Theories of learningFive main learning theories Behavioural Learning Theory Humanistic Theory Social Learning Theory Cognitive Learning Theories Constructivist Theory

What is Learning?

Slavin (1991), learning is a change in an individual that results from experience. learning occurs in many settings: formal, informal and non-formal

Behavioural Learning Theory - views learning as a permanent change in behaviourShows relationship between a learning action with the stimulus that reinforces itConsists : - - Pavlovs classical theory - Watsons conditioning theory - Thorndikes operant conditioning theory - Sinnners operant conditioning theory

. a relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about as a result of experience or practice (Huitt and Hummel, 1999). a relatively enduring change in observable behaviour that occurs as a result of experience (Skinner 1953, Walker, 1996)Behaviourists emphasize the role of experience or external events that brings about change in behaviour

Behavioural learning theory is represented as an S R paradigm. The organism is treated as a black box. What happens within the organism is only known through his overt behaviour.

Organism Stimulus Response (S) ( R ) S R Paradigm

Types of Behavioural Learning Theory

There are three types :

Contiguity Learning TheoryClassical or Respondent Conditioning TheoryOperant or Instrumental Conditioning Theory

Contiguity Learning Theory

Contiguity theory proposes that any stimulus and response connected in time or space will tend to be associated. For example, a student who always fails his mathematic tests but does well in one particular test after attempting a new technique will associate the stimulus of the new technique and the response of getting a good grade.

Conditioning Conditioning is defined as the process by which an organisms behaviour becomes associated with some stimulus in the environment, so that when the stimulus is presented, the behaviour occurs.

Behaviourists propose two kinds of conditioning to account for learning : classical conditioning oper

ant conditioning

Conditioning Conditioning is defined as the process by which an organisms behaviour becomes associated with some stimulus in the environment, so that when the stimulus is presented, the behaviour occurs.

Behaviourists propose two kinds of conditioning to account for learning : classical conditioning operant condition

Classical Conditioning TheoryThe major theorist in the development of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov. Found out that dogs deprived of food salivate when his assistants entered the room. Established the laws of classical conditioning.Thus, in classical conditioning, an organism learns to respond to a new stimulus in the same way it responds to the old, unconditioned stimulus (Bigge, 1964).

Pavlovs study : salivation (the unconditioned response) at first occurred in the presence of food (the unconditioned stimulus)

but after the food was paired with the bell, salivation (now the conditioned response) occurred in the presence of the bell (the conditioned stimulus neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus).

Operant Conditioning (instrumental conditioning)Not all learning is automatic and most behaviours are not elicited by stimuli; they are actually are voluntarily enacted.

People are said to actively operate on their environment to produce different kinds of consequences. These actions are called operants

The learning process involved in operant behaviour is called operant conditioning because we learn to behave in certain ways we operate on the environment (Woolfolk,1998).

(B.F. Skinner) an organism must first make the desired response and then a reward is provided.It reinforces the response and makes it more likely to recur. Learning is then said to occur when the participant must make a response to produce a change in the environment. For example If you respond in a particular way to a particular stimulus and the consequences are pleasant, then, you are most likely to respond the same way the next time you encounter the stimulus.

Principles of Behavioural Learning Theories(i) ReinforcementEducational psychologists define a reinforcement as any consequence that strengthens or increases the frequency of the behaviour. There are two types : primary reinforcement Satisfy basic biological needs or drives. For a hungry person, food is a primary reinforcer.

Examples of primary reinforcers are food, water, security, warmth,

Secondary reinforcement A secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that acquires reinforcing properties by being associated with a primary reinforcer.

Three categories:They are social reinforcers ( praises, smiles, hugs or attention),token or symbolic reinforcers (money, grades, stars, or points), activity reinforcers (access to toys, games or fun activities).

Positive reinforcement It is the presentation of a pleasant stimulus (food, water, praise, grades) that is given after the target response occurs

Negative reinforcementIt refers to a method of increasing behaviour through the removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a response.

(ii) Punishment Punishment refers to the presentation of a stimulus that produces a decrease in responding. Punishment may take the form of presentation of a stimulus (positive punisher) or the removal of a stimulus (negative punisher).Example, a student is scolded for playing in class, that behaviour is likely to occur less often. It is called positive punisher. However, if we suspend a basketball player for violating training rules, it becomes a negative punisher.

(iii) Extinction It is the removal of a pleasant stimulus that previously followed a response, thus decreasing the frequency of the response. Extinction is the key to managing the behaviour of students.(iv) ShapingIn operant conditioning, teachers are considered architects and builders of students behaviour. You should divide learning objectives into small tasks whereby you can teach each skill step by step, and reinforced one by one, gradually shaping the final skill .

Social Learning Theory Social learning theory is based on the behavioural learning theory but emphasises on social factor.

It holds that people come to think and behave as they do by observing others and then imitating behaviour that have reaped reward

- emphasizes on learning through observation and copying.

ModelingStorageReinforcementObservationBANDURAS MODELING THEORY

Bandura, ( 1986, 1997) social cognitive theory examines the processes involved as people learn from observing others and gradually acquire control over their own behaviour

Four important elements in observational learning are:Attention ( paying attention )Retention ( retaining information )Production ( producing behaviours )Motivation and reinforcement.

Cognitive Learning Theories Cognitive learning can be defined as A change in a persons mental structures that provides the capacity to demonstrate different behaviours (Eggen and Kauchak, 2001)

A general approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering and using knowledge (Woolfolk, 2001

Consist :- - Kohlers learning theory - Piagets learning theory - Bruners concept formation

Jean Piaget Piaget proposed a sequence of four qualitatively different stages of thinking: 1.Sensory motor stage: Infants acquire knowledge based on the sensory experiences of sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. 2.Preoperational stage: Preschoolers progress to the stage of acquiring knowledge of the world through their perceptions of their own experiences in the world. 3.Operational stage: Older children begin to apply the rules of logic to understand how the world works. 4.Formal stage: Adolescents, and adults progress to the stage where they can apply logic to hypothetical as well as to real situations.

Principle Concepts of Piagets Cognitive Developmental Theory

Organizationprocess of arranging information into mental systems in term of schemes. basic building blocks of thinking and are organized systems of action

Adaptation process of organizing our mental structures, we tend to make adjustment to the environment. Two basic processes are assimilation and accommodation

Assimilationprocess of incorporating a new event or object into the existing schemes. involves trying to understand something new by fitting it into what we have already known (Woolfolk,1998) AccommodationIt occurs when we change existing schemes to respond to a new situation. It involves altering the existing schemes or creating new schemes due to the new responses to new information. Once the new information cannot fit into the existing scheme, we need to adjust our thinking.

Humanistic Theory

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.The humanistic approach emphasises the whole student: the emotional and social aspect of a pupils life. approach assumes that students are naturally motivated to learn, provided the educational experience is meaningful. Hence, experiential learning is the core of humanistic approach. Also stresses the importance of teachers acting in a supportive and caring manner,

Constructivist Theory

It refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge on the basis of their experiences. Individuals active construction of meaning through his interactions with physical and social environments. People need opportunities to explore and experiment, just as the child continually drops the toy. Unknowingly, he is actually experimenting with the law of gravity. Teachers should provide opportunities for their students to test new ideas, elaborate on information, solve puzzles of daily life and create new responses to situations.

Elements/Principles of Constructivism

ConstructedStudents bring in experience and knowledge into the learning processStudents learn to learn as they learn: it consists of constructing meaning and constructing systems of meaningPrevious knowledge is the basis of new knowledge to be constructed

Active Learning

Learning is an active process in which the student uses sensory input to construct meaning out of it. It is not a passive acceptance of knowledge

Provide activities which engage the mind besides physical actions and hand-on experiences

- Learning involves language and Vygotsky puts forth that language and learning are inextricably intertwined

CollaborativeLearning is a social activity: learning is associated with other human beings, teachers, peers, and other acquaintancesProblem solving, inquiry and discovery learning as the main learning activity

Reflective ThinkingReflections on the learning activity thus implementing self control in learningFor example: Journal writing and post activity group discussion

EvolvingNewfound perception or ideas are counter check with original ideas or perception and vice versa

Implication of Learning Theories in T & L Associate positive, pleasant events with learning tasks. In classroom activities. emphasize group work and cooperation in learning.

Teachers should shape proper responses. Use programmed learning whereby tasks are broken down into small steps and organized in a systematic sequence.

Help students compare and contrast situations to recognize differences and similarities. This will enable them to discriminate and generalize appropriately.

Be clear and systematic in giving praise. Teachers should ensure that praise is given directly to appropriate behaviour at appropriate time or intervalGive clear and constructed feedback for students assignmentMake use of popular, well received or intelligent students as models. Make them carry out difficult tasks as models for the rest

Use think aloud technique and vicarious reinforcementHelp students to see relationship among concepts: use visuals, diagrams,framework, illustrations, summaries Attribute the students success to effort and ability. Reinforce students to build up their confidence in attaining success