Human_Factors_and_Motivation.ppt

8/14/2019 Human_Factors_and_Motivation.ppt

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Human Factors and

Motivation


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Definition of leading

Leading is the process of influencing people so thatthey will contribute to organizational and group

goals.


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Human Factors in Managing

Multiplicity of Roles

No average Person

The importance of Personal Dignity

Consideration of the whole Person


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Multiplicity of roles

Individuals are much more than a productive factor in

managements plans. They are members of social systems of many

organizations:

Consumers of goods and services who vitally influence

the demand. They are members of families, schools, churches, tradeassociations, and political parties.

In these different roles they establish laws that governmanagers, ethics that guide behavior, and a tradition

of human dignity that is a major characteristic of oursociety.

Managers and the people they lead are interactingmembers of a broad social system


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No Average Person

People act in different roles, but they are also

different themselves.

There is no average person

Yet in organized enterprises, the assumption is

often made that there is.

Firms develop rules, procedures, work schedules,

safety standards, and position descriptions- all

with the implicit assumption that people areessentially alike.


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This assumption is necessary to a great extent in

organized efforts, but it is equally important to

acknowledge that individuals are unique- they

have different needs, different ambitions, different

attitudes, different desires for responsibility,different levels of knowledge and skills, and

different potentials.


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The Importance of Personal Dignity

The concept of individual dignity means that peoplemust be treated with respect, no matter what their

position is in the organization.


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Consideration of the Whole Person

We can not talk about the nature of people unless weconsider the whole person, not just separate and

distinct characteristics such as knowledge, attitude,

skills, or personality traits.

The human being is a total person influenced by

external factors.

People cannot divest themselves of the impact of

these forces when they come to work. Managers must recognize these facts and be prepared

to deal with them.


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Motivation

Human motives are based on needs, whether

consciously or subconsciously felt.

Some are primary needs, such as physiological needs

for water, air, food, sleep and shelter.

Other needs may be regarded as secondary such asself esteem, status, affiliation with others, affection,

giving, accomplishment, and self assertion.

These needs vary in intensity and over time betweenindividuals.


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Session Overview

In dealing with employees, an intangible factor of will orfreedom of choice is introduced and employees can increaseor decrease their productivity as they choose. This humanquality gives rise to the need for positive motivation. An

employees performance can be defined as beingdetermined by the interaction between ability andmotivation:

Performance=Ability x Motivation

The first(Ability) determines what he can do, the second

(Motivation)determines what he will do. Thereforemotivation is the key element in management of employees.It is of utmost importance.


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Basic Concepts

Motivation is the consequence of an interaction

between the individual and the situation. People

who are motivated exert a greater effort to

perform than those who are notmotivated. Motivation is the willingness to do something. It is

conditioned by this actions ability to satisfy some

need for the individual


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Motivational process

Unsatisfied need

Tension

Drives

Search behaviour

Goal achievement

Need satisfaction

Reduction of tension


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Definition

Motivation is a process which begins with

a physiological or psychological need or

deficiency which triggers behaviour or adrive that is aimed at a goal or an

incentive.


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Definition

It is a general term applying to the entire class of

drives, desires, needs, wishes and similar forces.

To say that managers motivate their subordinates is to

say that they do things which they hope will satisfy

these drives and desires and induce the subordinatesto act in a desired manner.


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Introduction (Cont.)

Motivation is a psychological process that causes

the arousal, direction, and persistence of

voluntary actions that are goal directed.

Motivation defined

The process by which a persons efforts areenergized, directed and sustained toward

attaining a goal.

Or


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Introduction (Cont.)

Motivation

is thepsychological

process

that

leads to

Choice ofbehavior

that

results in Some level

of jobperformance

The Motivation-Behavior-Job Performance Sequence


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Types of Motives

Primary Motives

General Motives

Secondary Motives


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Primary Motives

Hunger

Thirst

Clothing Sleep

Maternal concern


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General Motives

Motives which can not be termed primary orsecondary

Primary needs try to reduce the tension or

stimulation whereas the general need inducesthe individual to enhance the amount ofstimulation.

Also called stimulus motives-Love ,concernand affection.


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Secondary Motives

Learned drives become secondary

motives

IncludesCuriosity

Manipulation


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Achievement drive

The desire of an individual to

perform in terms of a particular

standard of excellence or the desireto be successful in competitive

situations.


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Specific characteristics of a high

achiever

Takes moderate risks.

Prefers immediate feedback

Derives satisfaction on the successfulaccomplishment of a task

Has total concentration or preoccupation

with the assigned task


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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

NEED OR CONTENT THEORYNeed hierarchy theory- Maslow

Two factor theory-Frederick Herzberg

ERG theory-Clayton Alderfer

Acquired-needs theory-David C.McClelland

COGNITIVE THEORIES

Equity theory-J.Stacy Adams

Expectancy theory-Victor H. Vroom,Porter and

Lawler model

Goal setting theory-Locke and latham


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Reinforcement theory-B.F.Skinner

Behavioural theoriesTheory X and Theory Y-McGregorTheory Z- Ouchi


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Douglas McGregor's

Theory X And Theory Y Theory X and Theory Y are two sets of

assumptions about human nature. Theydescribe two contrasting models of workforce

motivation.

Theory X and Theory Y have to do with the

perceptions managers hold on theiremployees, not the way they generally behave


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Theory X: Assumptions of Theory X

The average human being is inherently lazy by nature anddesires to work as little as possible.

He avoids accepting responsibility and prefers to be led ordirected by some other.

He is self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs. He has little ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers to be led

but wants security.

He is not very intelligent and lacks creativity in solving

organizational problems. He is, by nature ,resistant to change of any type.

Theory Y


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Theory Y

Assumptions of Theory Y

An average man is not really against doing work.

People can be self-directed and creative at work if they aremotivated properly.

External control and threats of punishment alone do not bringout efforts towards organizational objectives.

People have capacity to exercise imagination and creativity.

People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizationalneeds.

An average human being learns under proper conditions. He

is also willing to accept responsibility..


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ABRAHAM MASLOWS

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY Maslow's theory is based on the Hierarchy of Human

Needs. According to Maslow, human behavior is related tohis needs. It is adjusted as per the nature of needs to besatisfied. In hierarchy of needs theory, Maslow identifiedfive types / sets of human need arranged in a hierarchy oftheir importance and priority :

1. Physiological Needs

2. Security / Safety Needs3. Social Needs

4. Esteem Needs

5. Self-actualization Needs


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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Self-

actualization

Esteem

Social

Safety

PhysiologyFood

Achievement

Status

Friendship

Stability

Job

Friends

Pension

Base

NEEDS

General Examples Organizational Examples

jobChallenging

title

at work

plan

salary


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CLAYTON ALDERFERS

ERG THEORY This theory ,like Maslows theory, describes needs as a

hierarchy. Maslows Five needs have been condensed intoThree needs:

Existence needs-These include need for basic material

necessities. In short, it includes an individuals physiologicaland physical safety needs.

Relatedness needs:Maslows social needs and external

component of esteem needs fall under this class of need.

Growth needs: Maslows self-actualization needs andintrinsic component of esteem needs fall under this category

of need.


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ALDERFERS THREE NEEDS


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DAVID MCCLELLANDS

ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY

McClelland classified three basic motivating needs:

Need for achievement (nACH):The n-ach person is 'achievementmotivated' and therefore seeks achievement, attainment of realistic butchallenging goals, and advancement in the job

Need for Power (nPWR):The n-pow person is 'authority motivated'.This driver produces a need to be influential, effective and to make animpact. There is a strong need to lead and for their ideas to prevail.

Need for Affiliation (nAFF): The n-affil person is 'affiliationmotivated', and has a need for friendly relationships and is motivated

towards interaction with other people.


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David McClellands Theory of

Needs

nAch

nPow

nAff

Need for AchievementThe drive to excel, to achievein relation to a set ofstandards, to strive tosucceed.

Need for AffiliationThe desire for friendlyand close personalrelationships.

Need for Power

The need to make others

behave in a way that theywould not have behavedotherwise.


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Frederick Herzbergs

Two-factor theory

This Theory was propounded by American

Psychologist Frederick Herzberg.

It is also known as Herzberg's motivation-

hygiene theoryand Dual-Factor Theory


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The Theory states that there are certain factors in

the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while aseparate set of factors cause dissatisfaction. In otherwords, factors that cause job dissatisfaction aredifferentfrom the factors that lead to job satisfaction.

The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction butNo Satisfaction.

Similarly, The opposite of dissatisfaction is notsatisfaction but No Dissatisfaction.
http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Workplacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_satisfactionhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Workplace


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Hence, the Two-factor theory distinguishes between:

Motivators :(e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility)

that give positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions

of the job itself, such as recognition, achievement, or personalgrowth.

Hygiene factors(e.g. status,job security, salary, fringe

benefits, work conditions) that do not give positivesatisfaction, though dissatisfaction results from their absence.

These are extrinsic to the work itself, and include aspects such

as company policies, supervisory practices, or wages/salary
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fringe_benefitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fringe_benefitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fringe_benefitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fringe_benefitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_security


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EQUITY THEORY

First developed in 1963 by John Stacey

Adams, a workplace and behavioral

psychologist, the equity theory is based on the

human instinct of comparison with others.


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Equity theory states that employees seek to maintainequity between the inputs that they bring to a job and theoutcomes that they receive from it against the perceivedinputs and outcomes of others.

While evaluating fairness, employee compares the job input(in terms of contribution) to outcome (in terms ofcompensation) and also compares the same with that ofanother peer of equal cadre/category. O/I ratio (output-input

ratio) is used to make such a comparison.


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The persons, system or selves against which

individuals compare themselves are known

as Referents. Referents can be classified as:

1. Persons

2. Systems

3. Self


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Equity Theory

ReferentComparisons:

Self-inside

Self-outsideOther-inside

Other-outside

Equity Theory

Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomeswith those of others and then respond to eliminateany inequities.


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Equity Theory (contd)


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Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others

5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)


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Distributive JusticePerceived fairness of theamount and allocation ofrewards among individuals.

Procedural Justice

The perceived fairness of

the process to determinethe distribution ofrewards.


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Expectancy Theory

Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way dependson the strength of an expectation that the act will befollowed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of

that outcome to the individual.

h l h


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Expectancy Theory Relationships

EffortPerformance Relationship

The probability that exerting a given amount ofeffort will lead to performance.

PerformanceReward Relationship

The belief that performing at a particular levelwill lead to the attainment of a desired

outcome.

RewardsPersonal Goals Relationship The degree to which organizational rewards

satisfy an individuals goals or needs and the

attractiveness of potential rewards for the

individual.


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B F SKINNERS


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B.F. SKINNERS

REINFORCEMENT THEORY

According to this theory, past actions and their outcomesinfluence a personspresent and future actions.

Past behaviours associated with positive outcomes are

repeated in future and behaviours associated with negativeoutcomes are not repeated.

Therefore, the behaviour of a person is not influenced by hisinner needs and desires but by the external environment.

KINDS OF REINFORCEMENTS


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KINDS OF REINFORCEMENTS

Four kinds of Reinforcements can result from employee behaviour:

1. Positive Reinforcement such as a pay raise or promotion, is provided as areward for positive behavior with the intention of increasing the probabilitythat the desired behavior will be repeated.

2. Negative Reinforcement is an attempt to show an employee what theconsequences of improper behavior will be. If an employee does not engagein improper behavior, he or she will not experience the consequence.

3. Punishment such as suspensions, threats ,etc, is an attempt to decrease the

likelihood of a behavior recurring by applying negative consequences.

4. Extinction Behaviour is basically ignoring the behavior of a subordinate andnot providing either positive or negative reinforcement

EDWIN LOCKES


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EDWIN LOCKES

GOAL SETTING THEORY

Goal-Setting Theory Proposes that setting specific goals increase

performance, and difficult (challenging) goals result inhigher performance than easy goals.

Benefits of Goal-Setting The specificity (particularity)of the goal itself acts as aninternal stimulus (stimulation). E.g. When a sales representative commits (promises) to making

eight sales calls daily, this commitment gives him/her a specificgoal to attain.


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Goal-Setting Theory

WILLIAM OUCHIS


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WILLIAM OUCHIS

THEORY Z Theory Z is an approach to management based upon

a combination of American and Japanesemanagement philosophies and characterized by,among other things, long-term job security,

consensual decision making, slow evaluation andpromotion procedures, and individual responsibilitywithin a group context. Proponents of Theory Zsuggest that it leads to improvements in

organizational performance.

A i J THEORY Z


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American

Organizations JapaneseOrganizations THEORY Z

Short-term employment Lifetimeemployment Lifetimeemployment

Individual decision

making Collective decisionmaking Collective decisionmakingIndividual responsibility Collective

responsibility IndividualresponsibilityRapid evaluation &

promotion Slow evaluation &promotion Slow evaluation &promotionExplicit control

mechanisms Implicit controlmechanisms Implicit controlmechanismsSegmented concern for

employee as an

employeeHolistic concern for

employee as a

personHolistic concern for

employee as a

person

Victor Vrooms


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Victor Vrooms

Expectancy Theory This theory states that an individual tends to act in a

certain way based on

a) the expectation that the act will be followed by a given

outcome and

b) the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

Key to the theory is understanding employee goals and

the linkages (relationships)between effort, performance and

rewards.


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Motivation= Expectancy XInstrumentality X Valence;

Where,

1. Expectancy (effort-performance linkage)

How hard do I have to work to achieve a certain level of performance?and Can I actually achieve that level?

2. Instrumentality (performance-reward linkage) What reward will that level of performance get me?

3. Valence or attractiveness of reward

How attractive is the reward to me?

Whether employees are motivated or not depends on their particular

goals and their perception of the level of performance needed to attainthose goals.


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Simplified Expectancy Model

The Porter Lawler model of


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The Porter-Lawler model of

motivation Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler developed a more

complete version of the expectancy theory.

The theory states actual performance in a job isprimarily determined by the effort spent. But it is also

affected by the persons ability to do the job and alsoby individuals perception of what the required task is.So performance is the responsible factor that leads tointrinsic as well as extrinsic rewards. These rewards,along with the equity of individual leads to satisfaction.

Hence, satisfaction of the individual depends upon thefairness of the reward.


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Job Characteristics ModelIt was given by Richard Hackman and Greg Oldh-

man.The model has three elements: Core job characteristics

skill variety

tasks identity

tasks significanceautonomy

feedback

Critical Psychological states

feeling that the work is meaningful

knowing that they are responsible

actually finding out the results


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Outcomes:

high internal work motivation

high satisfaction of growth needshigh degree of job satisfaction

high degree of work effectiveness


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Human_Factors_and_Motivation.ppt

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