Created by Martin R. Cox - HCC Learning Web
Transcript of Created by Martin R. Cox - HCC Learning Web
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Topic #5: Memory & Intelligence
Created by Martin R. Cox
Adapted from presentation package by Dean Richards
Introductory Psychology Lecture Presentation Series
Copyright 1999 by Allyn and Bacon All rights reserved.
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Processes of Memory
RetrievalEncodingPut into memory
Storage
Recover from memory
Hold in memory
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Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
Environment
Short Term
Memory Retrieval
Elaboration Long Term
MemorySensing
Sensory Memory
Attention
LossLoss
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Sensory Memory
• Visual sensory memory (the icon) • Auditory sensory memory (the echo) • Probably others as well
– Very large capacity– Very short duration:
• about 250 ms. for the icon• 1-2 sec. for the echo
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Short Term Memory (STM)• Limited capacity -- 7 plus or minus 2
chunksChunk: a meaningful unit
Examples: • A single letter (S)• A group of letters (FBI)• A group of words (Four score and seven years ago)
• Duration of 20-30 sec., due to limited capacity & interference
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Short Term Memory
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STM Storage• Increases with age
• Primarily due to increases in chunking ability with age
• Often phonetic
• Things that sound the same interfere with each other
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Displacement in STM
cheeseeggspeassyrupapplesflourmilk
eggspeassyrupapplesflourmilkbread
peassyrupapplesflourmilkbread
syrupapplesflourmilkbread
applesflourmilkbread
flourmilkbread
milkbreadbread
STM(7 slots) Lost from
STM
bread
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Long Term Memory (LTM)• Huge capacity• Potentially long duration (decades)• Organized by meaning
• Nondeclarative Memory (implicit memory): Memory for motor skills learned through practice (procedural memory) and responses learned through classical conditioning.
• Declarative Memory (explicit memory): Memory for facts & personal experiences
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Declarative Memory
• EpisodicMemory:Memory for personal events
• SemanticMemory:Memory for common knowledge &
meaning
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Remembering New Facts
• Easier for subjects you already know a lot about
• Difference probably due to opportunity for elaboration (relating, forming associations, imageries, organization, etc.)
• Elaborative rehearsal involves relating the new information to what you have already known.
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Latent Memory%
Lat
er R
ecal
led
Judgement RequiredLetter Size Phonetic Meaning
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Measuring Memory
Three measures typically used:
Recognition
Recall
Relearning
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Recall Memory
• Remembering in the absence of the item being remembered
• Usually the most difficult test
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Recognition Memory
• Recognizing material when it is seen
• Often, but not always, easier than recall
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Relearning
• Assessed by comparing time needed to relearn material to initial learning time
• May be the most sensitive test
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Forgetting
Rate of forgetting:
• fastest right after initial learning
• slower for more meaningful material
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Forgetting
Causes:• Failure to Encode• Consolidation Failure• Decay• Interference• Motivated Forgetting• Retrieval Failure
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Forgetting• Failure to Encode: Failing to put material into
LTM; Common in "forgetting" people's names
• Consolidation Failure: Loss due to organic disruption while the memory trace is being formed
• Decay: Fading of memory through disuse; Impossible to distinguish from permanent retrieval failure
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Forgetting• Interference: Confusion or entanglement of similar
memories
• Motivated Forgetting: Repression of memories, usually to avoid dealing with traumatic experiences. Suppression of memories occur at a conscious level, deliberately not to remember an unpleasant event.
• Retrieval Failure: Inability to find the necessary memory cue for retrieval; Sometimes temporary (tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon)
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Tip of the Tongue
• The feeling of being on the verge of recalling something
• Often you can say what letter it starts with, or how many syllables it has
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Reconstruction
Piecing memory together from a few highlights, then filling in details based on what we think should have happened
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Schemas
A schema is a general, stereotypical description of a highly familiar place or event (mall, fast-food restaurant, school, classroom, etc.)Schemas:
(a) help guide our actions,(b) help guide our memory,(c) may distort our perception and memory.
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Eye Witness Testimony
• Relies greatly on reconstructive memory
• Influential in trials
• Accuracy is variable
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Witness beliefs about their own testimony over time
Confidence
Accuracy
Low
er
Time
Hig
her
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Expertise
• Experts remember more details
• Probably due to use of elaborative encoding
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Hypnosis
• Increases rememberer's confidence & amount of inaccurate information
• Doesn't increase memory accuracy
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Factors Affecting Retrieval
• Serial Position
• Environmental Context
• State-Dependence
• Stress and Anxiety
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Serial Position Effect:Primacy Effect
• First items in a list are remembered better than items in the middle
• Probably due to greater odds of getting into long-term memory
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Serial Position Effect: Recency Effect
• The last items in a list are remembered better than items in the middle, if tested immediately
• Probably due to their still being in STM
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Environmental Context
• Becomes encoded along with the material being remembered
• Reinstating context often increases memory
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State-Dependent Memory
• Internal body states are encoded with memories
• Memories easier to retrieve when these body states are entered again
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Stress and MemoryPe
rform
ance
StressLow Moderate High
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Biology and Memory
• The hippocampus forms long-term declarative memories, important for transferring information from STM to LTM
• The frontal lobesImportant to recall of episodic memories
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The Hippocampus
Deep in the brain
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The Frontal Lobe
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Patient H.M.
Became unable to form new memories after surgical removal of the hippocampus
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Patient K.C.
• Cannot remember anything that ever happened to him
• His semantic memory is unimpaired
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Organic Memory Loss
• Unlike psychogenic amnesia, most recent memories lost first
• Earlier memories often retained
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Improving Memory
• Organization
• Spaced Practice
• Overlearning
• Recall practice (Reciting)
• Mnemonic devices
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Improving Memory
• Organization: Memory greatly enhanced by actively organizing material as it is learned
• Spaced Practice: Shorter practice sessions spaced widely apart; more effective than massed practice
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Improving Memory
• Overlearning: Practicing material well beyond the point needed to recall it for the moment
• Recall Practice (Reciting): Practicing recalling material rather than just rereading it; Especially useful for college material
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Improving Memory
• Mnemonic Devices:
– Strategies that can increase memory, esp. for material that is not easily organized;
– Impose an artificial structure on items that would otherwise be hard to remember
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Mnemonic Devices
• Method of LociInvolves pairing each thing to be remembered with one of an organized set of familiar locations
• The Peg-Word MethodConnecting each thing to be remembered in an interactive image with each item on a standard listExample list: One is a bun, two is a shoe, ...
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Mnemonic Devices
• Acronyms:Representing each item with a single letter
that fits into a familiar word or phrase
Example: "all cars eat gas" for the spaces in the bass clef