starch granules, 125 , 135 stasis. See punctuated equilibrium state and state institutions

and Boserupian intensifi cation, 195 during Bronze Age, 10 and bureaucratic administration, 281–2 climactic or environmental triggers, 190 and climate change, 165–6 , 248 , 249 , 252 during Early Modern period,

418–19 , 424–5 during Iron Age, 10 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 183–91 and ecological circumscription, 188–90 , 195 epidemiological transition, 424–5 militarized states, 418–19 origins of, 122–3 , 183–91 , 199 and population decrease, 190 , 191 and population growth, 270 as punctuational event, 188 See also city-states ; political institutions ;

specifi c countries or cultures steam power

as driver for First Industrial Revolution, 481

and economic waves, 482 Great Britain’s investment in, 492–3 , 511 Newcomen engine, 483 as prime mover, 482 Savery’s steam-engine, 466 , 470 , 481 steam turbines, 509–10 steamboats, 492 Watts’ condenser and double acting

engine, 484 steel production and technological

development, 283 , 305 , 482 , 509 steppe/grasslands

during Dark Ages, 389 and end of Classical Optimum, 347 , 348 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 185 nomadic warriors, 304 Sahara as, 134 shaped by temperature and moisture, 123 transition to forests, 138 , 139

Stern, Nicholas, 577 Still Bay, South Africa, 107–8 Stone Age. See Paleolithic period

stone tools. See tools, stone storms, 557–8 , 562 , 564 , 565 , 566 .

See also hurricanes ; monsoons Straits of Gibraltar, 64 “strange parallels,” 263 , 279 , 324 , 350 stratifi cation, social

during Bronze Age, 283 , 288 , 314 in China, 335 and crisis mortality, 219–20 , 234–5 development of, 199 and economic inequity, 533 , 539–40 , 542 and failure of the feudal/manorial

system, 428–9 and health, 314 during Iron Age, 314 during Roman Empire, 328 , 334–5 , 345 stratifi cation of Uruk, 205

stress culture and technology as response to,

73 , 104–5 and the development of agriculture, 143 of high eccentricity cycles, 71–2 and human emergence, 60 , 104 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 159–60 of population in post World War II

era, 537 and punctuated equilibrium, 33–4 resource stress, 159–60 during Roman Empire, 340–1 on Song China, 369 during Younger Dryas, 145–8 See also civilization stress ; disease ; poverty

stromatolites, 41 Sub-Saharan Africa, 138 , 215 , 415 , 498 ,

532 , 570 Sudbury meteor impact, 41 sugar, 464 sugar trade, 422 , 430–1 , 436 Sui dynasty, China, 357 sulfate aerosols

from fossil fuel burning, 525 as negative temperature forcing, 549 post World War II, 551–2 , 556 during Second Great Interruption, 554 during Second Great Super-Cycle, 554 during Second Industrial Revolution, 553 simulation of volcanic eruptions, 575 during Third Great Super-Cycle, 555 See also fossil fuels ; volcanoes and volcanic

eruptions sulfur, 43 sulfur dioxide, 525 , 544 , 549 , 551–2






Index626

sulfuric acid, 525 sulphur, 175 , 449 Sumeria, 289 , 293–4 sun

eleven year sun-spot cycle, 175 , 276 insolation and albedo, 68 , 69 and origins of life, 38 as prime mover, 37 solar activity and D-O cycles, 102–3 solar radiation and global temperature,

548 , 550 solar variations and climate change,

175–7 , 553 sunlight and volcanic-winter extinctions,

52 , 90 and synthesizing vitamin D, 216 See also albedo ; insolation ; orbital cycles ;

solar cycles ; solar maxima and minima

sunfl owers, 153 Sung dynasty, China, 368 , 482 supercontinents

Columbia (or Nuna), 41 , 44 formation of, 39 Gondwanaland, 49 Hallam-Wignall supercontinent-hiccup

theory, 51 Kenorland, 39 , 40 , 44 Pangea, 44–5 , 46 , 49 Pannotia, 43 , 44 , 46 Rodinia, 41 , 42–3 , 44 superplume-supercontinent cycles,

41 , 44–8 Vendia, 44

super-cycles (geological). See Icehouse-Greenhouse cycles ; supercontinents

super-cycles of modern economic growth about, 500–1 , 528 First Great Interruption, 528 , 551 ,

553 , 555–6 First Great Super-Cycle Expansion, 553 , 555 Second Great Interruption, 554 Second Great Super-Cycle Expansion

(Post World War II era), 500 , 534–5 , 550 , 554

Second Industrial Revolution and, 500 , 509 , 538

Third Great Super-Cycle Expansion, 539–40 , 555

See also economic growth ; Schumpeterian growth

superplumes about, 6

African rift, 63 , 66 Eocene epoch, 57 and extinctions, 51–3 geomagnetic synthesis, 52 and release of CO 2 , 35 , 39 role of, 35 as second-order source of energy, 37 supercontinent cycles, 41 , 44–8 See also rifting and subsidence ;

supercontinents supply. See demand for consumer

products sustainability, 11 , 503 swamps, drainage of, 461 sweat glands, 215 Sweden, 516 , 517 , 523 swine fl u, 563 Switzerland, 523 syphilis, 434 Syria, 569

Taiping Rebellion, China, 472–3 , 494 Taiwan, 518 , 531 , 536 , 540 Tang dynasty, China, 357–8 tapeworms, 214 , 222 taxation, 424 , 448 , 466 Taylor Dome. See ice cores tea, 436 , 437 , 464 , 497 Tecer Lake, Turkey, 180 , 302 technological development

competition for rare minerals, 570 during Classical Antiquity, 284–5 , 321 as driver for Industrial Revolutions, 481 electrical generation and effi ciency, 537–8 energy benefi ts of, 265 and the First Industrial Revolution, 483–4 following climate change, 287 and GDP, 511 during Iron Age, 321 linked with government and economic

growth, 509 , 523 , 538 in Medieval Europe, 373 , 374 to mitigate climate change, 573–4 and the reform movement, 512 as response to stress, 73 , 104–5 and societal growth, 391 and technology lag, 493–4 of Third Super-Cycle, 542 and trade and exchange, 281–2 for wars, 424 See also research and innovation

tectonic punctuational model, 40–1 , 66–7 , 69 . See also superplumes






Index 627

tectonics and biological evolution, 27 discovery of, 26 , 27 during Early Modern period, 420 geologist-plumbers on, 35 Oligocene epoch, 57–8 Proterozoic eon, 38–9 as second-order source of energy, 37 tectonic forcings, 40–1 , 66–7 , 69

teeth as health indicators, 221 , 230 , 235 , 312–14 , 315 , 336 , 385

Tell abu Hureyra, Syria, 235 Tell es Sawwan, Iraq, 236 Tell Hammoukar, Syria, 209 Tell Hassuna, Iraq, 197–201 , 234 , 235–8 “temperate North.” See First World temperature, global

cooling trend since during Industrial Revolution, 498

evidence for climate change, 2 , 546–8 , 564–5

during First Great Interruption, 528 , 551 , 553 , 555–6

and human action, 477–8 and industrial emissions, 528 and man-made forcings, 549–51 and natural forcings, 548–9 and oxygen isotopes, 81 paradoxical nature of, 551–2 during Second Great Interruption, 554 during Second Industrial Revolution, 555 shaping of global biomes, 123 See also tree-ring temperature

estimates temple complexes, 205 , 207 , 355 , 366 Teotihuacan culture, Mexico, 327 , 354 Terrenato, 325 Tethys Sea, 58 , 64 , 66 textiles and textile industry

Chinese, 368 cotton, 465 during Early Modern period, 421 , 455 English, 453–4 , 492 fi ber revolution among Uruk, 208 Indian, 465 during Industrial Revolution, 488 , 492 innovations, 483 , 484 mechanization of, 481

Than dynasty, Vietnam, 363 Thatcher, Margaret, 540 Thera culture, 296 thermohaline pump, North Atlantic

about, 102–3 , 169

at end of LGM, 131 during Holocene, 150 during Little Ice Age, 382–3 and Little Ice Age, 439 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 358–60 and Mid-Holocene Transition, 154 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 180 during Younger Dryas, 133 and Youngest Dryas prediction, 566

Third Great Super-Cycle Expansion, 539–40 , 555

Third Industrial Revolution, 481 , 523 , 538–9 , 559–61

Third World and climate change, 566–7 corruption and misappropriation of

revenues, 536–7 energy consumption, 541–2 genocide by global north, 570 and mitigation of poverty, 573 origins of, 498 population predictions, 542 post World War II population, 530–1

Thirty Year’s War, 449 , 458 Thomas, Brinley, 488 Thomas, Robert Paul, 374 Thoreau, Henry David, 508 Thule culture, Greenland, 384 Tibet, 472 , 570 Tigris and Euphrates rivers, Mesopotamia,

184 , 197–201 , 206–7 , 292 , 302 , 568 Tikal, 327 timbering, 497 Timur (Tamerlane), 418 tin, 305 titanium. See Cariaco Basin sediment Tiwanaku culture, Peru, 310 , 354 tobacco trade, 436 , 464 Tokagawa shogunate, 427 , 446 , 474 tomatoes, 435 tools, metal, 282–4 tools, stone

Acheulean tradition [Mode 2], 75 , 82 , 85 Aterian tradition, 92 , 93 Levallois method [Mode 3], 85–6 microlithic [Mode 4], 107 Oldowan tradition [Mode 1], 72 , 85 Paleoindian Clovis point tradition, 138 as prime mover, 483 starch granules, 125 use in Bronze Abe, 291 , 305

tornadoes, 557 towns. See urbanization






Index628

toxic metals, 562 trade and exchange

among Halaf and Ubaid, 201 , 203 during Bronze Age, 289–91 , 297–9 , 304–6 in China, 367–8 China’s explorations, 445 and demand for consumer goods, 487 and disease confl uences, 280 , 298–9 , 337 ,

343 , 348–9 between Europe and Asia, 429–30 globalization of food, 435–7 international trade, 464–5 , 487 , 497 during Iron Age, 304–6 during Neolithic A, 148 in North America, 153 , 310 during Preclassical Crisis, 310 Roman Empire, 328 , 329–35 slave trade, 362 technological and organizational

innovations, 281–2 Uruk, 207–9

trains. See railroads transcendentalism, 508 transportation, 208 , 512 , 513 , 535 .

See also automobiles ; internal combustion engine ; railroads

TRB “Funnel Beaker” peoples, 223 tree-ring temperature estimates

and Bronze Age Crisis, 292 and Carbon-14 recalibration, 135 from China and Mongolia, 357 and end of Classical Optimum, 348 and industrial emissions, 528 from Ireland, 180 and Little Ice Age, 383 , 388 and Preclassical Crisis, 302 from Roman Empire, 331

trees, 545 . See also deforestation ; land clearance

Trevithick, Richard, 492 triggers, climactic or environmental.

See bottlenecks, evolutionary trip-hammers, 321 “tropical South.” See Third World tropics, equatorial, 130 , 306–12 , 430–1 , 496 ,

497 , 526 , 560–1 Troy and the Trojan War, 299 , 303 trypanosomes, 214 tsetse fl ies, 214 , 442 tsunamis, 296 , 309 , 560 , 566 tuberculosis, 214–15 , 222 , 233 , 237 , 315 ,

337 , 516

tularemia, 298 tundra, 123 , 565 Turkestan, 472 Turkey, 312 , 569 Turkmenistan, 160 turnips, 462 turnover pulse hypothesis, 59 Tuscany, 303 typhoid, 337 , 515 typhoons, 564 typhus, 432

Ubaid culture, Mesopotamia, 186 , 198 , 201–4 , 206 , 234 , 235–8

Uighur autonomous region, 570 Ultimate Resource, The (Simon), 560 Umbgrove, Johannes, 26 underdeveloped world. See less developed

world ; Third World United Kingdom, 400 , 504 , 523 , 527 , 539 .

See also British Isles ; England ; Great Britain

United Nations, 573 , 575 United States

and the “American Century,” 534 Civil War, 494 climate change impacts, 567 climate change legislation, 576 coal production and use, 504 , 522 droughts in, 567 economic growth, 511–12 , 523–4 , 534 energy consumption, 405 , 535 , 541 , 550–1 environmental mitigation, 543–4 escape from Malthusian crisis, 499 European demand for U.S. grain, 505 fertility, 516–17 fi nancial regulations, 520–1 GDP, 511 and global markets, 497 health and height, 401 , 505–6 , 540 heat waves, 567 immigration to, 516–17 industrial emissions, 526–7 , 555 during Industrial Revolution, 480 , 481 ,

511–12 , 523–4 knowledge-based economies, 539–40 land clearance emissions, 495–6 military-industrial complex, 538–9 mortality rate, 515 population, 475 public welfare, 520–1 railroads and urbanization, 504–5






Index 629

and two-tier economy, 539–40 urban population, 504 See also America, colonial ; World Wars I

and II Universities, 509 . See also research and

innovation Upper Paleolithic

African Late Stone Age, 85 Boserupian intensifi cation, 105–6 , 192 fl orescence of culture, 104 human dispersal, 125 human emergence, 86 human evolution, 140 human physiology, 216 and megafaunal extinctions, 138–9 Mode 4 tools, 107 mortality and fertility rates, 229 population, 137 terminology, 85 Upper Paleolithic Revolution, 84

Ur, Mesopotamia, 206 , 211 , 293 urbanization

during Bronze Age Crisis, 296 and disease, 241–2 , 280 during Early Modern period, 429 , 438 and economic growth, 373 and empire building, 438 environmental hazards of, 501–2 , 508 and health and height, 401 , 505–6 historical data, 400 in India, 296 during Industrial Revolution, 489 and Industrial Revolution, 479 , 481 of less developed world, 533 in Medieval Europe, 373 and natural water control systems, 562 , 565 in the Netherlands, 461 rise along with industrialization and

GNP, 504 Uruk, 207 . See also city-states ; specifi c towns

and cities Uruk culture, Mesopotamia, 184 ,

204–12 , 241 U.S.S.R., 520 , 537 , 554 . See also Russia ;

World War I

Vaalbara, 38 Valdiva culture, 153 Van Andel, Tjeerd, 274 Van Lake, Turkey, 179 , 198 , 302 Van Valen, Leigh, 30 Vandal Solar Minimum, 352

variability hypothesis, 60 , 66 , 79 . See also eccentricity-driven megadrought

Vendia (or Pannotia), 44 Venezuela, 518 Vermeij, Geerat, 30 Vernadsky, Vladimir, 26 vertical oscillations, 166–9 Vietnam, 313 , 363 Vikings (Norse), 349 , 384 villages

in the Americas, 153 in China, 150 , 151 , 186 , 195 and climate change, 165–6 of Hassuna, Samarra and Halaf

cultures, 198 of Kebaran and Natufi an peoples, 141 Late PrePottery Neolithic B period, 149–50 Mesopotamian, 196 village agriculture, 195 , 196 , 198 See also state and state

institutions violence, 144 , 328 , 569 . See also wars Virginia, US, 439 , 463 Visigoths, 347 Vita-Finzi, Claudio, 273 vitamin D, synthesizing of, 216 volcanoes and volcanic eruptions

AD 536 Eruption, 279 AD 1258 Eruption, 250 , 253 , 279 ,

325 , 342 , 348–9 , 371 , 382 , 383 and Bronze Age Crisis, 296–7 and climate change, 175 cooling infl uence of, 477 , 549 , 550 ,

551 , 553 and crop failures, 276 during Dark Ages, 352 and end of Classical Optimum, 348 during First Great Interruption, 553 future threats of, 566 Hekla, 302 Ilopango, El Salvador, 348 Laki Craters, 470 during Little Ice Age, 439 , 449 , 451 , 470–1 and Little Ice Age, 381–2 Mt. Tambora, 470–1 Mt. Toba, 90 , 93 , 103 Phanerozoic supercycles, 46–8 during Pleistocene, 103 Santorini Eruption, 296 during Second Great Interruption, 554 simulation of, 575






Index630

sulfur dioxide as negative temperature forcing, 549

volcanic ash, 296–7 volcanic winter, 90

Vrba, Elizabeth, 29 , 31 , 59 Vredfort meteor impact, 41

wages, 484 , 486 , 490–1 Walker Circulation, 170 , 171 , 276 , 278 , 359 .

See also El Ni ñ o/Southern Oscillation Wallerstein, Immanuel, 209 , 424 Wang Mang interregnum, China, 309 , 326 War of the Roses, 423 , 455 Ward-Perkins, Bryan, 340 Warring States period, China, 319 , 326 wars

civil wars, 569 and disease confl uences, 280 , 346 , 391–2 and economic growth, 334 English 18th and 19th century, 486 following climate change, 144 , 196 Hundred Years War, 423 , 455 Indian, 494 during Late Bronze Age, 290 , 297–8 of Roman Empire, 328–9 , 334 War of the Roses, 423 . See also empire

building ; specifi c wars or confl icts water

environmental hazards to, 562 fertilizers, 562 natural water control systems, 562 , 565 shortages, 533 , 561 and Uruk culture, 205–6 world-wide effects of climate change, 568 .

See also droughts ; fl oods water power, 373 , 492 . See also rotary power Watson, James, 4 , 26 Watt, James, 466 , 484 , 492 wave of diffusion (hybridization account), 98 Waxman-Markey Clean Energy and Security

Act, 576 wealth, 219–20 , 234–5 .

See also stratifi cation, social Wealth of Nations, The (Smith), 265 , 507 weapons, 282–4 weathering, chemical, 38 , 40 , 42 , 47 Wegener, Alfred, 26 welfare state. See public welfare West Africa

droughts, 442–3 , 556 during First Great Interruption, 556 during Little Ice Age, 442–3

during Preclassical Crisis, 311–12 slave trade, 415 , 422 , 430–1 , 442–4 See also specifi c cultures or countries

West Indies, 463 West Nile Fever, 545 , 567 West Nile period, 140–1 West Pacifi c Warm Pool, 169–71 , 172 , 173 ,

276 , 352 , 358–60 , 555–8 . See also El Ni ñ o/Southern Oscillation ; monsoons

westerlies (Atlantic/winter) during Classical Optimum, 325 during Dark Ages, 325 , 352 and decline of the Roman Empire, 341 during Late Holocene, 277 during Little Ice Age, 369 , 389 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 364 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 179 ,

196 , 197–8 and NAO, 168 , 174 during Preclassical Crisis, 302 , 324 and secondary products revolution, 197–8 ,

201 , 206 and Siberian Highs, 278 during Younger Dryas, 145

wetlands, 139 wheat, 129 , 147 wheel, 192–3 , 208–9 , 483 .

See also rotary power White, Lynn, 373 , 374 whooping cough (pertussis), 222 , 515 Wignall, Paul B., 51 Williams, Eric, 487 Wilson, E.O., 570 wind-blown dust, 70 , 75 , 77 witchcraft accusations, 451 Wolf Solar Minimum, 371 , 382 , 439 women

demand for domestic goods, 464 education and fertility, 531 education and health, 531 effective population of reproductive

women, 97–8 labor during Industrial Revolution, 491 marriage rates, 463 in Roman Empire, 338–9 in the workforce, 453

Wong, R. Bin, 418 wood, fuel, 460 Woodland (Neolithic), North America

Early, 310 Late, 240 , 366

Woodley, Leonard, 206 Woods, James, 390

volcanoes and volcanic eruptions (cont.)






Index 631

Woolf, Arthur, 492 World Bank, 573 World War I, 518 , 519–20 , 527 World War II, 500 , 519–20 , 556 world-system model, 209 , 263 , 290–1 worst-case scenarios, 565–6 Wright, Sewell, 98 Wright brothers, 512 Wrigley, E.A., 486 Wrigley-Schofi eld data, 455 writing, 187 , 205 , 281 , 306 , 483 wrought-iron production, 481 , 484 ,

488–9 Wu state, China, 319 Wynn, Thomas, 88

Xia state, China, 186 , 196 , 206 , 308

yams, 129 , 311 Yangshao culture (Neolithic), China, 238 Yangtze River Valley, China, 144 , 151 Yayio culture, Japan, 327 Y-chromosome, 87 , 90 , 91–2 yellow fever, 432 Yellow River Valley, China, 150 , 186 , 189 ,

195–6 , 206 , 295 Yemen, 348

Yersinia pestis. See bubonic plague/Black Death

Yoffee, Norman, 188 , 203 , 237 yoke harness, 373 Younger Dryas

about, 23 , 112 , 132–4 , 144–7 , 172 cereal domestication thesis, 144–52 and Chinese Mesolithic, 144 followed by domestication of plants and

animals, 287 meteor impact theory, 138 Natufi an, 141–2

Younger Fill, 274 “Youngest Dryas,” (potential future

meltwater crisis), 566 Yu the Great, 196 , 295 Yuan dynasty, China, 370 , 444 Yucatan. See Mayan culture, Mesoamerica

Zachos, James, 20 Zagros Mountains, Iran, 158 Zapotec military state, 188 Zeribar Lake, Iran, 179 Zhang, David, 569 Zheng He, 386 , 445 Zhou dynasty, China, 309 zoonotic diseases, 221–3 , 233–4






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