LearnMandarinStarterGuides

INDEX

ABOUTMANDARINTONES

HOWTOPRACTISEYOURMANDARINTONES

LEARNTOCOUNT

LEARNBODYPARTS

DAILYUSECHINESEVOCABULARY

BASICMANDARIN

BASICBUSINESSMANDARIN

BASICJOBINTERVIEW

ABOUTCHINESEWORDS

HOWTOWRITECHINESEWORDS

ABOUTMANDARINTONES1

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Mandarintonesareof tenoneof themost signif icant problemsforbeginninglearnersof Mandarin,and

arealsooverlookedlateron.Andif theblogosphereisanythingtogoby,they’resomethingthat classes

don’t handleverywell.

So,here’sasomegoodwaystostudytonescheaplyorforf ree,f romanywhereintheworld.I’mnot

goingtorankorsaythisis‘howtolearntones’,but anycombinat ionof theseshouldbegoodfor

studyingthem.

ABOUTMANDARINTONES2

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HOWTOPRACTISEYOURMANDARINTONES1

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InKarate,youpract iceakickhundredsof t imessothat youcandoit unconsciously.Youcreatea

musclememory.Af tersomanyrepet it ions,youbodyinst inct ivelyknowshowtoproduceawellformed

kick.WhenstudyingChinese,youneedtodevelopyourmouth’s“tonemusclememory”.Youneedto

pract icetonesincombinat ionunt ilyoucansaythemcorrect lywithout thinkingabout it .Here’satableof

the20wordsyouneedtodoget bet tertones.

x-1x-2x-3x-4x-5

1-xtāshuō他说tālái他来tāzǒu他走tāzuò他做shuōle说了

2-xméishuō没说méilái没来méizǒu没走méizuò没做méile没了

3-xnǐshuō你说nǐlái你来nǐzǒu你走nǐzuò你做zǒule走了

4-xjiùshuo1就说jiùlái就来jiùzǒu就走jiùzuò就做zuòle做了

Just pract icesayingoneroworcolumnat at imeandthenmoveontothenext roworcolumn.That ’sall

it t akes.

Basically,youshouldstart withthebasics,andmovetomoredif f icult content .

1)Start withindividualtones

Youshouldst illstart byget t ingfamiliarwiththeindividualtonesonebyone.Forexample:

chī(f irst tone–“toeat ”)

niú(secondtone–“cow”)

mǎ(thirdtone–“horse”)

ròu(fourthtone–“meat ”)

Youcanlistentothemseparately(throughanat ivespeaker,orwitharesourcelikeFluentU).

2)Start withsimplertonepairs(theoneswhichincludef irst andfourthtone)

Then,youcanmoveontothesimplertonepairs.Most peoplef indthef irst toneandthefourthtonetobe

theeasiest ,soyoucanlearnthetonepairswhichincludethem.

Forexample:

chīlà(f irst toneandfourthtone–“toeat somethingspicy”)

3)Builduptomoredif f icult tonepairs(theoneswhichincludesecondandthirdtone)

Onceyoufeelcomfortablewithtonepairs,youcanlearnmoreof thetonepairswhichincludethe

second(rising)toneandthethird(low)tone.

Forexample:

měiguó(thirdtoneandsecondtone–“America”)

HOWTOPRACTISEYOURMANDARINTONES2

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4)Importanceof Feedback

Throughout allof this,makesurethat youneedtomakesurethat you’reget t ingenoughfeedback.You

shoulddef initelyget feedbackthroughateacherornat ivespeakerwhocancandidlypinpoint the

mistakesthat you’remaking.Youdon’t want ateacherwhoispolite,but not that helpful.

5)TackleDif f icult SentencesWhichCombineT rickyPinyinandToneCombinat ions

Later,whenyoufeelcomfortablewitheventhemoredif f icult tonepairs,youcanmoveontomore

complexsentenceswhichchallengebothyourtonesandpinyin.(Don’t neglect tocont inuetolearnand

improveyourpinyin).Forexample,herearemy2favorites:

nĭshìbùshìxiăngchī(“Doyouwant toeat ornot?”)

wŏxiăngmăiyīliàngzìxíngchē(“Iwouldliketobuyabicycle”)

Bythet imeyouget tothef if thstep,youshouldbeget t ingreallygood,assumingthat you’vehadanat ive

speakertoprovideyouregularfeedback.

LEARNTOCOUNT

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LEARNBODYPARTS

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DAILYUSECHINESEVOCABULARY1

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YourChinesevocabularyshouldbeginwithwordsyoucoulduseinyourdailylif eandshouldbefamiliar

withalready.BelowaresomeusefulChinesevocabularyandexpressionsforChinesegreet ings,

Chinesedaysof theweek,Chinesewordsforfamilymembers,Chinesewordsformealt imes,Chinese

t imesof theday,andChinesewordsforColors.

DAILYUSECHINESEVOCABULARY2

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Yes shì

No búshì

Thankyou xìexìe

Thankyouverymuch f ei- chánggànxìe/henvgànxìe

You'rewelcome buyongxie

Please qíng

Excuseme qivngràng,duibuqi

Hello Nihao

Goodbye zàijiàn

Solong zàijiàn

Goodmorning zaovan- .

Goodafternoon wuvan- .

Goodevening wanvshànghaov.

Goodnight wanvan- .

Idonotunderstand wovbùmíngbái/wovbùdovng

Howdoyousaythisin[English]? zheyòng[hànyuv]zenmejiavng?

Doyouspeak... nivhùijiavng...ma?

English yi-ngyuv.

French f áyuv.

German déyuv.

Spanish xi- bányáyuv.

Chinese puvto-nghùa/hànyuv.

I wov.

We wovmén

You(singular,familiar) niv.

You(singular,formal) nín

You(plural) nivmén

They t a- mén

Whatisyourname? nivjiàoshenmemíngz i?

Nicetomeetyou. henvgao- xìngyùjiànniv.

Howareyou? nivhaovma?

Good haov.

Bad bùhaov.

Soso háihaov.

Wife qi- z iv.

Husband zhàngfu- .

Daughter nüver

Son érz i

Mother ma- ma

Father ba- ba

Friend péngyouv.

Whereisthebathroom?Whereisthetoilet?

xivshouvjian- zai- nali?

zero líng

one yi- .

two èr

three san- .

four sì

five wuv.

six lìu

seven qi- .

eight ba- .

nine jiuv.

ten shí

eleven shíyi- .

twelve shíèr

thirteen shísan- .

fourteen shísì

fifteen shíwuv.

sixteen shíliù

seventeen shíqi- .

eighteen shíbav.

nineteen shíjiuv.

twenty èrshí

twentyone èrshíyi- .

thirty san- shí

forty sìshí

fifty wuvshí

sixty liùshí

seventy qi- shí

eighty ba- shí

ninety jiuvshí

onehundred yìbaiv.

onethousand yìqianv.

onemillion yìbaivwàn

Howmuchdoesthiscost? zheduo- shaovqián?

Whatisthis? zheshishenme?

I'llbuyit. wovmaiv.

Iwouldliketobuy... wovyàomaiv...

Doyouhave... niyouvméiyouv...

Doyouacceptcreditcards? nijie- shòuxìnyòngkavma?

Open kai- .

Closed guan- .

Postcard míngxìnpiàn

Stamps yóupiào

Alittle yidian(r)er

Alot henvduo- .

All quánbù

Breakfast zaovcan- .

Lunch wuvcan- .

Dinner wanvcan- .

Vegetarian sùshízhev.

Kosher yóutàihéfavshíwù

Cheers! ganbei

Pleasebringthebill. qingvjíezhàng.

Bread miànbao- .

Beverage yinvliào

Coffee ka- fei- .

Tea chá

Juice guovzhi- .

Water shuiv.

Beer píjiuv.

Wine jiuv.

Salt yán

Pepper hújiao- .

Meat roù

Beef niúroù

Pork zhu- roù

Fish yú

Poultry jia- qinv.

Vegetable cài

Fruit shuivguov.

Potato mavlíngshuv.

Salad sa- là

Dessert t iánpinv.

Icecream bing- qi- lín/xuevgào

Whereis...? ...zaivnaliv?

Howmuchisthefare? che- fèiduoshaov?

Ticket piao

Oneticketto...,please. yìzha-ngqù...depiào.

Whereareyougoing? nivqùnaliv?

Wheredoyoulive? nivzhùzàinaliv?

Train huovche- .

Bus gong- gòngqìche- /gong- che- .

Subway,Underground dìt iev.

Airport f ei- ji- changv.

Trainstation huovche- zhàn

Busstation gong- gòngqìche- zhàn/gong- che- zhàn

Subwaystation,Undergroundstation dìt ievzhàn

Departure chu- jìng

Arrival rùjìng

Carrentalagency chu- zu- qìchèzhang- .

Parking t íngche- changv.

Hotel lü'guanv.

Room kèfáng

Reservation yùdìng

Arethereanyvacanciesfortonight? jin- wanvyouvméiyouvkong- fáng?

Novacancies kèmanv/méiyouvkong- fáng

Passport hùzhào

Left zuov.

Right yòu

Straight zhí

Up shàng

Down xià

Far yuanv.

Near jìn

Long cháng

Short duanv.

Map dìtù

TouristInformation liuvyóuwènxúnchù

Postoffice yóujú

Museum bówúguanv.

Bank yínháng

Policestation jingvchájú

Hospital yi- yuàn

Pharmacy,Chemists yàofáng

Store,Shop diàn

Restaurant jiuvlóu

School xúexiáo

Church jiàotáng

Restrooms xivshouvjian- .

Street jie- .

Square f ang- ,guangchang

Mountain shan- .

Hill shan- /qiu- .

Valley shan- guv.

Ocean haiv,yang

Lake hú

River hé

SwimmingPool yóuyongvchí

Tower t av.

Bridge qiáo

Whattimeisit? jídianvzhòngle?

7:13,Seventhirteen qi- dianvshísan- fen- .

3:15,Threefifteen san- dianvshíwuvfen- .

3:15,Aquarterpastthree san- dianvyíkè

11:30,Eleventhirty shíyi- dianvsan- shífen- .

11:30,Halfpasteleven shíyi- dianvbàn

1:45,Oneforty- five yi- dianvsìshíwuvfen- .

1:45,Aquartertilltwo yi- dianvsìshíwuvfen- .

Day rì/t ian- .

Week xing- qi- .

Month yùe.

Year nián.

Monday xing- qi- yi- .

Tuesday xing- qi- èr

Wednesday xing- qi- san- .

Thursday xing- qi- sì

Friday xing- qi- wuv.

Saturday xing- qi- liù

Sunday xing- qi- rì/xing- qi- t iàn

January yi- yùe

February èryùe

March san- yùe

April sìyùe

May wuvyùe

June liùyùe

July qìyùe

August bàyùe

September jiuvyùe

October shíyùe

November shíyi- yùe

December shíèryùe

Spring chun- .

Summer xià.

Fall,Autumn qiu- .

Winter dòng.

Today jin- t ian- .

Yesterday zúot ian- .

Tomorrow míngt ian- .

Birthday sheng- rì

HappyBirthday! sheng- rìkuàilè!

DAILYUSECHINESEVOCABULARY3

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DAILYUSECHINESEVOCABULARY3

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BASICMANDARIN1

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BASICMANDARIN2

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BASICBUSINESSMANDARIN

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SpeakingChineseinabusinessset t ingisof tenchallenging.Let 'sseeadialoguebelow.

KeyLearningPoints(Preview):

你(nĭ)and您(nín):pronyou

第一天上班Dìyīt iānshàngbānFirst dayof work

LǐQiáng:Nĭhăo,nĭshìxīnláideba?Rúguŏwŏméijìcuò,nĭjiàoJiékè,duìma?

李强：你好，你是新来的吧？如果我没记错，你叫杰克，对吗？

LiQiang:Hello,aren't youanewcomerhere?Andif I'mnot mistaken,youmust beJack,right?

JiéKè:Shìde,zhèshìwŏdìyīt iānshàngbān.

杰克：是的，这是我第一天上班。

Jack:Yes,Iam.It 'smyf irst dayhere.

LǐQiáng:Nĭhăo,wŏshìzhègegōngsīdezŏngjīnglĭ,wŏjiàoLĭQiáng!

李强：你好，我是这个公司的总经理，我叫李强！

LiQiang:Howdoyoudo!Iamthegeneralmanagerof thiscompanyandmynameisLiQiang.

JiéKè:Nínhăo,LĭZŏng,jiǔyăngníndedàmíng.

杰克：您好，李总，久仰您的大名。

Jack:Howdoyoudo!Mr.Li,I'veheardagreat dealabout you.

LǐQiáng:Bùgăndāng,hěngāoxìngjiàndàonĭ!

李强：不敢当，很高兴见到你！

LiQiang:Iamaf raidthat isanoverstatement .Goodtomeet you.

JiéKè:Jiàndàonínwŏyěgăndàofēichángróngxìng.

杰克：见到您我也感到非常荣幸。

Jack:Pleasuretomeet you,too.

LǐQiáng:NĭshìMěiguórén,duìba?Nĭdehànyǔjiăngdehěnbúcuò!

李强：你是美国人，对吧？你的汉语讲得很不错！

BASICJOBINTERVIEW

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InyourChineseinterview,youcansaythefollowingphrases:我叫…(wǒjiào…)Mynameis…,

我来自…(wǒláizì…)I'mf rom…,我性格外向活泼(wǒxìnggéwàixiànghuópo)I'moutgoingandact ive.

Basically,peoplealwayssaythesethreethingsabout themselvesat aChineseinterview:name,

personalit y,aswellashabit s.Forexample,"我叫李华，我性格沉稳踏实。我比较爱好文学和音乐(Wǒ

jiàoLǐHuá,wǒxìnggéchénwěntāshi.Wǒbǐjiàoàihàowénxuéhéyīnyuè)."

Agood,completeself -int roduct ionforajobinterviewinChineseshouldbelikethis:

Inthef irst paragraph,youshouldgiveyourname,andgreet others.

我叫XXX(yourname),很高兴见到您。WǒjiàoXXX,hěngāoxìngjiàndàonín.

Second,youcantalkabout yourinterests,hobbies,educat ionbackground,andyourpersonalit ysuchas

我的兴趣比较广泛，喜欢阅读，音乐和体育运动。我性格开朗，容易与人相处(Wǒdexìngqùbǐjiào

guǎngfàn,xǐhuɑnyuèdú,yīnlèhét ǐyùyùndòng.Wǒxìnggékāilǎng,róngyìyǔrénxiāngchǔ)andsoon.Last but not least ,showthat youhavepract icalexperienceandtalkabout someof yourpreviousjobs.

Forexample,我在一家外企做销售兼职，学会了团队合作，还学会了与人相处，管理自己的时间。

(Wǒzàiyìjiāwàiqǐzuòxiāoshòujiānzhí,xuéhuìletuánduìhézuò,háixuéhuìleyǔrénxiāngchǔ,guánlǐ

zìjǐdeshíjiān.)

ABOUTCHINESEWORDS1

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TheChinesewrit ingsystemisanuniquephenomenoninthemodernworldof alphabet scripts.Instead

of afewdozenlet ters,it hasdevelopedthousandsof complexsignsor"characters"that represent

morphemesandwords.Evenrelatedwrit ingsystemssuchasJapaneseandKorean,whilesharing

manyof thesamecharacters,canfullyfunct ionaspurelyphonet icscripts.Andwhileit isnot theonly

livinglogographicwrit ingsysteminthemodernworld,it istheonlyoneservingastheprimarywrit ing

systemforhundredsof millionsof people.

Thef irst recognizableformof Chinesewrit ingdatesf rom3,500yearsago,but manyarguethat it s

originsliemuchdeeperinthepast .Regardlessof it sactualage,Chinesehasevolvedsubstant iallyover

t imeyet hasretainedit sancient core,makingit oneof thelongest cont inuouslyusedwrit ingsystemin

theworld.

Origin

Thecommonconsensusisthat writ inginChinaevolvedf romearliernon-linguist icsymbolicsystems.

DuringtheLateNeolithicperiod,at thelat terhalf of the3rdmillenumBCE,manysymbolsor

"pictograms"startedtobeincisedonpot teryandjades.Thesesymbolsarethought tobefamilyorclan

emblemsthat ident if ytheownershiporprovenanceof thepot teryorjades

.

ABOUTCHINESEWORDS2

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Whilethesepictogramsarenot t rulyChinesecharacters,theydobearsomeresemblancetothe

earliest Chinesecharacters.Andat least inoneinstanceanemblem,namelybirdwithasolarsymbol,

cont inuestobeusedasclannameinearlyShangdynastyonbronzeart ifacts.Theprevalent thought is

that at somepoint int imethesesymbolsceasedtorepresent theobjectstheyillust ratebut instead

cametorepresent thewordsof theobjects.Inotherwords,thesymbolsacquiredlinguist icvaluesand

becamelogograms.However,exact lywhenthisswitchhappenedisunknown.Perhapsit alreadyhad

whenthesesymbolswereincisedintothepot tery,whichcouldmeanthat theseart ifactshavewrit ingon

them,but thereisnowaytoproveonewayoranother.At best wecansayisthat thesymbolswere

precursorstoChinesewrit ing.

TheEarliest ChineseWrit ing

Whatevertheobscureinit ialphaseof writ tenChinesewas,it sappearanceduringtheShangdynasty

alreadyexhibitedsignof averycomplexsystem.Theearliest formof Chinesewrit ingiscalledtheoracle

bonescript ,usedf rom1500to1000BCE.Thisscript wasetchedontoturt leshellsandanimalsbones,

whichwerethenheatedunt ilcrackswouldappear.Byinterpretat ingthepat ternof thecracks,Shang

court of f icialswouldmakedivinat ionsof futureevents,hencegivingthename"oraclebones"tothese

animalbones.Anexampleof anoracleboneisillust ratedinthefollowingexample.

ABOUTCHINESEWORDS3

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Stagesof ChineseWrit ing

Givenit simmenset imedepth,theChinesewrit ingsystemisfarf romstat ic.Af tertheearlyevolut ion

duringtheShangdynasty,thescript cont inuedtoevolved.Visuallyit becameincreasinglymorelinear,

morestylizedandlessresemblingof thenaturalobjects.It alsogrewincomplexit y,astheinnovat ionsof

semant icdeterminat ives(radicals)andphonet iccomplementscont inuedtobeappliedtoformnew

words.

Scholarshaveconvenient lydivideddif ferent stylesof Chinesewrit ingintoanumberof "scripts".The

followingchart comparesdif ferent Chinesecharactersinvariousformsthroughout t ime.

ABOUTCHINESEWORDS4

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Thef irst fourphasesof Chinesewrit ingt racethef irst 1,500-yearhistoryof Chineseandessent ially

encompasstheevolut ionf romanascent pictographicandambiguouswrit ingscript toastandardized

systemcontainingthousandsof charactersst illinusetoday.

Jiaguwen(甲骨文),orOracleBoneScript .Thisistheearliest formof Chinesewrit ing,usedf romthe

MiddletoLateShangdynasty(approximately1500BCEto1000BCE).Thisscript wasetchedonto

turt leshellsandanimalsbones,whichwerethenusedfordivinat ionintheroyalShangcourt ,hencethe

name"oraclebones".Consequent ly,scholarshavebeenusingoraclebonesashistoricaldocumentsto

invest igatethereignsof laterShangmonarchs,andsurprisinglyconf irmingtheveracit yof thet radit ional

list of Chineseemperorsthat wasdeemedmythologicalratherthanhistorical.Theshapeof these

charactersareof tendescribedas"pictographic",inthat theyresemblestylizeddrawingsof objectsthey

represent .

Dazhuan(大篆),orGreaterSeal.Thisstageof Chinesewrit ingf lourishedf romtheLateShangtothe

WesternChoudynast ies(1100BCEto700BCE).UnlikeJiaguwen,whichwascarvedonbones,

Dazhuanmainlyappearedoncast bronzevessels.Infact ,JiaguwenandDazhuanoverlappedint ime,

andtheymight havebeenthesamescript but astheywereinscribedondif ferent materialstheirvisual

stylesdif ferduetothequalit yof thesurfaces.

Xiaozhuan(小篆),orLesserSeal.Thiselegant script isthedirect parent of themodern,unsimplif ied

Chinesescript .Not onlyareXiaozhuancharactersaremorestylizedandless"pictographic"like

JiaguwenandDazhuan,but alsoexhibit ssystemat icandextensiveuseof radicalsmuchlikemodern

Chinese.Thisscript hassurvivedthepassageof t imeandcont inuestobeusedinthepresent agein

calligraphyandseals.

Lishu(隸書),orClerklyScript .Asit snameimplies,thisscript wasusedbygovernment bureaucrats.

Whileit probablyappearedat approximately500BCE,LishubecamewidelyusedintheQin(221to207

BCE)andHan(206BCEto220CE)dyanst ieswhenthebureaucratsneededafast andef f icient script

tohandlestatemat ters.Themarkeddif ferencebetweenthisscript andtheXiaozhuanisthat LiShu

charactershavelessst rokesandamoref lowingstyle,thereforeeasilyadaptabletobrushesandpens.

Lishuisst illoccassionallyusedinthemodernage.

Theshapeof Lishucharactersareident icaltomodernChinesecharacters.Furthermore,characters

werestandardizedtoremoveregionalvariat ions,andthesestandardcharactersareforthemost part

thesamecharacterswrit teninthepresent .Therefore,it canbesaidthat Chinesewrit ingreachedit s

maturit yat thist ime(unt ilt he20thcentury).

ABOUTCHINESEWORDS5

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Evolut ionof Chinesewrit ingaf terLishuisat rendof increasinglycursivescripts.Thesescriptsareused

primarilyincalligraphy.

Kaishu(楷書),orStandardScript ,isessent iallythet radit ionalscript usedtoday(except inthePeople's

Republicof China).It isverysimilartoLishu,but slight lymorecursiveandcontainsserif -like(hookor

anchor-like)elementsat thecornersandendof st rokes.Kaishuappearedtowardtheendof theHan

dynasty(220CE).

Xingshu(行書),orRunningScript ,canbeconsideredacursiveversionof Kaishu.Of tenseveralst rokes

aremergedintoone,especiallysequent ialdotsortwost rokesperpendiculartoeachother.It also

appearedshort lyaf tertheHandynasty.

Caoshu(草書),orGrassScript ,isthemost cursiveChinesescript .It appearedduringtheQindynasty.

Theshapeof it scharactersof tendonot resemblethecorrespondingLishuorKaishucharacter,inthat

somest rokesaremergedintooneandothersaresimplylef t out .

HOWTOWRITECHINESEWORDS1

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St rokeTypes

St rokesaret radit ionallyclassif iedintoeight basicforms,eachappearinginthecharacter"eternally"and

listedbelowaccordingtotheircontemporarynames.Thoughsomewhat arbit rary,thissystemhas

remainedpopularfornearlytwomillenia.

1."Dian"-Asimpledot .2."Heng"-Horizontalst roke,lef t toright .

3."Shu"-Vert icalst roke,toptobot tom.4."Gou"-Hookappendedtootherst rokes.

5."T i"-Diagonalst roke,risingf romlef t toright .6."Pie"-Diagonalst roke,fallingf romright tolef t .

7."DuanPie"-Short diagonalst roke,fallingf romright tolef t .

8."Na"-Horizontalst roke,fallingf romlef t toright .

HOWTOWRITECHINESEWORDS2

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Thesebasicst rokesaresomet imescombinedwithout thepenleavingthepaper.Intheaboveexample

of "eternally",st rokes2-3-4arewrit tenasonecont inuousst roke,asarest rokes5-6.Hencein

dict ionariesthischaracterisindexedashavingf iveseparatest rokes.

St rokeOrder

Writ ingcharactersinthecorrect orderisessent ialforthecharactertolookcorrect .Twobasicrulesare

followed:

1.Topbeforebot tom2.Lef t beforeright

Theserulesconf lict wheneveronest rokeistothebot tomandlef t of another.Severaladdit ionalrules

resolvemanyof theseconf lict s.

3.Lef t vert icalst roke(usually)beforetophorizontalst roke

4.Bot tomhorizontalst rokelast

5.Centerst rokebeforewings

6.Horizontalst rokesbeforeintersect ingvert icalst rokes

7.Lef t -fallingst rokesbeforeright -fallingsrokes

Af inalrulecancont radict theothers:

8.Minorst rokes(of ten)last

Despitetheseconf lict sbetweenrulesmost studentsquicklyacquireanaturalfeelfortheproperst roke

order.

Component Order

Most Chinesecharactersarecombinat ionsof simpler,component characters.Usuallythetwopartsare

writ tenat topandbot tom

orlef t andright

sothat themaintwost rokeorderrulesreadilyapply.Occasionallytheserulesalsoconf lict withrespect

tocomponents.Whenonecomponent isat thebot tom-lef t ,andtheotherat thetop-right ,thetop-right

component issomet imeswrit tenf irst .

Whenthereareseveralcomponents,topcomponentsarewrit tenf irst .

Theserulesusuallyimplyeachcomponent iswrit teninit sent iretybeforeanothercomponent iswrit ten.

Except ionsmayarisewhenonecomponent dividesanother,

encompassesanother,ortheindividualcomponentsarenolongerdiscernibleinmodernwrit ing.

Fordetailedst rokeordersforthousandsof characters,seeOcrat .com.Youcanaccesstherelevant

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