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![Page 1: Gene Regulation How is it possible that each kind of cell looks and functions differently from one another if all cells in your body contain the same.](https://reader034.fdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022052702/5697bf8a1a28abf838c8a9ce/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Gene Regulation
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How is it possible that each kind of cell looks and functions
differently from one another if all cells in your body contain the
same exact copy of DNA ?
Regulation of Gene Expression
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Several Levels in Which to Control Gene Expression
1. Pre-transcriptional level2. Transcriptional level3. Post-transcriptional level4. Translational level5. Post-translational level
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Signal
NUCLEUSChromatin
Chromatin modification:DNA unpacking involvinghistone acetylation and
DNA demethylationDNA
Gene
RNA Exon
Gene availablefor transcription
Transcription
Primary transcript
IntronRNA processing
TailmRNA in nucleus
Transport to cytoplasm
Cap
CYTOPLASM
Regulation in the Nucleus
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CYTOPLASM
mRNA in cytoplasm
TranslationDegradationof mRNA
Polypeptide
Protein processing, suchas cleavage and
chemical modification
Active protein
Transport to cellulardestination
Degradationof protein
Cellular function(such as enzymaticactivity, structural support)
Regulation in the Cytoplas
m
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Signal
NUCLEUSChromatin
Chromatin modification:DNA unpacking involvinghistone acetylation and
DNA demethylationDNA
Gene
RNA Exon
Gene availablefor transcription
Transcription
Primary transcript
IntronRNA processing
TailmRNA in nucleus
Transport to cytoplasm
CYTOPLASM
mRNA in cytoplasm
TranslationDegradationof mRNA
Polypeptide
Cap
Protein processing, suchas cleavage and
chemical modification
Active protein
Transport to cellulardestination
Degradationof protein
Cellular function(such as enzymaticactivity, structural support)
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How does DNA packing in
eukaryotes help to regulate gene expression?
Pre-transcriptional Rebulation
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Nucleosome
Unacetylated histones Acetylated histones
Histonetails
Unravelling of the Chromosome
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Early embryo:
Two cellpopulationsin adult cat:
X chromosomes
Cell division andX chromosomeinactivation
Allele fororange fur
Allele forblack fur
Active X
Orange furBlack fur
InactiveXActive X
Tight packing of the
X chromosome in female mammals(X inactivation)
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Demethylation of DNA
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Transcriptional LevelA gene can be either turned “on” or “off”.
ON – the gene is expressed (i.e., the gene is transcribed and translated to form a protein)
OFF – the gene is not expressed (i.e., no
transcription, no translation, no protein is formed)
Each kind of cell turns on only specific genes
depending on its needs or function.
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How does a cell turn on some genes and not
others?
By way of regulatory sites (operators) found “upstream” from a gene and regulatory proteins that bind to these sites.
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A Typical Gene
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Gene Regulation: An Example
The best understood gene regulation process is the control of expression of the lac operon.
The “lac operon” is a group of genes found in
E. coli (bacteria) that are expressed all at the same time under the control of the same promoter and the same regulatory site (operator).
This operon contains three genes that code for proteins that allow bacteria to use lactose (a sugar) as a food source.
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DNA
PromoterOperator
Regulatorygene
NoRNAmade
IacZlacI
mRNA RNApolymerase
3
5
ActiverepressorProtein
(a) Lactose absent, repressor active, operon off
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IacZ IacY IacAIacI
DNA lac operon
Permease Transacetylase-Galactosidase
mRNA
Protein
RNA polymerase
mRNA 53
5
Inactiverepressor
Allolactose(inducer)
(b) Lactose present, repressor inactive, operon on
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Repressor Protein
Promoter
Lactose
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The lac genes are turned OFF by a
“repressor protein”
and
turned ON by the presence of lactose.
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In general, E. coli uses glucose as a food source and the lac genes are not expressed. In this state a repressor protein binds to the “operator” upstream from the lac genes and inhibits the transcription of the these genes by preventing RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter.
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However, when the bacterium comes in contact with lactose, some lactose molecules enter the cell and bind to the repressor protein which causes its release from the operator. This now allows RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter region and therefore allows for the genes to be expressed.
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Lac vs. Trp Operon Regulation
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(a) Tryptophan absent, repressor inactive, operon on
Polypeptide subunits that make upenzymes for tryptophan synthesis
Protein
Inactiverepressor
mRNA
5
3
E D C B A
Promoter
DNA
Regulatorygene
RNApolymerase
Promoter
trp operon
Genes of operon
OperatorStart codon Stop codon
mRNA 5
trpE trpD trpC trpB trpAtrpR
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DNA
mRNA
Protein Activerepressor
No RNAmade
Tryptophan(corepressor)
(b) Tryptophan present, repressor active, operon off
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Transcription Factors• In eukaryotic cells, the default state for most genes is
« off »
• For housekeeping genes the default state is « on »
• RNA polymerase needs « transcription factors » in order to attach itself to a promoter and therefore transcribe the DNA
• Transcription factors fall into two main categories; Activators and Repressors
• Activator proteins bind to sequences of DNA upstream or downstream from the promoter called enhancers
• Repressor proteins bind to sequences of DNA called silencers
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DNAUpstream
Enhancer(distal control
elements)
Proximalcontrol
elementsTranscription
start site
Exon Intron Exon
Promoter
Intron Exon
Poly-A signalsequence
Transcriptiontermination
region
Down-stream
Transcription
Exon Intron IntronExon Exon
Poly-Asignal
Primary RNAtranscript(pre-mRNA)
5 Cleaved 3end ofprimarytranscript
Intron RNA
mRNA
RNA processing
Coding segment
3
5 5 3Cap UTRStart
codonStop
codon UTR Poly-Atail
G P P P AAAAAA
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Activationdomain
DNA
DNA-bindingdomain
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DNA
EnhancerDistal controlelement
Activators PromoterGene
TATA box
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DNA
EnhancerDistal controlelement
Activators PromoterGene
TATA box
DNA-bendingprotein
Group of mediator proteins
General transcriptionfactors
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DNA
EnhancerDistal controlelement
Activators PromoterGene
TATA box
DNA-bendingprotein
Group of mediator proteins
General transcriptionfactors
RNApolymerase II
RNApolymerase II
RNA synthesisTranscriptioninitiation complex
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Differentiation
• Results from selective gene expression
• Example– Muscle cells – genes for creating actin and
myosin are turned on to create muscle fibres– Pancreatic cells – genes that encode glucagon
and insulin are turned on– Blood cells – genes encoding hemoglobin are
turned on
• Housekeeping genes – genes that are turned on in all cells that code for processes that all cells must undergo, like enzymes involved in glycolysis
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Albumin gene
Crystallin gene
Promoter
Promoter
(b) LENS CELL NUCLEUS
Availableactivators
Albumin genenot expressed
Crystallin geneexpressed
Crystallin genenot expressed
Albumin geneexpressed
Availableactivators
(a) LIVER CELL NUCLEUS
Controlelements
Enhancer
Enhancer
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Dedifferentiation in Plants
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How do eukaryotic cells turn on or off the genes of related
functions located on different chromosomes?
• They all use the same group of transcription factors & enhancers & silencers
• This way the transcription factors will all bind at the same time and genes located in very different locations can be turned on or off simultaneously
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PromoterReportergene
Enhancer with possiblecontrol elements
Relative level of reportermRNA (% of control)
1
0 50 150 200100
2 3
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Regulation through RNA Splicing – Post-
transcriptional Regulation• mRNA cannot leave the nucleus
until splicing occurs since it has all of the splicing machinery attached to it and therefore cannot fit through the nuclear pores
• Alternative splicing leads to the creation of two or more proteins from just one gene
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Other Regulators of Gene Expression
• Breakdown of mRNA• Minutes after transcription in prokaryotes
and hours to weeks in eukaryotes
• Initiation of Translation• Protein Activation
• Post-translational folding and cleavage
• Protein Breakdown• Damaged proteins break down to form new
ones• The breakdown of proteins allows the cell to
quickly adapt to the change environment
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miRNAmiRNA-proteincomplex
Translation blockedmRNA degraded
The miRNA bindsto a target mRNA.
1
If bases are completely complementary, mRNA is degraded.If match is less than complete, translation is blocked.
2
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Chromatin modification Transcription
RNA processing
Translation
mRNA degradation Protein processing and degradation
• Protein processing and degradation aresubject to regulation.
• Each mRNA has acharacteristic life span.
• Initiation of translation can be controlledvia regulation of initiation factors.
mRNA or
Primary RNAtranscript
• Alternative RNA splicing:
• The genes in a coordinately controlledgroup all share a combination of controlelements.
• Regulation of transcription initiation:DNA control elements in enhancers bindspecific transcription factors.
Bending ofthe DNAenablesactivators tocontact proteins atthe promoter, initiating transcription.
• Genes in highly compactedchromatin are generally nottranscribed.• Histone acetylation seemsto loosen chromatinstructure,enhancingtranscription.
• DNA methylation generallyreduces transcription.
Chromatin modification
Transcription
RNA processing
mRNAdegradation
Translation
Protein processingand degradation
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Bozeman ScienceDevelopmental Biology &
Differential Gene Expression
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Observing Differential Gene Expression
Using Quantitative PCR
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Test tube containingreverse transcriptaseand mRNA
DNA in nucleus
mRNAs incytoplasm
1
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Test tube containingreverse transcriptaseand mRNA
DNA in nucleus
mRNAs incytoplasm
Reverse transcriptasemakes the firstDNA strand.
Reversetranscriptase
mRNAPoly-A tail
DNAstrand
Primer
53
35
A A A A A AT
1
2
T T T T
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Test tube containingreverse transcriptaseand mRNA
DNA in nucleus
mRNAs incytoplasm
Reverse transcriptasemakes the firstDNA strand.
Reversetranscriptase
mRNAPoly-A tail
DNAstrand
Primer
53
35
A A A A A A
1
2
mRNA is degraded.353
35
A A AT
A A A
T T T T T
T T T T
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Test tube containingreverse transcriptaseand mRNA
DNA in nucleus
mRNAs incytoplasm
Reverse transcriptasemakes the firstDNA strand.
Reversetranscriptase
mRNAPoly-A tail
DNAstrand
Primer
53
35
A A A A A A
1
2
mRNA is degraded.353
35
A A A A A A
DNA polymerasesynthesizes thesecond strand.
DNApolymerase
53
35
4
T
T T T T T
T T T T
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Test tube containingreverse transcriptaseand mRNA
DNA in nucleus
mRNAs incytoplasm
Reverse transcriptasemakes the firstDNA strand.
Reversetranscriptase
mRNAPoly-A tail
DNAstrand
Primer
53
35
A A A A A A
1
2
mRNA is degraded.353
35
A A A A A A
DNA polymerasesynthesizes thesecond strand.
DNApolymerase
53
35
4
53
35
cDNA
cDNA carries completecoding sequencewithout introns.
5
T
T T T T T
T T T T
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mRNAs
cDNAs
Embryonic stages1
cDNA synthesis
PCR amplification
Gel electrophoresis
Results
Technique
1
2
3
Primers
-globingene
2 3 4 5 6
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Observing Differential Gene Expression
Using DNA chips or Microarrays
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Genes in redwells expressedin first tissue.
Genes in greenwells expressedin second tissue.
Genes in yellowwells expressedin both tissues.
Genes in blackwells notexpressed in either tissue.
DNA microarray
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The Genetic Control of Embryonic Development
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Gene Expression in Embryogenesis
• Embryogenesis results from cascades of gene expression that allow for cell-to-cell signaling that direct embryonic development
• Homeotic genes are master control genes that regulate batteries of other genes which will, in turn, determine the anatomy of parts of the body
• This genetic approach to the study of embryogenesis has revolutionized developmental biology
• Most of the what we know about embryogenesis comes from studies performed on fruit flies and a nematode called C. elegans
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Regulation of Gene
Expression in
Drosophila
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Signal Transduction Pathways & Gene
Expression• How do adjacent cells communicate?
• Through signal transduction pathways (« a series of molecular changes that conversts a signal on a target cell’s surface to a specific response inside the cell »)
• Signal proteins from one cell will cause gene expression in adjacent cells
• This type of communication is key to embryonic development and the coordination of cellular activities within a mature organism
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Homeotic Genes are Ancient
• All homeotic genes contain a common sequence of 180 nucleotides called homeoboxes
• These homeoboxes code for a 60-amino acid polypeptide chain in different homeotic proteins and enable them to bind to DNA and either turn on or turn off genes involved in embryonic development
• These homeoboxes can be found in virtually every eukaryotic organism and have even been seen in some prokaryotic cells
• The presence of homeoboxes in such a variety of organisms supports the idea that all life came from the same ancestor
• The fact that these ancient genes are control genes underscores the importance of gene regulation in living organisms
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Figure 16.15
Culturedstem cells
Embryonicstem cells
Liver cells Nerve cells Blood cells
Adultstem cells
Differentcultureconditions
Differenttypes ofdifferentiatedcells
Cells that can generateall embryonic cell types
Cells that generate a limitednumber of cell types
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Figure 16.14
Stem cell
Stem cell Precursor cell
Fat cells
Celldivision
and
or orBone cells Whiteblood cells
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Genetic Basis of Cancer
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Cancer is the Result of Multiple Mutations
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Cancers are Triggered by the Deregulation of Cell
Division• The deregulation of cell division in
cancerous cells is due to mutations in genes that control the cell cycle
• Our earliest understanding of cancer came from the discovery of a virus that causes cancer in chickens
• This virus carries an oncongene (potentially cancer-causing gene) that is a mutated version of normal gene found in chickens
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Proto-oncogene
Translocationor transposition:gene moved tonew locus, undernew controls
Normal growth-stimulating proteinin excess
Newpromoter
Oncogene
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Gene amplification:multiple copies ofthe gene
Proto-oncogene
Normal growth-stimulating proteinin excess
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within a controlelement
Proto-oncogene
Point mutation:
withinthe gene
OncogeneOncogene
Normal growth-stimulating protein in excess
Hyperactive ordegradation-resistantprotein
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within a controlelement
Proto-oncogene
Gene amplification:multiple copies ofthe gene
Proto-oncogene Proto-oncogene
Point mutation:
withinthe gene
Translocationor transposition:gene moved tonew locus, undernew controls
Normal growth-stimulating proteinin excess
Newpromoter
OncogeneOncogeneOncogene
Normal growth-stimulating proteinin excess
Normal growth-stimulating protein in excess
Hyperactive ordegradation-resistantprotein
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Growth factor
G protein
Receptor
Proteinkinases
NUCLEUSTranscriptionfactor (activator)
Protein thatstimulatesthe cell cycle
NUCLEUSTranscriptionfactor (activator)
Overexpressionof protein
MUTATION
Ras protein active withor without growth factor.
GTP
Ras
GTP
Ras
1
2
3
4
5 6
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Tumor-Suppressor Genes
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Protein kinases
NUCLEUS
DNA damagein genome
Defectiveor missingtranscriptionfactor
MUTATIONUVlight
1
2
3
Inhibitoryproteinabsent
DNA damagein genome
UVlight
Active formof p53
Protein thatinhibits thecell cycle
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Colon
Loss of tumor-suppressor geneAPC (or other)
Loss oftumor-suppressor gene p53
Activation ofras oncogene
Colon wallNormal colonepithelial cells
Small benigngrowth(polyp)
Loss of tumor-suppressor gene DCC
Malignanttumor(carcinoma)
Larger benigngrowth(adenoma)
Additionalmutations
1 2
3
4
5
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Loss of tumor-suppressor geneAPC (or other)
Loss oftumor-suppressor gene p53
Activation ofras oncogene
Colon wall
Normal colonepithelial cells
Small benigngrowth (polyp)
Loss of tumor-suppressor gene DCC
Malignant tumor(carcinoma)
Larger benigngrowth (adenoma)
Additionalmutations
1
2
3
4
5
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Animal Cloning
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Nuclear Transplantation
• First performed in the 50’s with frogs
• Replacement of the nucleus of an egg cell or zygote cell with the nucleus of an adult somatic cell
• This process can be used for two main purposes:
1. Reproductive Cloning2. Therapeutic Cloning with the production of
ES cells (embryonic stem cells)
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Grown in culture
Results
Cell cyclearrested,causing cells todedifferentiate
Implanted in uterusof a third sheep
Culturedmammarycells
Embryonicdevelopment
TechniqueMammarycell donor
Egg cell donor
Egg cell from ovary
Nucleusremoved
Nucleus from mammary cell
Surrogatemother
Cells fused
Early embryo
Lamb (“Dolly”)genetically identical tomammary cell donor
1 2
3
4
5
6
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Reproductive Cloning• Has been done on frogs, sheep, mice, cats, cows,
pigs, mules and monkeys!
Benefits: 1. Farmers create a identical herds with desired traits2. Pharmaceutical companies can use certain cloned
mammals to produce pharmaceutical drugs3. Cloned pigs missing one of the proteins that cause
immunal rejection in human transplant patients, may one day serve as transplant donors
4. Help repopulating endangered species? 5. Genetic research?
Disadvantages:1. Ethics2. Goes against evolution (decreases variation)
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Therapeutic Cloning
• Insert a patient’s nucleus into an enucleated ES cell so that the patient won’t reject the new cells because they will be genetically identical
• Problem: ES cells come from destroying human embryos
• Alternative: Use bone marrow cells, but they are not totipotent