Chapter 6Chapter 6

LearningLearning

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LearningLearning

LearningLearning – –

A lasting change in behavior or A lasting change in behavior or mental processes that results mental processes that results from experiencefrom experience

(Habituation)

LearningLearning

Mere exposure effectMere exposure effect

Behavioral learning – (e.g. classical and operant conditioning)

Pavlov’s DogsPavlov’s Dogs

““Real” founder of BehaviorismReal” founder of Behaviorism Russian physiologist & Nobel Prize Russian physiologist & Nobel Prize

WinnerWinner

The Essentials of The Essentials of Classical Classical

ConditioningConditioning

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Unconditioned Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)stimulus (UCS)

Conditioned response (CR)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response

Examples ofExamples ofUnconditioned StimuliUnconditioned Stimuli

foodfood salivationsalivation loud noise loud noise startlestartle light in eye light in eye pupil contractionpupil contraction puff of air in puff of air in eye blinkeye blink touching hot stove touching hot stove hand withdrawalhand withdrawal

The Essentials of The Essentials of Classical Classical

ConditioningConditioning

Unconditioned Unconditioned response (UCR)response (UCR)

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Conditioned response (CR)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning

The Essentials of The Essentials of Classical Classical

ConditioningConditioning

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Conditioned response (CR)

Conditioned Conditioned stimulus (CS)stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response

The Essentials of The Essentials of Classical Classical

ConditioningConditioning

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Conditioned Conditioned response (CR)response (CR)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus

Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningPrior to conditioning

Conditioning

After conditioning

Neutral stimulus(tone)

(Orientation to soundbut no response)

UCS(food powder in mouth)

UCR(salivation)

Neutral stimulusCS (tone)

UCS(food powder)

+CR

(salivation)

CS(tone)

CR(salivation)

Learning to Learning to FearFear

Research suggests we can learn Research suggests we can learn fear through association.fear through association.

Watson and Raynor conditioned Watson and Raynor conditioned “Little Albert” to be afraid of white “Little Albert” to be afraid of white rats rats

Within days, Albert’s fear had Within days, Albert’s fear had generalized to other furry objects.generalized to other furry objects.

Acquisition, Extinction, and Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery

Conditioned Taste AversionsConditioned Taste Aversions

Taste-aversion learningTaste-aversion learning – – Biological tendency where Biological tendency where an organism an organism learnslearns to avoid to avoid foodfood

One trial learning*One trial learning*

Trial-and-error learningTrial-and-error learning – –

Learner gradually discovers Learner gradually discovers the correct response by the correct response by attempting many behaviorsattempting many behaviors

How Do We Learn How Do We Learn Behaviors by Operant Behaviors by Operant

Conditioning?Conditioning?

Thorndike’s Puzzle BoxThorndike’s Puzzle Box

http://fates.cns.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/thorndike.htm#Theory

Thorndike’s law of effectThorndike’s law of effect

The The consequenceconsequence, or effect, of a response , or effect, of a response will determine the tendency to respond in will determine the tendency to respond in the same way in the future (strengthened the same way in the future (strengthened or weakened).or weakened).

SatisfyingSatisfying vs. vs. UnsatisfyingUnsatisfying consequences consequences(No consequences)(No consequences)

Thorndike builds a FoundationThorndike builds a Foundation

Thorndike (1898) insisted that it was Thorndike (1898) insisted that it was “unnecessary to invoke reasoning” “unnecessary to invoke reasoning” to explain how the learning took to explain how the learning took place. place.

Thorndike’s law of effect formed the Thorndike’s law of effect formed the conceptual starting point for conceptual starting point for Skinner’s work in Skinner’s work in operant operant conditioningconditioning..

The Skinner BoxThe Skinner Box

The Power of The Power of ReinforcementReinforcement

Positive reinforcersPositive reinforcers – –Stimulus presented after a Stimulus presented after a response that increases the response that increases the probability of that response probability of that response happening againhappening again

Negative reinforcersNegative reinforcers – – Removal of an unpleasant stimulusRemoval of an unpleasant stimulus

The Problem of The Problem of PunishmentPunishment

PunishmentPunishment – – An aversive stimulus which An aversive stimulus which decreases the probability of the decreases the probability of the response it followsresponse it follows

How does this differ from negative reinforcement?

Punishment vs. Negative Punishment vs. Negative ReinforcementReinforcement

Loud Noise Press Lever

Press Lever

Loud Noise Removed

Loud Noise Applied

Response ConsequenceNegative Reinforcement

Punishment

No Noise

Four Kinds of Four Kinds of ConsequencesConsequences

Positive Stimulus (Add)

Negative Stimulus (Subtract)

Increase Behavior

Decrease Behavior

Positive Reinforcement

Bonus for working hard leads to more hard work

Negative Reinforcement

Headache gone after aspirin leads to more aspirin use

Positive Punishment

Getting speeding ticket leads to less speeding

Negative Punishment

No Television leads to less staying out late

When Punishment FailsWhen Punishment Fails Teaches poor behavior not good Teaches poor behavior not good

behaviorbehavior Recipient responds with negative Recipient responds with negative

emotion (anxiety, fear, rage, distrust).emotion (anxiety, fear, rage, distrust). The effectiveness is often temporary.The effectiveness is often temporary. Punishment conveys little information.Punishment conveys little information. An action intended to punish may An action intended to punish may

instead be reinforcing.instead be reinforcing.

More effective if* (Swift, Consistent, More effective if* (Swift, Consistent, Sufficient, with explanation)Sufficient, with explanation)

Alternatives to Alternatives to PunishmentPunishment

ExtinctionExtinction

Reinforcing preferred activitiesReinforcing preferred activities Premack principlePremack principle

• Prompting and shaping

Final Comments-Shaping Final Comments-Shaping BehaviorBehavior

Schedules of Schedules of ReinforcementReinforcement

Ratio schedulesRatio schedules – – Provide reward after a certain Provide reward after a certain number of responsesnumber of responses

Interval schedulesInterval schedules – – Provide reward after a certain time Provide reward after a certain time intervalinterval

Fixed Ratio (FR)Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)Variable Ratio (VR)

Variable Interval (VI)Variable Interval (VI)

Benefits of Partial Benefits of Partial ReinforcementReinforcement

Social Learning: Social Learning: Challenge to Challenge to BehaviorismBehaviorism

Social learningSocial learning – –

Form of cognitive learning where Form of cognitive learning where new responses are acquired by new responses are acquired by watching (and the consequences) watching (and the consequences)

(Albert Bandura)(Albert Bandura)

Adult ModelAdult Model

Children’s BehaviorChildren’s Behavior

Kids Who Watch Lots of TV:Kids Who Watch Lots of TV:

Have higher petty delinquencyHave higher petty delinquency More likely to be in serious fights/or to More likely to be in serious fights/or to

hurt someone badlyhurt someone badly Conflicts with parents that include Conflicts with parents that include

fightingfighting Perceive aggression to be effective Perceive aggression to be effective

and are more willing to use physical and are more willing to use physical forceforce

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Intrinsic and Extrinsic ReinforcementReinforcement

Intrinsic reinforcement is reinforcement Intrinsic reinforcement is reinforcement provided by the mere act of performing provided by the mere act of performing the behavior.the behavior.

Extrinsic reinforcement is reinforcement Extrinsic reinforcement is reinforcement provided by some provided by some consequenceconsequence that is that is external to the behavior.external to the behavior.

External reinforcers may undermine External reinforcers may undermine internal reinforcers**internal reinforcers**

Are Rewards always Are Rewards always reinforcing?reinforcing?

Overjustification effectOverjustification effect – –

The process by which extrinsic rewards The process by which extrinsic rewards can sometimes can sometimes displacedisplace internal internal motivationmotivation

-informative value vs. random consequence