Minggu 2 & 3 Sistem Rangka 1

The Skeletal SystemSkeleton comes from Greek for dried up bodyThe skeleton is the framework upon which our entire bodies are built.Our bones are light yet strong, and are perfectly suited to provide protection and movement.

NORHIZAN ZAINOL i3p, Skeleton

The Skeletal SystemThe skeleton is divided into two divisions, the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.The axial skeleton are the bones that form the longitudinal axis of the bodyThe appendicular skeleton is composed of the bones of the limbs and the girdles.


The Functions of BonesOur bones give us shape and form, and contribute to homeostasis in several important ways.1.) Support: Bones are the girders of our bodyThey also serve to protect soft organs, and provide attachment points for muscles


The Functions of Bones2.) Protection : Bones protect soft tissues such as the brain, spinal cord, and the organs in the thoracic cavity. 3.) Movement : The skeletal muscles attach to the bones with tendons.The bones act as levers to move the body and its parts.


The Functions of Bones4.) Storage : The internal cavities of bones are used to store fat. The bones themselves are repositories for minerals such as calcium and phosphorous. The turnover of these minerals is controlled by hormones.5.) Blood Cell Formation: Hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow cavities of certain bones


Classification Of BonesAdult skeletons have 206 bones Bones are made of two basic types of osseous tissue :Compact BoneSpongy Bone


Bones of the Human BodyThe adult skeleton has 206 bonesTwo basic types of bone tissueCompact boneHomogeneousSpongy boneSmall needle-like pieces of boneMany open spacesFigure 5.2b


Classification Of BonesCompact bone is smooth, dense and appears homogeneous.Spongy bone is made of needle-like pieces of bone with plenty of open space Bones can also be classified by shape as well


Bones of the Human BodyThe adult skeleton has 206 bonesTwo basic types of bone tissueCompact boneHomogeneousSpongy boneSmall needle-like pieces of boneMany open spacesFigure 5.2b


Classification of Bones on the Basis of ShapeFigure 5.1


Classification Of BonesLong bones Short bonesFlat BonesIrregular bones


Classification Of BonesLong Bones : Are longer than they are wide,Have a shaft, with enlarged heads at both ends,And are made mostly of compact bone


Structures of a Long BonePeriosteumOutside covering of the diaphysisFibrous connective tissue membraneSharpeys fibersSecure periosteum to underlying boneArteriesSupply bone cells with nutrientsFigure 5.2c


Classification Of BonesAll the bones of the limbs are long bones: Arm:Humerus, the upper bone of the arm, articulates proximally at the shoulder, and distally at the elbow with the proximal end of the ulna.The Radius is the lateral bone of the lower armThe Ulna is the medial bone of the lower arm


Classification Of BonesLeg: Femur, largest, strongest bone of the body. Articulates proximally with the acetabulum of the hip, and distally with the tibia to form the knee joint.Tibia, larger of the two bones of the lower leg, commonly called the shin bone; proximal end atriculates with the distal end of the femur to form the knee joint. The distal end articulates with the tarsals to help form the ankle. Fibula is the smaller of the bones of the lower leg; the proximal end does not help form the knee, but the distal end does help form the ankle.


Classification Of BonesShort Bones: Are generally cube shaped, and contain mostly spongy bone.The patella, or kneecap, and the bones of the wrist(carpals) and bones of the ankle(tarsals) are examples of short bones.The patella is a sesamoid bone, which forms inside a tendon.


Classification Of BonesFlat Bones: Are thin, flat and usually curved.Are composed as a sandwitch of spongy bone between layers of compact bone. Examples include most bones of the skull, the ribs, and the sternum.


Classification Of BonesIrregular Bones: All bones that do not fit into any previous group are irregular bones.The vertebrae and the bones of the hip are examples.


Structure of a Long BoneFigure 5.2 page 133 The structure of a long bone has specific regions with specific names.DiaphysisPeriosteum

Epiphysis

Epiphyseal line

Epiphyseal Plate

Articular cartilage

Medullary Cavity


Gross Anatomy of a Long BoneDiaphysisShaftComposed of compact boneEpiphysis Ends of the boneComposed mostly of spongy boneCovered by hyaline cartilage(articular)Figure 5.2a


Structures of a Long BoneArticular cartilageCovers the external surface of the epiphysesMade of hyaline cartilageDecreases friction at joint surfacesFigure 5.2a


Gross Anatomy of a Long BonePeriosteumConnective tissue membrane that covers the diaphysis

Epiphyseal Line --In the formed bones of adults, a thin line of bony tissue that marks the spot where the diaphysis and epiphyses meetFigure 5.2a


Gross Anatomy of a Long BoneMedullary CavityThe hollow space found in the shaft of a long bone.In adults it is filled with fat.In infants it is filled with red marrow, used for blood cell formationIn adults red marrow is found in spongy bone of flat bones, and epiphyses of some long bones Figure 5.2a


Bone Markings and LandmarksBones are not smooth and featureless Muscles, tendons, ligaments, nerves and blood vessels must attach to or pass through bones to reach body tissues.There are two categories for bone markings:Projections or processes which grow out from the bones. Depressions or cavities which are indentations in the bone.


Bone Markings and LandmarksA device for remembering bone markings: All terms beginning with T are projections.All terms beginning with F (except for facet), are depressionsSee table 5.1 on page 134


Microscopic Anatomy of BonesMicroscopic examination of compact bone reveals complex structural elements Mature bone cells are called osteocytesOsteo = BoneOsteocytes are found in tiny spaces within compact bone known as lacunae (little lake)


Microscopic Anatomy of BonesLacunae are arranged in concentric circle called lamellae The lamellae are arranged around central canals called Haversian canalsEach unit consisting of a central canal and the matrix rings is called an Osteon, or Haversian system


Microscopic Anatomy of BoneFigure 5.3


Microscopic Anatomy of BonesCentral Canals run length-wise in the bone carrying nerves and blood vessels to all areas of the bone Tiny canals called canaliculi radiate outward from the central canals to all lacunaePerforating canals called Volkmanns canals run into the bone at right angles to the shaft.


Microscopic Anatomy of BoneFigure 5.3


Microscopic Anatomy of BonesThis elaborate network of blood vessels and canals keep the bone cells very well supplied with nutrients despite being very hard. Bones usually heal quickly and well.It is the inorganic salts that provide the hardness of the bones, while the organic components provide the flexibility.


Bone Formation and GrowthThe process of bone formation is called ossification. Ossification involves 2 major phasesFirst : In utero The hyaline cartilage model is completely covered by bone matrix, formed by osteoblasts


Microscopic Anatomy of BoneCanaliculi Tiny canalsRadiate from the central canal to lacunaeForm a transport systemDetail of Figure 5.3


Changes in the Human SkeletonIn embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilageDuring development, much of this cartilage is replaced by boneCartilage remains in isolated areasBridge of the noseParts of ribsJoints


Bone Formation and GrowthFor a short time, the fetus has cartilage bones enclosed by bony bones Second : The enclosed cartilage is digested away, thus opening the medullary cavity within the new boneAt birth, or soon after, most of the cartilage model has been converted into bone, except for 2 regions:


Changes in the Human SkeletonIn embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilageDuring development, much of this cartilage is replaced by boneCartilage remains in isolated areasBridge of the noseParts of ribsJoints


Long Bone Formation and GrowthFigure 5.4a


Bone Formation and GrowthArticular cartilage Epiphyseal platesArticular cartilage persists for life ( hopefully)Epiphyseal plates allow for longitudinal bone growth


Long Bone Formation and GrowthFigure 5.4a


Bone GrowthEpiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during childhoodNew cartilage is continuously formedOlder cartilage becomes ossifiedCartilage is broken downBone replaces cartilage


Long Bone Formation and GrowthFigure 5.4b


Bone GrowthBones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stopsBones change shape somewhatBones grow in width


Bone GrowthOsteoblasts in the periosteum add new bone tissue to the external surface of the bone. Appositional growth is the process by which a bone widensLong bone growth is under hormonal control; growth hormone and sex hormonesBones are dynamic structures, and are remodeled constantly in response to:


Bone GrowthCa+ in the bloodStress due to gravityForce applied by skeletal musclesWhen Ca+ levels drop the parathyroid gland releases parathyroid hormone (PTH) which stimulates osteoclast activity.This releases Ca+ into the blood


Bone RemodelingIf Ca+ levels in the blood are too high, a condition known as hypercalcemia, then Ca+ is deposited on the bones.Bone RemodelingBones maintain normal proportions during long bone growthIncreased demands on the skeleton cause it change in response


Bone RemodelingActivity helps build strong bonesInactivity causes bones to lose mass due to Ca loss, (atrophy)PTH determines when and if bones are broken down.Physical stress determines where bone is built


Fractures and Bone RepairActivity helps build strong bonesInactivity causes bones to lose mass due to Ca loss, (atrophy)PTH determines when and if bones are broken down.Physical stress determines where bone is built


Bone FracturesA break in a boneTypes of bone fracturesClosed (simple) fracture break that does not penetrate the skinOpen (compound) fracture broken bone penetrates through the skinBone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilizationRealignment of the bone


Common Types of FracturesTable 5.2


Repair of Bone FracturesHematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formedBreak is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callusFibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callusBony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch


Stages in the Healing of a Bone FractureFigure 5.5


Bone FracturesA break in a boneTypes of bone fracturesClosed (simple) fracture break that does not penetrate the skinOpen (compound) fracture broken bone penetrates through the skinBone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilizationRealignment of the bone


Common Types of FracturesTable 5.2


Repair of Bone FracturesHematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formedBreak is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callusFibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callusBony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch


The Axial SkeletonForms the longitudinal part of the bodyDivided into three partsSkullVertebral columnBony thorax


The Axial SkeletonFigure 5.6


The SkullTwo sets of bonesCraniumFacial bonesBones are joined by suturesOnly the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint


The SkullFigure 5.7


Bones of the SkullFigure 5.11


Human Skull, Superior ViewFigure 5.8


Human Skull, Inferior ViewFigure 5.9


Bones of the skullThe cranium is composed of 8 bones, except for 2 paired bones, they are all single bones.Frontal Bone : the forehead, also forms the the projections under the eyebrows and the superior part of each eye orbitParietal Bones : paired bones that form the superior and lateral walls of the skullThey meet at the sagittal suture and form the coronal suture where they meet the frontal


The SkullFigure 5.7


Bones of the skullThe temporal bones are inferior to the parietal bones, and join with them at the squamous sutureThere are several important bone markings on the temporal bone.External auditory meatus: ear canalStyloid process : allows for muscle attachmentZygomatic process : the thin bridge of bone that joins anteriorly with the zygomatic bone


Bones of the skullMastoid process provides an attachment site for some neck muscles. Also contains the mastoid sinuses.Jugular foramen : allows for the passage of the jugular vein .Carotid canal : anterior to the jugular foramen, allows for passage of the carotid artery.


Human Skull, Inferior ViewFigure 5.9


Bones of the skullOccipital Bone forms the inferior posterior portion of the skull.The occipital bone contains the magnum foramen, which is the large opening that allows for passage of the spinal cord from the base of the brain down the vertebral column .The occipital bone joins with the temporal and parietal bones


Bones of the skullThe occipital bone features the occipital condyles, which articulate with the first cervical vertebrae, called the atlas.The sphenoid bone is the wing shaped bone which spans the skull, most of which is visible on the interior of the skull .


Bones of the Face14 bones compose the face12 Bones are paired, and only the mandible and the vomer are single bones.Maxillae ( maxillary bones) fuse to form the upper jaw. All of the facial bones join the maxillae, except the mandible


Bones of the FaceThe palatine processes form the anterior hard palateThe maxillae also contain the para-nasal sinusesPalatine Bones paired bones that lie posterior to the hard palateFailure of these bones to fuse results in a cleft palate


Paranasal SinusesHollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavityFigure 5.10


Bones of the FaceThe Zygomatic bones : commonly called the cheekbones, they also form a large portion of the eye socketsVomer : single plow-shaped bone that forms the nasal septumInferior conchae : thin curved bones that project from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity.Mandible : Lower jaw, the largest strongest bone of the face


Bones of the FaceHyoid Bone:The only bone in the body that does not directly articulate with another bone.It is located in the mid neck, above the larynx, and is anchored to the styloid process by ligamentsShaped like a horse shoe, it serves as a movable base for the tongue and as a point of muscular attachment for muscles in the neck


The Hyoid BoneThe only bone that does not articulate with another boneServes as a moveable base for the tongueFigure 5.12


Fetal SkullThe fetal skull is large when compared to the body of the fetus.A newborns skull has regions that have yet to be converted to bone.These soft spots are called fontanels ( little fountains)The rhythm of the babys pulse can be felt in these areas.They are usually converted to bone 22 to 24 months post partum.


The Fetal SkullThe fetal skull is large compared to the infants total body lengthFigure 5.13


The Fetal SkullFontanelles fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bonesAllow the brain to growConvert to bone within 24 months after birthFigure 5.13


Vertebral ColumnIs formed by 26 irregular bonesIs a flexible, curved structure extending from the skull to the pelvisProtects the delicate spinal cordTransmits the weight load of the body to the lower limbs


The Vertebral ColumnVertebrae separated by intervertebral discsThe spine has a normal curvatureEach vertebrae is given a name according to its locationFigure 5.14


Vertebral columnThere are 33 separate vertebrae at birthNine of these fuse to for the composite bones of the sacrum and the coccyxFrom superior to inferior the bones are designated by location and numberCervical7Thoracic12Lumbar5


Vertebral columnThe number of bones in each group can remembered by the time of day we typically eat.7 Cervical12 Thoracic5 LumbarIndividual vertebrae are separated by flexible fibrocartilage intervertebral disks


Vertebral columnThe intervertebral disks absorb shock, and are highly compressible.They are 90% waterAs we age, the water content decreases and the disks become less flexibleThis helps explain why some elderly people seem to shrink with age.


Vertebral columnHerniated, or slipped disks can press against the spinal cord or nerves that exit the spinal cord..This can result in extreme pain, and loss of functionSpinal CurvaturesThe spine is curved to help absorb shock.


Vertebral columnThe thoracic and sacral curves are called primary curves because they are present at birth.The secondary curves develop later.The cervical develops when the baby begins to raise its head, and the lumbar when the child begins to walk.


Structure of VertebraeAll vertebrae have a similar structural pattern.Some common features:Body or centrum: the weight bearing part of the vertebra, and it faces anteriorly.Vertebral arch: formed by the joining of all the posterior extensions from the body of the vertebrae.Vertebral foramen: canal through which the spinal cord passes.


Structure of VertebraeTransverese Process: Two lateral projections from the vertebral archSpinous Process : Single projection arising from the posterior aspect of the vertebral arch.Superior and Inferior Articular Processes : paired projections that allow vertebra to form joints with adjacent vertebraeVertebral arch: formed by the joining of all the posterior extensions from the body of the vertebrae.


Structure of Cervical VertebraeCervical vertebrae ( C1 to C7 )form the neck region of the spine.C1 and C2 are specialized, they perform functions not shared by other vcervical vertebraeThe Atlas ( C1)Has no body


Regional Characteristics of VertebraeFigure 5.17ab


Structure of Cervical VertebraeTransverse processes have depressions that receive the occipital condyles.The Axis ( C2 ) Acts as a pivot for the atlas and the skullC3 through C7 are the smallest and lightest vertebraeTheir spinous processes are short and divide into two branches.


Structure of Cervical VertebraeThe transverse processes contain foramina for the arteries to pass through on their way to the brain.They are the only group of vertebrae with this feature.


Structure of Thoracic VertebraeThoracic vertebrae ( T1 T 12 ).Larger than cervical vertebraeHave two costal demifacets on each side to receive the head of the ribsHave long spinous processes that angle sharply downward.When viewed from the side resemble the head of giraffe


Regional Characteristics of VertebraeFigure 5.17cd


Structure of Lumbar VertebraeLumbar vertebrae ( L1 L 5 ).Are the strongest and stursiest of all vertebrae.Have large block- like bodiesSpinous processes are short, and hatchet shaped.When viewed from the side resemble the head of a moose.


Regional Characteristics of VertebraeFigure 5.17cd


The Sacrum Formed by 5 fused vertebraeSuperior aspect articulates with the inferior aspect of L5Laterally the wing-like alae articulate with the hip bones to form the sacroiliac jointsIt forms the posterior wall of the pelvisThe vertebral canal continues inside the sacrum as the sacral canal


The Sacrum


The Coccyx Formed by the fusion of 3 to 5 tiny irregular vertebraeIt is the vestigial tail in humans

The ThoraxThe sternum, ribs and thoracic vertebrae make up the thorax, or thoracic cage


The Thorax The Thoracic cage surrounds and protects the heart, lungs and major blood vessels. The SternumIs a flat bone composed of the fusion of 3 bones. Superior to inferior they are:ManubriumBody ( Gladiolus)Xiphoid process


The Thorax


The Sternum The sternum articulates with the first 7 pairs of ribs.The sternum has 3 important landmarksThe jugular notchThe sternal angleThe xiphisternal joint


The Sternum The jugular notch: the concave upper part of the manubrium, usually at the level of T3The sternal angle : site where the manubrium and the gladiolus meet to form a slight angle.It is the reference point for locating the second intecostal space for listening to the heart valvesXiphisternal joint : Where the sternal body and the xiphoid process meet. Used as a landmark to locate the level of T9


The Ribs12 Pairs of ribs form the thoracic cageMen and women have the SAME number of ribsAll ribs articulate with the vertebral column posteriorlyThe first 7 pairs are known as true ribs because they attach directly to the sternum by costal cartilage


The Ribs The next 5 pairs are false ribs because they either attach indirectly to the sternum, or not at allThe last 2 pairs of false ribs lack sternal attachment, and are called floating ribs


Appendicular skeletonComposed of 126 bones Shoulder girdleAlso known as the pectoral or shoulder girdle, consists of 2 bonesClavicleScapula


ClavicleAlso called the collar boneAttaches medially to the manubriumAttaches laterally to the scapulaServes to hold the arm away from the thorax, and helps prevent shoulder dislocationA broken clavicle causes the shoulder to collapse medially


ScapulaeAlso called the shoulder bladesFlat, triangular in appearance, has 2 important processesAcromion process: the enlarged end of the spine of the scapulaCoracoid process : points over the top of the shoulder and helps anchor the muscles of the arm


ScapulaeThe scapula does not attach directly to the axial skeleton, but is held in place by musclesThe scapula has three borders:SuperiorMedialLateral


ScapulaeThe scapula has three angles:SuperiorInferiorLateral


ScapulaeThe glenoid cavity is the shallow socket that receives the head of the humerousThe shoulder girdle is exceptionally free to moveHowever the price of this range of motion is that it is easily dislocated


Bones of the upper limbsThere are 30 bones in each upper limbThe arm is formed by the single long bone, the humerusThe proximal end has a rounded head that fits into the glenoid cavity


Bones of the upper limbsThe greater and lesser tubercles opposite the head are sites for muscular attachmentThe deltoid tuberosity is a roughened are at the midpoint of the shaft where the deltoid muscle attachesThe radial grove allows for the passage of the radial nerve.


Bones of the upper limbsThe distal end of the humerus has a spool shaped trochlea on the medial side, and the ball like capitulum on the lateral sideOn the anterior surface the coronoid fossa is a depression above the trochleaOn the posterior surface you will find the olecranon fossaThese 2 depressions allow for free movement of the elbow


The ForearmThe radius and ulna form the forearmIn anatomical position the radius is the lateral boneThe radius and ulna articulate with each other proximally and distally at small radio-ulnar jointsThe bones are also connected by a long interosseous membrane


Bones of the Upper LimbThe forearm has two bonesUlnaRadiusFigure 5.21c


The ForearmThe head of the radius forms a joint with the capitulumThe radial tuberosity is the location for the attachment of the biceps tendonThe ulna is the medial boneThe coronoid fossa can be found on the proximal anterior surface of the boneThe olecranon process can be found on the proximal posterior surface


Bones of the Upper LimbThe forearm has two bonesUlnaRadiusFigure 5.21c


The ForearmThe coronoid and olecranon processes grip the trochlea like pliers to form the elbow.


The HandThe hand consists of the carpals, metacarpals and phalanges.The carpals are 2 rows of 4 irregular bones, and form the wristHamatePisiformTriquetralLunate

TrapezoidTrapezium ScaphoidCapitate


The HandThe handCarpals wristMetacarpals palmPhalanges fingersFigure 5.22


The HandThe carpals are bound together by ligaments that restrict movement between themThe palm consists of metacarpals numbered 1 to 5, starting on the thumb side.Each hand has 14 phalanges, and all of the fingers are composed of three phalanges, except for the thumb, which has 2.


Bones of the Pelvic GirdleHip bonesComposed of three pair of fused bonesIliumIschiumPubic boneThe total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvisProtects several organsReproductive organsUrinary bladderPart of the large intestine


The PelvisFigure 5.23a


The Pelvic GirdleThe pelvic bone is formed by 2 coxal bones Each of these bones is formed by the fusion of 3 bones.IliumIschiumPubis


The Pelvis: Right Coxal BoneFigure 5.23b


The Pelvic GirdleThe pelvis is constructed of fairly large and heavy bonesThe hips are responsible for bearing the entire weight of the torsoThey also bear the stress associated with locomotionReproductive organs, urinary bladder, and part of the large intestine are protected by the pelvis


Gender Differences of the PelvisFigure 5.23c


The ThighThe femur is the only bone in the thighIt is the largest, strongest bone of the bodyThe proximal end of the femur has a ball-like head, and an obvious neckThe femur slants medially to bring the knees in line with the bodys center of gravity


Bones of the Lower LimbsThe thigh has one boneFemur thigh boneFigure 5.24ab


Distally, the lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibiaThe LEGThe larger and more medial bone in the lower leg is the tibia(shinbone)Proximally, it articulates with the distal femur to form the knee jointDistally the medial malleolus forms the inner bulge of the ankle


Bones of the Lower LimbsThe leg has two bonesTibiaFibulaFigure 5.24c


The fibulaThe smaller, lateral bone of the lower legThe fibula does not form the knee jointThe distal end of the fibula forms the outer part of the ankle with its lateral malleolusThe tibia and fibula are connected by an interosseous membrane, just like the radius and ulna are.


Bones of the Lower LimbsThe thigh has one boneFemur thigh boneFigure 5.24ab


Bones of the ankle and footThe footTarsus ankleMetatarsals solePhalanges toesFigure 5.25


Minggu 2 & 3 Sistem Rangka 1

Documents

Transcript of Minggu 2 & 3 Sistem Rangka 1