donnareport

Intercultural Communication Competence: The State of Knowledge

Report prepared for CILT

The National Centre for Languages By Donna Humphrey

Development of NOS in intercultural Skills Project

26th May 2007

Donna Humphrey 7/25/2007 Page 1 of 95

Introduction....................................................................................................................... 3 Intercultural Research: The current state of knowledge .............................................. 5

Social science approach .................................................................................................. 5 The critical approach....................................................................................................... 6 The interpretive approach ............................................................................................... 6 Other approaches ............................................................................................................ 7

Overview of Current Approaches to IC Research......................................................... 8 Essentialism vs. Non-essentialism.................................................................................. 9

Interpersonal Communication in an Intercultural Setting......................................... 18 Spitzberg’s notion of communicative competence ....................................................... 19 Rubens seven dimensions of communication ............................................................... 22 Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity ....................................................... 24 The Council of Europe.................................................................................................. 27 Individual Intercultural Competence ............................................................................ 29 Constructs of ICC ......................................................................................................... 30 Elements Related to Intercultural Communication Competence.................................. 33 A summary of the components of intercultural competence ........................................ 37

Intercultural Communication Competence Standards and Criteria ......................... 40 The Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) .......................................................... 40 Intercultural Competence Assessment.......................................................................... 41 Intercultural competence for professional mobility (ICOPROMO) ............................. 43 The international Profiler (TIP) .................................................................................... 44 The Intercultural Competence Framework ................................................................... 47 The Intercultural Readiness Check (IRC)..................................................................... 50 Process Communication Model (PCM)........................................................................ 55 Language On-Line Portfolio Project (LOLIPOP)......................................................... 57 A Framework of International / Intercultural Competencies........................................ 60 International Management Assessment (IMA)............................................................. 68 The ProGroup’s Tolerance Scale .................................................................................. 71 Intercultural Communication b.v. ................................................................................. 72 Discovery Personal Profile ........................................................................................... 74 The Eight Primary Types .............................................................................................. 74 The Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Competence................................. 76 The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) ..................................................... 77

Appendix A: A List of Alternative Terms for ICC ..................................................... 79 Appendix B: Assessment Tools of Intercultural Communicative Competence ........ 80 Appendix C: Additional Reading .................................................................................. 89


Introduction

The first part of the report presents an overview of current approaches to the

study of intercultural and cross-cultural communication. It will identify the main

research paradigms and theoretical approaches that are currently defining this

field of study. This understanding is important as the assessment tools and

standards, which have been developed to assess intercultural communication

competence (ICC), are based on how the nature of culture and intercultural

communication is viewed. The report will then provide in tabular form, taken from

Holliday, Hyde and Kullman (2004), the main differences between the two views

of how culture is perceived and thus the approaches to intercultural

communication research. Like all dichotomies this is not representative of reality

in which views range between the two extremes. It has been presented in this

manner for the purpose of accessibility and easy understanding. A list of further

reading and websites is provided at the end of part one.

The second part of the report will provide a review of some of the main theories

of intercultural communication competence and interpersonal communication

competence, which have been influential within the field of ICC competence. A

summary of the components of intercultural competence and a list of further

reading and websites is provided at the end of part two. In addition a list of

alternative terms for ICC (Fantini, 2006) is provided in Appendix A and a

summary of assessment tools of intercultural communicative competence

(Fantini, 2006) is available in Appendix B.

The third part of the report will present a representative range of assessment

tools and standards taken from the field of intercultural communication studies,

business psychology, education, and interpersonal communication skills. The

aim is to present a rounded picture of developments in Intercultural

communication competence occurring across sectors, which could inform

practice. A list of further reading and websites is provided at the end of part


three.

Finally, the report will provide a representative bibliography of some of the major

works in this area in Appendix C.

Note - Any opinions expressed in this report are not necessarily those of author.


Part One Intercultural Research: The current state of knowledge

There are three main conceptual perspectives to the study of intercultural and

cross-cultural communication: the social psychological perspective, the critical

perspective, and the interpretive perspective.

Social science approach Traditionally, the study of intercultural communication has been approached

primarily from a social psychological perspective (also called the social science

approach). Landmark research has been done by Hall (1966. 1976), Hofstede

(1983 and 1994), Gudykunst, Kim, and Ting-Toomey and their associates. These

influential scholars have charted the way for realizing the possibilities of

intercultural communication. They have also provided an understanding of the

dynamics of and the problems associated with cultural encounters as well as to

understanding communication from a cross-cultural perspective. In the 1980s

and early 1990s, many of these researchers employed interpersonal

communication theories and constructs in their examinations of communication

within intercultural contexts. This approach is evident in cross-cultural

interpersonal communication books and mainstream journal articles in the last

decade.

The main criticism of traditional communication theory and research is that it has

been implicitly ethnocentric, patriarchal and uses overly simplistic categorization

bordering on stereotyping. This is because the study of intercultural

communication is based on the assumptions that (1) there is a describable,

external reality, (2) human behaviors are predictable, and (3) culture is a variable

that can be measured. The main critics of this approach (Straub, 2002) state that

IC research nearly always assumes that an individual living in a particular place

and time belongs to a single culture. That is to say that someone living in Egypt

is automatically classified as being a member of the Egyptian culture, or, more


broadly, the Arab culture. They also argue that it is very possible that much

IC/cross-cultural research could be rightly accused of advancing an "ecological

fallacy" by not recognizing the individual makeup of persons with respect to

culture. This approach aims to identify and explain cultural variations in

communication and to predict future communication. Although this perspective

has yielded many important ideas about intercultural communication, other

perspectives may also contribute to our understanding of intercultural

communication. One such approach is the critical and interpretive approach.

The critical approach The critical approach is a meta-theoretical approach that includes many

assumptions of the interpretive approach (see below) but focuses more on

macro-contexts, such as the political and social structures that influence

communication. Scholars pay attention to the influence that context, including

socio-historical context, and ideological aspects of power, oppression, and

emancipation in society may have on our intercultural interaction. Issues such as

the ideological discourses of race, class, and gender that suppress differences,

preclude or devalue the expression of certain identities, and limit cultural diversity

are acknowledged in this approach. Self-reflexivity is another issue addressed in

this approach.

The interpretive approach Recently, another line of scholarship has begun to emerge that challenges the

definition of culture and the ideological nature of intercultural communication

research. Scholars of this approach argue that there is a need to recognize the

complexity of the subject matter being addressed as opposed to adopting a

simplifying process that seems more typical of the research being conducted.

The belief is that most mainstream intercultural communication studies, like a

large percentage of interpersonal communication research as a whole, examine

intercultural interactions, not as a life-span process, but rather as a still-life

snapshot.


In reality, relationships are complex processes and should be approached as

such. The interpretive approach to intercultural communication aims to

understand and describe human behavior within specific cultural groups based

on the assumptions that (1) human experience is subjective, (2) human behavior

is creative rather than determined or easily predicted, and (3) culture is created

and maintained through communication. The interpretive approach also suggests

that each individual is influenced by a milieu of cultures and sub-cultures. An

individual's social identity represents that amalgamation of cultures across

boundaries (national, organizational, professional, familial etc.), which fuse

together to create one's overall culture. The combination is unique to each

individual. In order to understand an individual one would have to establish the

salient ‘cultures’ in each individual's background, the composition of these

‘cultures,’ and then include these different ‘cultures’ as independent variables in

positivist research. In qualitative research, there would need to be an equally

rigorous assessment of the cultural identifiers of each individual. This approach,

it is argued has the advantage of explicitly recognizing that these different layers

of culture can intertwine in complex ways. Therefore, a particular behavior may

be more influenced by a given layer of culture than others, implying that the

layers do not have a fixed sequential position.

Other approaches Since the late 1980s, a shift from an "Anglo-centered" to a "multi-centered" model

of IC has been taking place. In the 1960s and 1970s, much of the influential

study of communication took place in mid-western American universities. It was

only by the late 1980s that studies based on other parts of the US had become

more numerous and since then scholars from other parts of the world are also

contributing their viewpoints. These contributions based on alternative research

paradigms traditions help to broaden the field, provide alternative perspectives

and new communication models.


Overview of Current Approaches to IC Research

The conceptualization of culture has undergone considerable change in the field

of IC scholarship. The terms 'Non-essentialism' and 'essentialism' are used in

this report in the following table to describe the differences in current views on

the nature of culture and approaches to Intercultural communication research.

The table is adapted from Holliday, Hyde and Kullman (2004), 'Non-essentialism'

and 'essentialism' are terms used by social scientists in their discussion about

the nature of culture (e.g. Keesing 1994). The dichotomies described in the

following table are extreme and in reality views range between the two extremes.

However, it is important that the approaches should be presented in such a

manner to allow the differences to be clearly identifiable and easily accessed as

they provide the driving force behind many of the standards and criteria

presented in the third part of this report.

Essentialism presented on the left–hand side of the table provides more

simplistic formulaic approaches to understanding culture than the entries on the

right-hand side of the table (for non-essentialism), which represent more complex

and possibly more obscure ideas than those on the left-hand side.


Essentialism vs. Non-essentialism Table 1

Essentialist view of-culture

How people talk about it

Non-essentialist view of culture

How people talk about it

Nature

i 'A culture' has a

physical entity, as

though it is a

place, which

people can visit. It

is homogeneous in

that perceived

traits are spread

evenly, giving the

sense of a simple

society.

'I visited three

cultures while on

holiday. They

were Spain,

Morocco and

Tunisia.'

ii Culture is a

social force which

is evident where it

is significant.

Society is

complex, with

characteristics,

which are difficult

to pin down.

'There was something

culturally different

about each of the

countries I visited.'

Place iii It is associated

with a country and

a language, which

has an onion-skin

relationship with

'Japanese

culture',

'European

culture', 'Hindu

culture', 'Black

iv It is associated

with a value, and

can relate equally

to any type or size

of group for any

'There is a more

homogeneous culture

of food in Japan than

in Britain.' 'Schools in

Britain have a more

larger continental,

religious, ethnic or

racial cultures, and

smaller

subcultures.

culture',

'Japanese

secondary school

culture.'

period of time, and

can be

characterized by a

discourse as much

as by a language.

evident culture of sport

than schools in Japan:

Relation

v The world is

divided into

mutually exclusive

national cultures.

People in one

culture are

essentially different

from people in

another.

'When crossing

from Japanese

culture to Chinese

culture .. .',

'People from

Egypt cannot ...

when they arrive

in French culture.'

vi Cultures can

flow, change,

intermingle, cut

across and

through one

another,

regardless of

national frontiers,

and have blurred

boundaries.

'There is more of a

culture o XYZ in China

than in India', 'Schools

throughout the world

have a lot of cultural

similarities. '

Membership vii People belong

exclusively to one

national culture

and one language.

'No matter how

long she lives in

Italy, she belongs

to Austrian

viii People can

belong to and

move through a

complex

'I feel most British

when I travel abroad to

places where that is

meaningful.


culture', 'Which

culture do you

originally come

from?' 'One can

never totally learn

a second culture.'

multiplicity of

cultures both

within and across

societies.

A sense of Iranian

culture from my family

and upbringing comes

into play when I listen

to Iranian music, speak

the language and think

of global politics.


Behaviour

A ‘culture’ behaves

like a single-

minded person

with a specific,

exclusive

personality.

German culture

believes that XYZ

'In Middle Eastern

culture there is no

concept of XYZ',

People's behaviour

is defined and

constrained by the

culture in which

they live.

In Chinese

culture, people

XYZ', 'She

belongs to

Norwegian

culture, therefore

she XYZ'

People are

influenced by or

make use of a

multiplicity of

cultural forms.

At the moment the

strongest cultural force

in my life comes from

the international

women's group to

which I belong,

through conferences,

journals and email

contact. These are the

people to whom I feel

culturally closest. The

people I find most

culturally strange are

my children's friends

and the village where I

was a child. My

Iranian-ness enriches

my perceptions of and

participation in British

society, and vice


versa.'

Communication

xi To communicate

with someone who

is foreign or

different we must

first understand the

details or ,

stereotype of their

culture.

'When you want

to greet a

Swedish business

man, you need to

know that in

Swedish culture

xyz.'

xii To

communicate with

anyone who

belongs to a group

with whom we are

unfamiliar, we

have to

understand the

complexity of who

she is.

'What you have to

understand about her

is that she does not

conform to the

stereotype of Middle

Eastern women that

we see in the media,

which she considers

false and ignorant. In

reality she is different

to what we expected.'

Intercultural Communication. Routledge, 2004 by Adrian Holliday, Martin Hyde and John Kullman.


Additional Reading

Introduction to Culture and Intercultural Communication

Asante, M.K., & Gudykunst, W.B. (Eds.). (1989). Handbook of international and

intercultural communication. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Baldwin, J.R., & Lindsley, S.L. (1994). Conceptualizations of culture. Tempe:

Urban Studies Center, Arizona State University..

Bochner, S. (1982). Cultures in contact: Studies in cross-cultural interaction. New

York: Pergamon Press.

Brislin, R.W. (1987). Cross-cultural encounter: Face to face interaction. New

York: Pergamon Press.

Brislin, R.W. (1993). Understanding culture's influence on behavior. Fort Worth,

TX: Harcourt Brace.

Chen, G-M., & Starosta, W.J. (1998). Foundations of intercultural communication.

Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Condon, J. & Yousef, F. (1985). An introduction to intercultural communication.

New York: Macmillan.

Holliday, A., Hyde, M. & Kullman, J. (2004). Intercultural Communication: London: Routledge.

Kroeber, A.L., & Kluckhohn, C. (1952). Culture: A critical review of concepts and

definitions. New York: Vintage.

Singer, M. (1968). The concept of culture. In International encyclopedia of the

Donna Humphrey 7/25/2007

Page 15 of 95

social sciences, V3 Colo to Cult (pp. 527-543). MacMillan Company and Free

Press.

Singer, M.R. (1987). Intercultural communication: A perceptual approach.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. HM258 .S487 1987

Straub, D. (2002). Toward a theory-based measurement of culture. Journal of Global Information Management: Online Journal

Ting-Toomey, S., & Korzenny, F. (1989). Language, communication, and culture.

Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Introduction to the Social Science Approach Dodd, C.H. (1997). Dynamics of intercultural communication (5th ed.) Dubuque:

Brown-Benchmark.

Gudykunst, W.B., & Kim, Y.Y. (2003). Communicating with strangers: An

approach to intercultural communication (4th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Hall, E.T. (1976). Beyond culture. New York: Anchor Books.

Hall, E.T. (1966). The hidden dimension. New York: Anchor Books.

Hall, E.T. (1959). The silent language. New York: Anchor Books.

Hofstede, G. H. (1998). Masculinity and femininity : the taboo dimension of

national cultures. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications.

Hofstede, G. (1994). Cultures and organizations : software of the mind :

intercultural. London, HarperCollins.


Page 16 of 95

Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences. Newbury Park, California: Sage

Publications.

Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences : international differences in work-

related. Beverly Hills, Sage Publications.

Holden, N. (2002). Cross-cultural management : a knowledge management

perspective. Harlow, Financial Times Prentice Hall.

Porter, R.E., & Samovar, L.A.. (1994). An introduction to intercultural

communication. In L.A. Samovar & R.E. Porter (Eds.)., Intercultural

communication: A reader (7th ed.) (pp. 4-26). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Introduction to the Interpretive Approach

Applegate, James & Sypher, Howard (1983):”A Constructivist Outline”, in

Gudykunst, William B. (ed.): Intercultural Communication Theory - Current

Perspectives. International and Intercultural Communication Annual, vol. VII.

Beverly Hills: Sage.

Applegate, James & Sypher, Howard (1988):”A Constructivist Theory of

Communication and Culture”, in Kim, Young Y. & Gudykunst, William B. (eds.):

Theories in Intercultural Communication. International and Intercultural

Communication Annual, volume XII. Newbury Park: Sage.

Baumann, Gerd (1999): The Multicultural Riddle – Rethinking National, Ethnic,

and Religious Identities. New York and London, Routledge.

Berger, Peter & Luckmann, Thomas (1966): The Social Construction of Reality: A

Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. Penguin Books, London.

Collier, M. J. (1988). A comparison of conversations among and between

http://www.its.ilstu.edu/jrbaldw/Com472/CEITlBib.html


Page 17 of 95

domestic cultural groups: How intra- and intercultural communication

competencies vary. Communication Quarterly, 36, 122-.

Collier, M.J., & Thomas, M. (1988). Cultural identity: An interpretive perspective.

In Y.Y. Kim & W.B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in intercultural communication

(pp. 99-122). Beverly Hills: Sage.

Orbe, M. P. (1996). Laying the foundation for co-cultural communication theory:

An inductive approach to studying “non-dominant” communication strategies and

the factors that influence them. Communication Studies, 47, 157-176.

Introduction to the Critical Approach Best, S., & Kellner, D. (1991). Postmodern theory: Critical interrogations. New

York: Guilford. [selected reading].

Chautauqua: The case for and against Critical Theory. Includes articles by

Pollock & Cox, Conquergood, Strine, Hanna, Ellis, & Huspek.

Razack, Sherene H. (1998): Looking white people in the eye – Gender, race and

culture in courtrooms and classrooms, Toronto, Buffalo, London: University of

Toronto Press.

Rosenau, P.M. (1992). Post-modernism and the social sciences: Insights,

inroads, and intrusions. [Introduction]. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. Vol.

58, No. 2, Communication Monographs.

Wetherell, Margaret & Potter, Jonathan (1992): Mapping the Language of

Racism. Discourse and the legitimation of exploitation. New York: Harvester

Wheatsheaf. unication. London: Sage.


Page 18 of 95

Part Two Interpersonal Communication in an Intercultural Setting

The term intercultural competence is now widely used in the field of intercultural

communication. However, it is still not widely understood, nor do interculturalists

agree upon a common definition. In the following section, the report provides an

account of some of the main theories of (intercultural) interpersonal

communicative competence that have influenced standards and criteria. For a

more in-depth account of the main theories in this field of study refer to

Intercultural Communication Competence by Richard Wiseman and Jolene

Koester (1993), Sage Publications and/or Intercultural Communication

Competence by Richard L. Wiseman, published in W. Gudykunst & B. Mody

(Eds.), Handbook of Intercultural and International Communication, Newbury

Park, CA: Sage Publications, 2001.


Page 19 of 95

Spitzberg’s notion of communicative competence

According to Wiseman (2001), in the last two decades there has been a growing

consensus on a conceptualization of ICC competence. It appears that a growing

number of communication scholars have embraced Spitzberg’s (1988) notion of

communicative competence. Spitzberg’s defines competent communication as

behaviours that are regarded as effective and appropriate.

‘Competent communication is interaction that is perceived

as effective in fulfilling certain rewarding objectives in a

way that is also appropriate to the context in which the

interaction occurs’ (p. 68).

Effective communication suggests that people are able to achieve desired

personal outcomes and are able to control and manipulate their social

environment to obtain those goals. Competent communicators are able to identify

their goals, assess the resources necessary to obtain those goals, accurately

predict the other communicator’s responses, choose workable communication

strategies, enact those communication strategies, and, finally, accurately assess

the results of the interaction.

Appropriate communication entails the use of messages that are expected in a

given context, and actions that meet the expectations and demands of the

situation. This criterion for communication competence requires the interactant

to demonstrate an understanding of the expectations for acceptable behavior in a

given situation. Appropriate communicators must recognize the constraints

imposed on their behavior by different sets of rules avoid violating those rules

with inappropriate (e.g., impolite, abrasive, or bizarre) responses and enact

communication behaviors in an appropriate manner. The two criteria of

effectiveness and appropriateness combine to influence the quality of the

interaction. For a recent formulation on ICC competence see Spitzberg (2000).


Page 20 of 95

Knowledge, Skill and Motivation Spitzberg and Cupach (1984) believed that there are three necessary conditions

that must exist before we are consciously and consistently competent in our

intercultural interactions: knowledge, motivation, and skills. If an interactant is

lacking one of these conditions, the likelihood of competent intercultural

communication is significantly diminished. The component model of competence

is not a theory about communication, but rather a model that sets the framework

for what makes someone a competent communicator. The component model has

been used as the basis for many other models of competence because of its

breadth. The model can be easily applied to the criteria of effectiveness and

appropriateness that make up a competent communicator.

Knowledge is an awareness of what behavior is best suited for a given situation.

This involves information about the people, the communication rules, the context,

and the normative expectations governing the interaction with the member of the

other culture.

Motivation is having the desire to communicate in an effective and appropriate

manner and refers to the set of feelings, intentions, needs, and drives associated

with the anticipation of or actual engagement in intercultural communication.

Skill is the actual performance of the behaviours and having the ability to apply

effective and appropriate behavior in the given communication context. For

Spitzberg (2000), skills must be repeatable and goal-oriented.

Reference

Spitzberg, B. H., & Cupach, W. R. (1984). Interpersonal communication

competence. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Spitzberg, B. H. (2000). A model of intercultural communication competence. In

L. Samovar & R. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (9th ed.,


Page 21 of 95

pp. 375-387). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Further reading Duran, R. L., & Spitzberg, B. H. (1995). Toward the development and validation

of a measure of cognitive communication competence. Communication

Quarterly, 43, 259-86.

Spitzberg, B. H. (1989) Issues in the development of a theory of interpersonal

competence in the intercultural context. International Journal of

Intercultural Relations, 13, 241–68.

Spitzberg, B. H. (2006). Preliminary development of a model and measure of

computer-mediated communication (CMC) competence. Journal of Computer-

Mediated Communcation, 11(2), article 12.

Wiseman, R. L., (2001). Intercultural Communication Competence in W.

Gudykunst & B. Mody (Eds.), Handbook of Intercultural and International

Communication, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications,


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Rubens seven dimensions of communication The notion of communication competence was conceptualized by Ruben (1976)

as “the ability to function in a manner that is perceived to be relatively consistent

with the needs, capacities, goals, and expectations of the individuals in one’s

environment while satisfying one’s own needs, capacities, goals, and

expectations” (p. 336). Based on this definition of communication competence,

Ruben identified seven behavioral elements that make individuals function

effectively in intercultural settings. The seven elements are: display of respect,

interaction posture, orientation to knowledge, empathy, role behaviors, interaction

management, and tolerance of ambiguity.

1. Display of respect: the individual indicates a deep respect for the

worth of others as persons of high potential and worth.

2. Interaction posture: the ability to respond to others in a

descriptive, non-judgmental manner.

3. Orientation to knowledge: the ability to view one's own knowledge

and perceptions as personal and not universally valid.

4. Empathy: the ability to ‘ put one self in another's shoes’.

5. Role behaviour: this dimension refers to an individual's ability to

function in task and relational roles within a group setting.

6. Interaction management: the ability to ‘manage’ interactions in

which one is taking part.

7. Tolerance for ambiguity: the ability to react to unexpected or

ambiguous situations without excessive discomfort.

Based on the seven elements, Ruben (1976) developed the Intercultural

Behavioral Assessment Indices (IBAI) for the measurement of intercultural

communication competence.

Reference Ruben, B. D. (1976). Assessing communication competency for intercultural

adaptation. Group & Organization Studies, 1, 334 – 54.


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Further reading

Ruben, B. D. (1976) Assessing communication competency for intercultural

adaptation. Group & Organization Studies, 1, 334 – 54 .

Ruben, B. D. (1977) Guidelines for cross-cultural communication effectiveness.

Group & Organization Studies, 2, 470–79.

Ruben, B. D. (1989)The study of cross-cultural competence: Traditions and

contemporary issues. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13, 229–40.

Ruben, B. D., & Kealey, D. J. (1979) Behavioral assessment of communication

competency and the prediction of cross-cultural adaptation. International Journal

of Intercultural Relations, 3, 15–47.


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Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity DMIS provides a structure for understanding how people experience cultural

differences. Six stages of perspectives describe how a person sees, thinks about,

and interprets events happening around them from an intercultural difference

perspective. Since DMIS indicates what a person sees and thinks, it also

suggests what they do not see or think. DMIS, therefore, highlights how a

person’s cultural patterns both guide and limit their experience of cultural

difference. DMIS theory says that cultural sensitivity and cultural differences

represent a potential obstacle or benefit in developing relationships and

communicating effectively with other people.

There are six stages of development in the DMIS model, which represent a set of

perspectives. With each successive stage individuals gain a greater ability to

understand and have a more positive experience of cultural difference. In brief,

the characteristics of each stage are:

• Denial represents being comfortable with the familiar. Not anxious to

complicate life with “cultural differences”. Not noticing much cultural difference

around you. Maintaining separation from others who are different.

• Defense is a strong commitment to one’s own thoughts and feelings about

culture and cultural difference. Some distrust of cultural behavior or ideas that

differ from one’s own. Aware of other cultures around you, but with a relatively

incomplete understanding of them and probably fairly strong negative feelings

or stereotypes about some of them.

• Minimization. People from other cultures are pretty much like you, under the

surface. There is an awareness that other cultures exist all around you, with

some knowledge about differences in customs and celebrations. Not putting

down other cultures. Treating other people as you would like to be treated.

• Acceptance means being aware of your own culture(s). You see your own

culture as just one of many ways of experiencing the world. There is an

understanding that people from other cultures are as complex as yourself.


Page 25 of 95

Their ideas, feelings, and behavior may seem unusual, but you realize that

their experience is just as rich as your own. You are curious about other

cultures, seeking opportunities to learn more about them.

• Adaptation is recognizing the value of having more than one cultural

perspective available to you. You are able to “take the perspective” of another

culture to understand or evaluate situations in either your own or another

culture. You are able to intentionally change your culturally based behavior to

act in culturally appropriate ways outside your own culture.

• Integration. To varying extents, you have integrated more than one cultural

perspective, mindset, and behavior into one’s identity and worldview. You are

able to move easily among cultures.

The first three stages are considered “ethnocentric” in that one’s own culture is

seen as the only culture or to varying extents the “better” culture. The last three

stages are considered “ethnorelative” in that one’s own culture is seen as equal

among many other cultures. The ethnorelative stages are characterized by a

positive mindset about cultural difference. These stages are indicative of a

person who will tend to make more inclusive decisions and actively seek to build

a diverse workforce and an inclusive work environment.

Further reading

Bennett, M. J. (1993). Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of

intercultural sensitivity. In R. M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural

experience (2nd ed., pp. 21–71). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.

Bennett, M. J., & Deane, B. R. (1994). A model for personal change:

Developing intercultural sensitivity. In E. Y. Cross, J. H. Katz, F. A. Miller, & E.

W. Seashore (Eds.), The promise of diversity: Over 40 voices discuss

strategies for eliminating discrimination in organizations (pp. 286–293). Burr

Ridge, IL: Irwin.


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Bennett, M. J. (2000). High profile: Dr. Bennett revitalizes the model for

intercultural sensitivity. Cultural Diversity at Work, 12(3).

Bennett, M. J. (2004). Becoming interculturally competent. In J. Wurzel (Ed.),

Toward multiculturalism: A reader in multicultural education (2nd ed., pp. 62–

77). Newton, MA: Intercultural Resource Corporation.


Page 27 of 95

The Council of Europe Throughout Europe, recent research in foreign language education has focused

on intercultural aspects. The concept of communicative competence has been

transformed into the concept of ‘intercultural communicative competence’ (ICC).

This concept is being incorporated into the work of the Council of Europe (a

transnational body which provides education policy guidelines for member

states), and is perhaps most clearly described in English in a book entitled

Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence, which was

written by an advisor to the Council of Europe committee on foreign language

education, Mike Byram (1997). Basically, ICC requires that students acquire the

knowledge, skills, attitudes and critical cultural awareness necessary to

communicate interculturally.

The components of intercultural competence are knowledge, skills and attitudes,

complemented by the values a person holds as a part of belonging to a number

of social groups. These values are also representative of a person’s social

identities.

• Intercultural attitudes (savoir être): curiosity and openness, readiness

to suspend disbelief about other cultures and belief about one’s own This

means a willingness to relativise one's own values, beliefs and

behaviours, not to assume that they are the only possible and naturally

correct ones, and to be able to see how they might look from an outsider's

perspective who has a different set of values, beliefs and behaviours. This

can be called the ability to 'decentre'.

• Knowledge (savoirs): of social groups and their products and practices in

one’s own and in one’s interlocutor’s country, and of the general

processes of societal and individual interaction So knowledge can be

defined as having two major components: knowledge of social

• processes, and knowledge of illustrations of those processes and

products; the latter includes knowledge about how other people are likely


Page 28 of 95

to perceive you, as well as some knowledge about other people.

• Skills of interpreting and relating (savoir comprendre): ability to

interpret a document or event from another culture, to explain it and relate

it to documents or events from one’s own

• Skills of discovery and interaction (savoir apprendre/faire): ability to

acquire new knowledge of a culture and cultural practices and the ability to

operate knowledge, attitudes and skills under the constraints of real-time

communication and interaction.

• Skills of discovery and interaction (savoir apprendre/faire): ability to

acquire new knowledge of a culture and cultural practices and the ability to

operate knowledge, attitudes and skills under the constraints of real-time

communication and interaction.

• Critical cultural awareness (savoir s'engager): an ability to evaluate,

critically and on the basis of explicit criteria, perspectives, practices and

products in one’s own and other cultures and countries.

Based on article: Developing the intercultural dimension in language teaching: a

practical introduction for teachers by Michael Byram, Bella Gribkova and Hugh

Starkey. Available from website: www. lrc.cornell.edu/director/intercultural.pdf

Reference Byram, M. 1997, Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative

Competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.


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Individual Intercultural Competence

According to Dirk van den Boom (2003), individual intercultural competence is

the result of the development of interpersonal skills that arise from the following:

• the motivation to communicate effectively with someone from a different

culture;

• being prepared to learn the skills needed for effective communication;

• the ability to put this knowledge into use.

http://efbsrv005.ze.uni-sb.de/AHOI/Lima/Base/Chapter3.htm - 3.3-

Van den Boom asserts that there are two (2) preconditions for individual

intercultural competence. These are:

1 the willingness to allow our attitudes to be challenged, recognizing that others

have the freedom and the right to be different, and

2 being nonjudgmental. In communicating with a someone from another culture,

we must be aware of the fact that they just like us are making an interpretation

of what is being communicated to them and that they will never have the full

picture.

(ibid, adapted from van den Boom, 2003, )

So what is intercultural competence? Van den Bloom provides us a definition:

Intercultural competence is the overall capability of an individual to manage key

challenging features of intercultural communication: namely, cultural differences

and unfamiliarity, inter-group dynamics, and the tensions and conflicts that can

accompany this process. (ibid,http://efbsrv005.ze.uni-sb.de/AHOI/Lima/Base/

Chapter3.htm#3.3)

http://efbsrv005.ze.uni-sb.de/AHOI/Lima/Base/


Page 30 of 95

Constructs of ICC ICC is often described with a variety of traits in at least five dimensions, and may

be viewed as a developmental process. Each of these areas is summarised

below. The information is taken from the article: A Central Concern: Developing

Intercultural Competence by Alvino E. Fantini, where the five dimensions are

explored in greater detail.

Traits Intercultural abilities are often evidenced through behavioral manifestations or

traits. Commonly cited attributes include: respect, empathy, flexibility, patience,

interest, curiosity, openness, motivation, a sense of humor, tolerance for

ambiguity, and a willingness to suspend judgment, among others. That is, when

describing the profile of an interculturally successful individual, these are among

the most commonly mentioned descriptors (see e.g., Kealey 1990, p. 5; Kohls

1979, p. 72) and are often found in cross-cultural inventories as well (e.g., Kelley

and Meyers 1992).

Dimensions In this construct of ICC, there are also five dimensions. These are awareness,

attitudes, skills, knowledge (A+ASK), and proficiency in the host tongue. It is

important to note that awareness appears to be of a different order from the other

three. Many interculturalists see awareness (of self and others) as the keystone

on which effective and appropriate interactions depend. Writers from various

disciplines have long been intrigued with awareness and explored its role further.

Stevens (1971), Curle (1972), and Gattegno (1976), among others, cite

awareness as the most powerful dimension of the A+ASK quartet. The important

works of Paulo Freire (1970, 1973, 1998) reinforce this thinking and, as a result,

the Portuguese word “concientização” (signifying “critical consciousness” or

“awareness”) is now internationally recognized. Freire reinforces this notion with

several other important observations (1970, 1973, 1998):


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• “concientização” is awareness of selfhood

• “concientização” is a critical look at the self in a social situation

• it can produce a transformation of the self and of one’s relation to others

• it can lead to dealing critically and creatively with reality (and fantasy)

• it is the most important task of education.

A Developmental Process While acknowledging that contact and experience with people of other languages

and cultures in a positive setting provide excellent opportunities to provoke and

foster ICC development, it is also clear that once the process has begun, ICC

development is an on-going lifelong process.

YOGA form (“Your Objectives, Guidelines, and Assessment”) The YOGA form is used to assess intercultural competence (Fantini 1995, 1999)

that addresses areas of A+ASK plus language proficiency at four developmental

levels. The term “YOGA” stands for “Your Objectives, Guidelines, and

Assessment” form. This form may be used as a self-evaluation guide. It is

designed to help examine the development of an individuals intercultural

communicative competence

For further information on the five dimensions and the YOGA form go to Fantini’s

article available from website: www.sit.edu/publications/docs/competence.pdf

References Curle, Adam. 1972. Mystics and Militants. London: Tavistock Publications.

Freire, Paulo. 1998. Teachers As Cultural Workers: Letters to Those Who Dare

Teach. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

—————. 1973. Education for Critical Consciousness. New York: Continuum.

—————. 1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum.


Page 32 of 95

Gattegno, Caleb. 1976. Educational Solutions Newsletter: On Knowledge. Vol. 5,

New York: Schools for the Future.

Kealey, Daniel J. 1990. Cross-Cultural Effectiveness : A Study of Canadian

Technical Advisors Overseas. Hull, Quebec: Canadian International

Development Agency.

Kelley, Colleen and Judith Meyers. 1992. The Cross-Cultural Adaptability

Inventory. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.

Kohls, L. Robert. 1979. Survival Kit for Overseas Living. Chicago: Intercultural

Network/SYSTRAN Publications.

Stevens, John O. 1971. Awareness: Exploring, Experimenting, and Experiencing.

Moah, Utah: Real People Press.


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Elements Related to Intercultural Communication Competence

According to Chen (1992), a number of elements essential to communication

competence are specified by scholars from different disciplines. Those major

elements include:

• Self-disclosure (Bochner & Kelly, 1974). Self-disclosure refers to the

process of revealing personal information to one’s partners who are not

likely to know from other sources. According to Bochner and Kelly (1974),

self-disclosure is one of the main elements in communication competence.

However, self-disclosure must be regulated by the norm of

appropriateness in which individuals judge the degree of disclosure for a

given situation.

• Self-consciousness (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984) is the ability to know or

to monitor oneself. Self-consciousness can help individuals to implement

conversationally competent behaviors in interaction (Spitzberg & Cupach,

1984) and to adjust better in other cultures (Brislin, 1979; Gudykunst,

Hammer, & Wiseman, 1977; Triandis, 1977a).

• Social relaxation (Wiemann, 1977) refers to low levels of communication

anxiety. It is assumed that an individual would experience anxiety crises

during the initial period of sojourning in a new culture (Gudykunst &

Hammer, 1988; Hammer, 1989). Spitzberg and Cupach (1984) indicated

that socially relaxed persons are those who are able to get rid of behaviors

such as undue perspiration, shakiness, postural rigidity, self and object

adapters, and minimal response tendencies when communicating with

other persons. Wiemann (1977) also indicated that competent persons

must know how to handle behaviors such as rocking movements, leg and

foot movements, body lean, speech rate, speech disturbances,

hesitations, and nonfluencies, and how to manipulate objects.

• Behavioral flexibility (Martin, 1987) is the ability to behave appropriately

in different situations (Bochner & Kelly, 1974). This is similar to) creativity

and flexibility dimension. An individual must demonstrate ability to be


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accurate and “flexible in attending to information,” to be flexible “in the

response repertoire,” and to be flexible “in selecting strategies” in order to

achieve personal goals in communication (Parks, 1976, p. 16). Wheeless

and Duran (1982) also proposed adaptability as one of the dimensions of

communicative competence. According to them, communication

adaptability focuses on the variety of individual experiences and “the

ability to be flexible and feel comfortable with a variety of people” (p. 55).

• Interaction involvement (Cegala, 1981) is the ability to be attentive,

responsive and perceptive in interaction. Cegala (1981) found that

interaction involvement is one of the dimensions of communication

competence. The dimension mainly emphasizes individual empathic and

other-oriented ability in interaction.

• The abilitiy to deal with social difficulties in the host culture (Furnham

& Bochner, 1982) is one way to help sojourners psychologically acclimate

to a new environment. According to Furnham (1986, 1987) and Furnham

and Bochner (1982), psychological adaptation is typically associated with

personal ability to deal with situations such as frustration, stress,

alienation, and ambiguity caused by the host culture. That is,

psychological adaptation indicates how individuals deal with the so-called

‘‘social difficulties.”

References

Bochner, A. P., & Kelly, C. W. (1974) Interpersonal competence: Rationale,

philosophy, and implementation of a conceptual framework. Speech Teacher, 23,

279–301.

Brislin, R. W. (1979) Orientation programs for cross-cultural preparation. In A. J.

Marsella, R. G. Tharp, & T. J. Ciborowski (Eds.), Perspectives on cross-cultural

psychology (pp. 287–303). New York: Academic Press.


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Cegala, D. J. (1981) Interaction involvement: A cognitive dimension of

communicative competence. Communication Education, 30, 109–

21.

Chen, G-M. (1992) A Test of Intercultural Communication Competence

Intercultural Communication Studies II:2

Furnham, A. (1986) Cultural shock: Psychological reactions to unfamiliar

environments. New York: Methuen.

-----------(1987) The adjustment of sojourners. In Y. Y. Kim & W. B. Gudykunst

(Eds.), Cross-cultural adaptation: Current approaches (pp. 42–61). Beverly Hills,

CA: Sage.

Furnham, A., & Bochner, S. (1982) Social difficulty in foreign culture: An empirical

analysis of culture shock. In S. Bochner (Ed.), Cultures in contact: Studies in

cross-cultural interaction. New York: Pergamon Press.

Gudykunst, W. B., Hammer, M. R., & Wiseman, R. L. (1977) An analysis of an

integrated approach to cross-cultural training. International Journal of Intercultural

Relations, 8, 1–10.

Hammer, M. (1989) Intercultural communication competence. In M. K. Asante &

W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Handbook of international and intercultural

communication (pp. 247–60). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Martin, J. N. (1987) The relationships between student sojourner perceptions of

intercultural competencies and previous sojourn experience.

International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 11, 337–55 .

Parks, M. R. (1976) Communication competence. Paper presented at the

meeting of the Speech Communication Association, San Francisco. December.

Spitzberg, B. H., & Cupach, W. R. (1984) Interpersonal communication


Page 36 of 95

competence. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Triandis, H. C. (1977) Subjective culture and interpersonal relations across

cultures. In L. Loeb-Adler (Ed.), Issues in cross-cultural research. Annals of

the New York Academy of Sciences, 285, 418–34.

Wheeless, E. W., & Duran, R. L. (1982) Gender orientation as a correlate of

communicative competence. Southern Speech Communication Journal. 48, 51–

64. Wiemann, J. M. (1977) Explication and test of model of communication

competence. Human Communication Research, 3, 195–213.

A summary of the components of intercultural competence Scheitza has assembled various "ingredients" of intercultural competence from various sources. These are

categorised under the personal attributes of attitude, knowledge, communication, self-confidence and social

relationships.

Attitudes

Knowledge

Communication

Self-manifestation Social relationships

motivation and interest in intercultural contacts

common knowledge about and awareness of cultural differences

ability to communicate, good mastering of the language

ability to establish acceptable identities for both sides

ability to establish fruitful and supportive relationships

positive attitude towards different culture, acceptance of differences

knowledge of the (foreign) country and its social organisation

awareness of and knowledge about different models of verbal and non-verbal communication

calm and controlled behaviour facing difficulties

realistic expectations

knowledge of the norms, patterns and conventions of the foreign culture

identification and effective use of different styles of communication, adaption of way of speaking

ability and readiness to accept third culture perspectives

respect towards values and behaviours of the other culture

knowledge of the rules for interaction and communication

ability to start and maintain a useful dialogue with someone from a

ability to recognise the needs and wishes of the other


different culture

politeness, friendliness, diplomacy

ability to avoid and clear misunderstandings

reflection of stereotypes

openness and flexibility in dealing with foreign ideas and thoughts

ability to ask back and get information effectively

flexibility and adaptability

patience and tolerance

initiative, self-esteem and endurance

ability to cope with psychical stress, maintenance of motivation

social intelligence

cognitive complexity (ability to accept


preliminary explanations for foreign behaviour) Information based on website: www.uni-saarland.de/z-einr/efb/AHOI/Lima/Base/Chapter3.htm

For more information on Alexander Scheitza got to website http://www.radius-team.com/english/team/office/


http://www.uni-saarland.de/z-einr/efb/AHOI/Lima/Base/Chapter3.htm

http://www.radius-team.com/english/team/office/

Part Three

Intercultural Communication Competence Standards and Criteria

The Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) Dr. Milton Bennett of the Portland-based Intercultural Communication Institute

Bennett created the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (See

"Experience of Difference"), which shows a progression of stages people may go

through in developing intercultural competency. Since then, he has partnered

with Dr. Mitch Hammer of American University to develop the Intercultural

Development Inventory (IDI). The inventory is a set of statements that allows an

individual to assess his/her developmental stage of intercultural sensitivity

according to the DMIS. Both IDI and the underlying DMIS theory-based model

are culture-general in nature. DMIS addresses cross cultural difference

independent of the type of difference. Cultural difference stemming from national,

regional, societal, family, organization, and individual characteristics all come

within the scope of DMIS. IDI as a tool is seen as valuable because it measures

people's ability to experience difference in relatively complex ways. Unlike many

other instruments, it does not compare a person to typical behaviors and it does

not analyze behavioral reactions. IDI operates at the worldview level of how a

person feels and thinks about cultural difference. This deeper level of one’s

cognitive experience is what guides and limits behavior. The IDI aids individuals

in learning to understand and develop their intercultural competence, which will

generate behavioral change. The IDI is a scientifically valid and reliable

psychometric instrument.

Full details about the design are available in, International Journal of Intercultural

Relations, Special Issue on Intercultural Development, Volume 27, Number 4,

July 2003. The entire issue dedicated to DMIS and IDI.

Information based on Website:

http://www.workforcedevelopmentgroup.com


http://www.workforcedevelopmentgroup.com/

Intercultural Competence Assessment

The INCA project, funded by Leonardo da Vinci II, has developed a framework

and a suite of assessment tools, including INCA on-line, and a portfolio for the

assessment of intercultural competence linked to language and subject

knowledge competence. The framework was designed to underpin training and

assessment in this field and to provide an effective and efficient diagnostic tool to

support assessment, benchmarking, recruitment and employee development.

The INCA Products were developed and tested first in the engineering sector,

where the need for interculturally competent managers for the future was seen as

most acute. The project partners and contributors were experts in the field of

intercultural learning theory, diagnostic testing, "culture shock" etc.

This project aims to link Byram's (1997) Framework for Intercultural Competence

Learning to the needs of industry, and produce thereby a framework for delivery

and assessment suitable for use in promoting intercultural awareness and

understanding as part of a vocational languages programme. The INCA project is

based on the theoretical work of Mike Byram, Torsten Kühlmann, Bernd Müller-

Jacquier and Gerhard Budin

For detailed information on the INCA competence tool go to websites:

http://www.incaproject.org/index.htm

INCA On-line (http://www.incaproject.org/incaonline/)

Further reading

Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative

Competence. Clevedon: Mulitilingual Matters.


http://www.leonardo.org.uk/

http://www.incaproject.org/framework.htm

http://www.incaproject.org/tools.htm

http://www.incaproject.org/inca_online.htm

http://www.incaproject.org/portfolio.htm

http://www.incaproject.org/framework.htm

http://www.incaproject.org/further_dev.htm

Byram, M./ Nichols, A./ Stevens, D. (2001). Developing intercultural competence

in practice. Clevedon : Multilingual Matters.

Kühlmann, T.M. (1996). Die Diagnose interkultureller Führungskompetenz bei

Führungskräften: Entwicklung und Erprobung eines Assessment-Centers. In H.

Mandl (Hrsg.), Bericht über den 40. Kongreß der Deutschen Gesellschaft für

Psychologie. München: Diskettenfassung.

Kühlmann, T.M./ Stahl, G.K. (1996). Fachkompetenz allein genügt nicht –

Interkulturelle Assessment Center unterstützen die gezielte Personalauswahl.

Personalführung Plus 96, S. 22-24.

Kühlmann, T.M./ Stahl, G.K. (1998). Diagnose interkultureller Kompetenz:

Entwicklung und Evaluierung eines Assessment-Centers. In C.I. Barmeyer & J.

Bolten (Hrsg.), Interkulturelle Personal-organisation (S. 213-224). Sternenfels:

Verlag für Wissenschaft und Praxis.

Müller- Jacquier, Bernd. (2000). Linguistic Awareness of Cultures-Grundlagen

eines Trainingsmoduls. In: Bolten, Jürgen (Hrsg.) (2000). Studien zur

internationalen Unternehmenskommunikation. Leipzig: Popp.


Intercultural competence for professional mobility (ICOPROMO)

The ICOPROMO project recognizes that employees are increasingly faced with

intercultural encounters in their professional contexts. The project focuses on

strategies directed towards intercultural sensitivity and on mediation

competencies closely linked with language learning and the professional world.

The ICOPROMO project builds upon the Common European Framework and the

European Language Portfolio and supplements their recommendations with

some guidelines and materials for foreign language/culture education that are

more focused on professional training. The project build upon the results of

previous projects carried out under the auspices of the ECML, such as

ODYSSEUS and others, and of the European Union, such as COST, INCA and

ORACLE.

The rationale of the ICOPROMO project (Intercultural Competence for

Professional Mobility) is to develop competencies that allow a more flexible and

critical workforce that is more attentive to the subtleties of intercultural

communication and interaction. Special focus of the project is on intercultural

competence in professional contexts and in multicultural teams. In practice, the

project objective is to develop a model of intercultural competence and a number

of training activities to enhance professional mobility among the European

workforce (employees and managers).

Final Outcome of the project will be a publication that will contain a thorough

explanation of the main concepts underlying ICOPROMO’s Transformational

Model on the Development of Intercultural Competence. A CD ROM will include

a set of sample training activities designed to develop intercultural competence in

multicultural teams.

For further information go to Websites: http://www.ecml.at/mtp2/ICOPROMO/html/ICOPROMO_E_pdesc.htm

http://www.ces.uc.pt/icopromo/index.php


http://www.ecml.at/mtp2/ICOPROMO/html/ICOPROMO_E_pdesc.htm

http://www.ces.uc.pt/icopromo/index.php

The international Profiler (TIP)

The International Profiler is a questionnaire and feedback process that has been

developed to help managers and professionals reflect on where their skills are

(and where they may be lacking skills) in working internationally. It also helps

raise awareness of potential areas in which they may require future development,

and suggest actions they can take to fill the gaps.

WorldWork Ltd. has developed a set of 10 competencies (with 22 associated

skills, attitudes and areas of knowledge) that define the special capabilities

required to transfer leadership, managerial and professional skills to an

international context. The competencies have been derived from research in the

multi-cultural field and the practical experience of people working in international

roles. The International Profiler is a psychometric questionnaire that provides

individuals with structured feedback in terms of the energy, emphasis and

attention they typically bring to each of the competency sets. The Profiler

feedback provides:

Awareness of potential gaps in a person’s international competence

Linkage to individual roles, required working style and appropriate attitudes

and approaches

The rationale for development and initial action steps for meeting

development needs

The International Profiler is aimed at individuals who need to build adaptive skills

for working in a multi-national environment. They may wish to review their

present international experience and extend the skills they bring to the task. They

may have a present or imminent need to transfer their technical and managerial

skills more extensively into the international arena.


Description of International Competencies

1. Openness �� New thinking - receptive to new ideas, and typically seeks to extend

understanding into new and unfamiliar fields. Likes to work internationally as they

are exposed to ideas and approaches with which they are unfamiliar.

�� Welcoming strangers - keen to initiate contact and build relationships with new

people, including those who have different experiences, perceptions, and values

to themselves. Often takes a particular interest in strangers from different and

unfamiliar cultural backgrounds.

�� Acceptance - not only tolerates but also positively accepts behaviour that is

very different from their own. In an international context they rarely feel

threatened by, or intolerant of, working practices that conflict with their own

sense of best practice.

2. Flexibility �� Flexible behaviour – adapt easily to a range of different social and cultural

situations. Have either learned or are willing to learn a wider range of behaviour

patterns. Ready to experiment with different ways of behaving to find those that

are most acceptable and most successful.

�� Flexible judgements - avoid coming to quick and definitive conclusions about

the new people and situations that they encounter. Can also use each

experience of people from a different culture to question assumptions and modify

stereotypes about how such people operate.

�� Learning languages - motivated to learn and use the specific languages of

important business contacts, over and beyond the lingua franca in which they

conduct their everyday business activities. Ready to draw on key expressions

and words from the languages of these international contacts to build trust and

show respect.


3. Personal autonomy �� Inner purpose – to hold strong personal values and beliefs that provide

consistency or balance when dealing with unfamiliar circumstances, or when

facing pressures that question judgement or challenge sense of worth. Such

values also give importance and credibility to the tasks that they have to perform.

�� Focus on goals - set specific goals and tasks in international projects,

combined with a high degree of persistence in achieving them regardless of

pressures to compromise, and distractions on the way. Believe they have a

strong element of control over their own destiny, and can make things happen in

the world around them.

4. Emotional strength �� Resilience - usually tough enough to risk making mistakes as a way of learning.

Able to overcome any embarrassment, criticism or negative feedback they may

encounter. Have an optimistic approach to life and tend to ‘bounce back’ when

things go wrong.

�� Coping - able to deal with change and high levels of pressure even in unfamiliar

situations. They remain calm under pressure, and have well-developed means of

coping even without their normal support networks. Have the personal resources

necessary to deal effectively with the stress from culture shock.

�� Spirit of adventure - ready to seek out variety, change and stimulation in life,

and avoid safe and predictable environments. Push themselves into

uncomfortable and ambiguous situations, often unsure whether they have the

skills required to be successful.

©WorldWork Limited

For detailed information on the competencies go to website

http://www.worldwork.biz/legacy/www/docs2/competencies.phtml



Page 47 of 95

The Intercultural Competence Framework

The intercultural competence framework was developed by partners involved in

intercultural communication from Flanders and the Netherlands. The final

framework was based on research into and adapation of competence profiles

from a range of sources.

For more information Contact Paul.Catteeuw at [email protected]). Master

in Germanic philology at Karel de Grote Hogeschool in Antwerp

FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE FOR INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE FOR BUSINESS PURPOSES © Paul Catteeuw

Basic = knowing Advanced = understanding Proficiency = applying

1 Critical awareness Can deal critically and consciously as an individual with the society in which he/she lives

1. Notices that he/she lives in a changing society Dares to question the society in which he/she lives

Is aware of and has a critical approach to the society in which he/she lives

2. Recognizes prejudices, racist feelings and attitudes within oneself and others and knows the cultural stereotypes

Can make prejudices, racist feelings and attitudes within oneself and others subject of discussion and understands the origin of stereotypes

Can prevent oneself and others from prejudices, racist feelings and attitudes and can see through the cultural stereotypes

2 Openness - right to differ - respect for otherness Can deal with ambiguous situations, is open to others and can accept and respect possible differences

3. Recognizes other cultures and cultural diversity Tolerates other cultures and cultural diversity Functions within other cultures and cultural diversity

4. Recognizes otherness (culture, class, gender, age, health, sexual inclination, ethnicity, appearance, …)

Accepts otherness Functions according to the principles of equality

5. Recognizes culture shock within oneself and others when in contact with a different culture

Knows how to deal with the problems of culture shock Effectively overcomes the problems of culture shock

3 Flexibility and empathy Can be flexible when dealing with realistic situations and demands and can understand intuitively what other people think and feel in realistic situations

6. Is aware of past experiences Learns from past experiences Adapts to the actual situation

7. Is willing to learn the partner’s language: CEF - A Is willing to learn the partner’s language: CEF - B Is willing to learn the business partner’s language: CEF - C

8. Notices that business partners can react differently Understands that business partners can react differently Accepts the other as a coherent individual with different reactions and deals tactfully

4 Communicative skill Can communicate effectively and correctly with others in realistic situations 9. Recognizes the intercultural background and possible

problems in written, oral and non-verbal communication Understands the intercultural background and possible problems in written, oral and non-verbal communication

Can prevent possible intercultural problems in written and oral communication and in non-verbal communication


5 Solution oriented attitude Can think and act in a solution oriented way in realistic situations 10. Recognizes misunderstandings and conflicts, possibly

related to the cultural background Understands the origin of misunderstandings and conflicts, possibly related to the cultural background

Can prevent misunderstandings and conflicts

11. In individual situations, makes an extra effort to learn from misunderstandings and conflicts.

As a rule makes an extra effort to learn from misunderstandings and conflicts.

Will purposely seek out situations in which can be learned from living, working or studying with people from different cultures or with a different background

6 Cultural knowledge Can acquire knowledge of a different culture and can use this knowledge in actual situations

12. Knows the concepts relating to interculturality Can see a link between professional situations and the concepts relating to interculturality

Can apply the concepts relating to interculturality in professional situations

13. Recognizes the problems of neglected target groups: immigrants, asylum seekers, the underprivileged, … whom he/she has to deal with in his/her working environment (subordinates, colleagues)

Knows how to deal with and understands the problems of neglected target groups

Effectively deals with people from neglected target groups in a spontaneous way

14. Recognizes the sociocultural conventions of target groups he/she comes into contact with: companies, expats, …

Understands the sociocultural conventions of the target groups he/she comes into contact with

Incorporates the sociocultural conventions of the target groups he/she comes into contact with



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The Intercultural Readiness Check (IRC) The Intercultural Readiness Check (IRC) is a tool to measure four dimensions of

intercultural competence:

• Intercultural Sensitivity: Sensitivity to the perspective of others based on

sensitivity to cultural norms and values and sensitivity to signals from

others.

• Intercultural Communication: Ability to take into account the information

needs of listeners and to be flexible in how one communicates.

• Building Commitment/ Enhancing Collaboration: Ability to stimulate

collaboration between people and to take the lead while keeping others on

board.

• Preference for Certainty: Degree of preference for new and unpredictable

situations and perspectives.

The IRC is used to:

• To assess people's training needs

• To determine the right level of training content and process

• To help clients understand the intercultural learning needs of their staff

• To better understand the level of competence of the client organization

Feedback on the basis of the IRC helps trainer and respondents to get a better

grasp of the intercultural skills the respondents needs to work on in general, and

in particular within the international context of their organization.

Testing the IRC The IRC is a 60-item questionnaire, which takes approximately 15 minutes to

answer to assess the four dimensions of intercultural competence. The IRC was

tested by combining it with another questionnaire, the Multicultural Personality

Questionnaire (MPQ), which assesses five personality traits (Cultural Empathy,

Open-mindedness, Flexibility, Social Initiative, Emotional Stability):


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The IRC has been tested for validity and reliability in collaboration with Professor

Karen van der Zee, University of Groningen. A paper comparing the IRC with the

Multicultural Personality Questionnaire (© van der Zee & van Oudenhoven) has

been submitted to the International Journal of Assessment and Selection.

For further more detailed information on the competencies go to website

http://www.ibinet.nl/cat.htm#top

(The Multicultural Personality Questionnaire: Reliability and Validity of Self- and

Other Ratings of Multicultural Effectiveness

The Multicultural Personality Questionnaire is a multidimensional instrument

aimed at measuring multicultural effectiveness Exploratory and confirmatory

factor analyses on self- and other ratings for an original set of 138 items revealed

five reliable factors underlying the questionnaire: Cultural Empathy, Open-

mindedness, Emotional Stability, Social Initiative, and Flexibility)


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GLOBAL INTELLIGENCE Global Intelligence is defined as the capacity to recognize our own cultures and

those of others (1) for increasing personal and professional effectiveness, (2) for

creating efficiency and productivity in the global workplace, and (3) for promoting

harmony and humanity in the world.

Global intelligence consists of seven pillars:

1. Global Literacy means world knowledge and to be able to:

• Understand the elements of culture and

• Understand the framework for differentiating cultures

• Recognize the impact of culture on life and work

• Understand the diversity of the world and people

• Be aware of differences in values and assumptions

• Develop a working knowledge of international relations, economics, and

cross-cultural differences in countries and among peoples they deal with.

2. Global Mentality means to be open-minded and flexible

• Rethink their boundaries beyond national borders

• See the benefit of working with global diversity

• Be aggressively curious about other culture

• Check their assumptions about the world far away

• Shift their paradigms as necessary

• Acknowledge cultural differences

• Accept cross-cultural conflicts as natural

3. Global Identity

• Know their own cultural identity

• Reflect on the various aspects of their own identity (e. g.: national, regional

ethnic, religious, generational, gender, economical, educational,

professional, individual identity)

• Be aware of their cultural tendency and preference

• Feel secure with themselves and feel secure with anyone, anywhere


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• Be open and continue to explore their changing identity

• Challenge prejudices and intolerance

• “See themselves as a part of the whole of humanity”

4. Global Competency contains skills and ability to be able to

• Utilize different cultural adaptors for host countries

• Challenge the negative cultural influence on the status quo

• Integrate strengths of various cultures by thinking in “both/and” rather than

“either/or”

• Adopt policies and practices that will contribute to global effectiveness and

empowerment

• Seek a global network of advisors, colleagues and partners

• Be able to persuade and negotiate across cultures

Global Competency in Communication means:

• Choose the right media/ channel to create the right tone

• Share information to clarify directions and priorities

• Learn or practice foreign languages

• Use international English

• Listen with empathy (with eyes, ears and whole heart)

• Understand the context and read nonverbal factors

• Use humor discreetly and find humor in any situation

5. Global Technology

• Have command of information system and technology

• Use technologies to help their intercultural effectiveness

• Know the availability and preference of technologies in host countries

• Integrate the use of technology with local cultural values

• Use technology to enhance humanity, not to diminish

6. Global Integrity

• Emphasize the importance of ethics and characters. For example, the

commitment to

• Responsible business conduct, management’s leadership and trust in


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employees.

7. Global Humanity

• Means compassion and generosity. In a new economy profit (Li) and

principle (Yi) must be combined. The eastern wisdom for integrity and

humanity teaches: “ Respect the divine and love the human.”

Details taken from is an author of seven books and numerous guides on

business and cross-cultural communication, including Dr. Kim, E.Y., (1996)

Global Intelligence: Seven Pillars for New Global Leaders, A Cross-Cultural

Reference of Business Practices in a New Korea : Quorum Books

For further information contact:

Eun Y. KIM, Ph.D. cross-cultural management consultant and author of six

books, CEO International, www.yinyangamerica.com, Austin, Texas, USA


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Process Communication Model (PCM)

The PCM was founded in the 1970s by American Psychologist Taibi Kahler and

is based on scientific studies. Following the tradition of Transactional Analysis, it

describes a model of different personality adaptations/styles. The PCM is a

system for

• Personal improvement

• Client assessment

• Personnel development

• Team building

In the Intercultural Training field PCM can be designed to:

• Understand different culture-based behaviours and stress patterns

• Develop a "landscape" of communication patterns for oneself and

colleagues

• Help to develop one's own personality, leadership skills and management

styles,

• International business collaborations, multicultural team building and

project management

• Reduce pressure as a result of mis-communication and

misunderstandings

The personality adaptations described in the PCM are not connected to any

culture, age group or educational background. Nevertheless different cultures

show their communication channels, psychological needs and driver behaviours

with different relative intensity.

Assumptions:

• Humans show 6 different personality types (Workaholic, Reactor,

Persister, Dreamer, Rebel, Promoter)

• Each person carries inside ALL personality types but to a different

distinction

• One person’s strongest personality type defines their character strengths,


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psychological needs, perception preferences, management style,

communication channel, traits and distress sequences.

Examples:

Personality Type: Workaholic (Thinker) Reactor (Feeler)

Character strengths: Responsible, logical, organized Compassionate, sensitive,

warm

Psychological needs: Appreciation of work, time, structure Appreciation of person

Perception preferences: Thinks first, categorizes people and things Feels first,

loves harmony

Management style: Democratic Benevolent

Communication channel: Requestive, Carrying

Traits: Ability to think logically Ability to nurture, be empathic

Distress sequences: Expects himself to be perfect, over controls, over adapts,

invites criticism, rejects others, gets rejected.

Based on article by Katalin GEIS, KaleidosGlobe Training & Consulting and

Relocation Services Hamburg

For further information go to website:

http://www.taibikahlerassociates.com/PTMvsPCM.phtml


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Language On-Line Portfolio Project (LOLIPOP)

LOLIPOP (Language On-Line Portfolio Project), with the School of Applied

Language and Intercultural Studies, Dublin City University (DCU) as lead partner,

involves 12 partners across 8 countries (Austria, France, Germany, Ireland,

Latvia, Norway, Poland and Spain). Its aim is the development of a multilingual,

on-line, interactive version of the (European Language Portfolio) ELP with an

enhanced intercultural dimension. The project is due for completion in

September 2007. The project defines intercultural competence as follows:

Knowledge

• Culture-general and culture specific

• Products and practices of own and other culture

• How social groups and identities function

• How intercultural interaction works

Skills

• Behave appropriately and effectively

• Acquire and operate knowledge

• Compare and interpret cultures

Attitudes

• Curiosity

• Tolerance

• Ability to ‘decentre’ The project members believe that in order to assist the learner in becoming

interculturally competent, a framework needs to be created within which learners

can assess their current stage of development and determine what it is they need

to do in order to progress to the next stage. The project members are considering

the development of a set of descriptors for intercultural competence and a

corresponding set of “I can do” statements perhaps based on the levels of


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intercultural competence presented in Table 1 (see below). These intercultural

‘Can do’ statements would help the learners to self-assess their intercultural

competence, set objectives and they would be able to display evidence of their

intercultural progress in the Dossier section of the European Language Portfolio

(ELP). The intercultural competence would be thus fully integrated into the ELP,

with activities for classroom practice to support such an approach.

TABLE 1: Example of possible Indicators of Intercultural Competence

Intercultural competencies Awareness of intercultural

competencies

• I can describe other cultures.

• I can notice and record similarities

and differences between

cultures.

• I can explain similarities and

differences between cultures.

• I can understand and accept

aspects of other cultures which

are surprising/new to me.

• I can reflect on the sometimes

challenging/enriching nature of

intercultural encounters.

• I can empathise with members of

other cultures.

• I can identify the factors

influencing my attitudes towards

other cultures.

• I can assess my own abilities as

an intercultural communicator.


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For further information contact: Dr. Jennifer Bruen, Ms. Veronica Crosbie, Ms.

Juliette Péchenart

Lecturers in German, ESOL and French respectively in the School of Applied

Language and Intercultural Studies, Dublin City University.

Details of the project are available at website:

http://www.isoc.siu.no/isocii.nsf/projectlist/116998

http://www.isoc.siu.no/isocii.nsf/projectlist/116998


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A Framework of International / Intercultural Competencies The School of Management at The George Mason University, identifies the

following competencies as necessary for graduate students to develop if they are

to be successful in their graduate global residencies.

Knowledge

• Knowledge of world geography, conditions, issues, and events

• Awareness of the complexity and interdependency of world events and issues

• Understanding of historical forces which have shaped the current world

system

• Knowledge of one’s own culture and history

• Knowledge of effective communication including knowledge of a foreign

language,

intercultural communication concepts, and international business etiquette

• Understanding of the diversity found in the world in terms of values, beliefs,

ideas,

and worldviews

Attitudes

• Openness to learning and a positive orientation to new opportunities, ideas,

and ways of thinking

• Tolerance for ambiguity and unfamiliarity,

• Sensitivity and respect for personal and cultural differences

• Empathy or the ability to take multiple perspectives

• Self awareness about own identity and culture and well developed self-

esteem

Skills

• Technical skills to enhance the capacity of students to learn about the world


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• Critical and comparative thinking skills including the ability to think creatively

and

integrate knowledge, rather than uncritical acceptance of knowledge

• Communication skills including ability to use another language effectively and

interact with people from other cultures

• Coping and resiliency skills in unfamiliar and challenging situations

Specifically, each experience should be orchestrated by the faculty to enhance

the development of each competency as described below:

Knowledge

• Political Knowledge = this includes knowledge of one’s own political system,

players, and events as well as international systems, leaders, and events. It also

includes a knowledge of geography, institutions and processes, and economics

(Caprini and Keeter).

• “State of the Planet” Awareness = understanding of prevailing world

conditions, developments, and trends associated with world issues such as

population growth, economic conditions, inter-nation conflicts etc… (Hanvey)

(CAFLIS). The Knowledge Dimension in the ETS study includes awareness of

such topics as trade arrangements, energy, human rights, and population issues

(ETS).

• Foreign Language Acquisition = knowledge of another language as a way

to increase one’s understanding of another culture (Bonham et. al. ).

• Knowledge of International Etiquette = understanding of appropriate

international etiquette in situations with colleagues to cover greetings, thanking,

leave taking, gift-giving, and paying and receiving compliments (BBCAI).


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• Knowledge of Global Dynamics = comprehension of the hidden complexity

that can alter the interpretation of world events (systems thinking) (Hanvey)

(CAFLIS) Linked to critical thinking skills (Mestenhauser)

• Knowledge of Global and National Interdependence = knowledge of key

elements of interdependency (Bonham)

• Awareness of Human Choices = awareness of the problems of choice

confronting individuals, nations, world. (Hanvey)

• Perspective Consciousness = awareness that she or he has a view of the

world that is not universally shared – distinction between opinion and perspective

(worldview) (Hanvey)

• Knowledge of Self = understanding one’s own culture and place. Also known

as Personal Autonomy = awareness of identity and includes taking

responsibility for one’s actions, understanding own beliefs and values (Kelley and

Meyers)

• Cross-Cultural Awareness = awareness of the diversity of ideas and

practices found in the world (Hanvey)

• Knowledge Acquisition from a Multiple Perspective = knowledge selected

to represent the variety of cultural, ideological, historical, and gender

perspectives present in the world (Lamy)

• Exploration of Worldviews = review of the values, assumptions, priorities,

and policy orientations which are used to interpret both public and private issues

(Lamy)


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Attitudes

• Movement towards Empathy = seeing others as they see themselves, given

their conditions, values etc... (Hanvey) Goes past sympathy (ethnocentric thinking to ethnorelativist thinking) to a fuller view that focuses on the other

instead of the self (Bennett). Also reflected in the Concern Scale which is

described as feelings of empathy and kinship with people from other nations and

cultures (ETS, p. 136).

• Emic thinking (Mestenhauser) Intercultural Perspective taking (Steglitz) or

Allocentrism, the ability to take a multiplicity of perspectives (Heath)

• Reflective Attitude = reflect on the impact of decisions, choices, and

behavior of self and others (Fantini)

• Learning Attitude = willingness to learn from others / engage others

(Fantini). Also termed as Flexibility / Openness on Kelley and Meyers CCAI

Scale (Kelley and Meyers) similar to Positive Orientation to Opportunities (Brislin) or Dynamic Learning (Dinges)

• Tolerance for ambiguity and respect for others (Fantini et. al.)

• Personality strength = well developed self-esteem and positive self-concept

(Brislin) similar to idea of Integration = a growing coherence and increased

synthesis of personality (Heath)

• Global understanding = the affective component of the ETS study which

aims to measure attitudes such as interest about international developments,

expression of empathy, feelings of kinship about others, and degree of comfort in

foreign situations (ETS)


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Skills

• Technological Skills = enhance and increase capacity as consumers of

information – utilize technology to gain a better understanding of the world

• Second Language Proficiency Skills = the ability to use another language

to accomplish basic communication tasks (ETS). The BBCAI notes language

skills to include the ability to understand a newspaper, technical reports, and

everyday instructions (BBCAI).

• Critical Thinking Skills = the ability to expand thinking to recognize issues,

solutions, consequences not ordinarily considered – holistic thinking. Includes

ability to synthesize and integrate knowledge rather than uncritical acceptance of

knowledge, metalearning (Mestenhauser)

• Comparative Thinking Skills = similar to above in that ability to critically

compare and contrast (Mestenhauser)

• Skills for Understanding = skills to enable students to critically analyze and

evaluate information from diverse sources (Lamy)

• Manage Stress when Dealing with Difference (Hammer) Also termed as

Emotional Resilience = ability to maintain a positive state, self-esteem, and

confidence when coping with ambiguity and the unfamiliar (Kelley and Meyers).

The BCCIE terms this as Resilency and Coping Skills and includes

psychological preparedness and leaderships skills in diverse situations (BCCAI).

• Strategies for Participation and Involvement = strategies to allow students

to connect global issues with local concerns and take action in the context of their

own lives (Lamy)


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• Self-monitoring techniques = ability to self-monitor behaviors and

communication and take responsibility for self (Spitzberg). Similar to Autonomy

= autonomous self-regulation of actions (Heath)

• Effective Cross-Cultural Communication Skills = ability to alter one’s

communication and responses to reflect another’s communication style and build

relationships (Hammer) Also termed as Perceptual Acuity = attentiveness to

verbal and nonverbal behaviors and interpersonal relationships, understanding

the context of communication (Kelley and Meyers). This could also include

concept of Potential for Benefit = includes an openness to change and the

ability to perceive and use feedback as well as motivation to learn about others.

(Brislin)

• Enhancing Accurate Communication Skills = the ability to communicate

with a minimal loss or distortion of the meaning (Fantini)

Review of the Literature used to Develop the Framework

Bennett, Milton. J. (1986). Towards Ethnorelativism: A Developmental Model of

Intercultural Sensitivity. In R.M. Paige (ed.), Cross-Cultural Orientation: New

Conceptualizations and Applications (pp. 27-70). Lanham: University Press of

America.

Bonham, G. (1980). Education and the Worldview. Change, 12(4), 2-7.

Brislin, R.W. (1981). Cross-cultural Encounters. NY: Pergamon.

Carpini, Michael X.D. and Scott Keeter. (1989). What Americans Know about

Politics

and Why it Matters. CT: Yale University Press.


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Dinges Norman G. (1983). Intercultural Competence. In D. Landis and R. Brislin

(eds.).

Handbook of Intercultural Relations: Theory and Practice (pp. 176-202). NY:

Pergamon.

Educational Testing Service. (1981). College Students’ Knowledge and Beliefs: A

Survey of Global Understanding. New York: Change Magazine Press.

Fantini, Alvino. (1997). New Ways of Teaching Culture. VA: TESOL.

Groenning, S. and D.S. Wiley (Eds.). (1990). Group Portrait: Internationalizing

the

Disciplines. New York: The American Forum.

Hammer, Mitchell R. (1987). Behavioral Dimensions of Intercultural

Effectiveness.

International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 11, 65-88.

Hammer, Mitchell R., and Milton J. Bennett. The Intercultural Development

Inventory

Manual. Portland OR: Intercultural Communication Institute, 1998.

Hanvey, Robert G. (1979). An Attainable Global Perspective. New York: Global

Perspectives in Education, Inc.

Kelley, Colleen and Judith Meyers. (1987). The Cross-Cultural Adaptability

Inventory.

Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. .

Klasek, C.B. (1992). Bridges to the Future: Strategies for Internationalizing

Higher


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Education. Carbondale, IL: Association of International Education Administrators.

Lamy, S. (1987). Defining Global Education. Educational Research Quarterly.

8(1), 9-

20.

Mestenhauser, Joesef A. (1998). Portraits of an International Curriculum: An

Uncommon

Multidimensional Perspective. In Josef A. Mestenhauser and Brenda Ellingboe

(eds.) Reforming the Higher Education Curriculum: Internationalizing the Campus

(pp. 1-39). AZ: The American Council on Education and Oryx Press.

Spitzberg, Brian H. (2000). A Model of Intercultural Communication Competence.

In

L.A. Samovar and R.E. Porter (eds.), Intercultural Communication: A Reader (pp.

375-387). New York: Wadsworth Publishing.

Stanley,Dale. (1997). International Learning Outcomes: Report for the BC Centre

for

International Education. British Columbia, Canada: The British Columbia Centre

for International Education.


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International Management Assessment (IMA) The IMA (International Management Assessment) is a development centre tool to

assist organisation in the identification and preparation of candidates for

international assignments. It was developed in conjunction with Théry

International Management (TIM) in France. The IMA originally was designed from

the experience of international assignments with large French companies, taking

into account the specific profiles and aptitudes required of international

managers. The IMA, developed with the support of research studies, defines the

main criteria to be observed in the behaviour desirable for managers working on

international assignments. The objectives of the IMA is to enable the potential

international manager:

(1) To know their own strengths and weaknesses regarding the aptitudes which

are essential for working in an international context. The ones particularly

focused on in the IMA are:

• analysis of a complex situation, where partners, value systems and mental

systems are different, and where information is presented in another form

and/or is unclear or uncertain

• making decisions in an uncertain context, when the manager has to

decide based on information which is incomplete or uncertain, and has to

be ready to support the consequences of that choice (for instance, to sign

an agreement abroad)

• readiness for learning, having an open mind and curiosity, a listening

attitude, and also the ability to recognise and learn from mistakes when

implementing new solutions

• adaptability, being able to face unusual situations and partners with values

different from yours, and to stick to the objective even though the means

to reach it have to be changed

• diplomacy, knowing how to give a message in such a way that the

counterpart can understand and accept it


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• negotiation, how to identify what may be won or lost by you and your

counterpart, and to plan and implement an appropriate strategy

• conflict management, how to deal with conflicting situations in a non

aggressive way.

(2) To know their own working style and their own preferences regarding the

main cultural differentiation criteria, which have been documented by writers such

as Hofstede, Hall and Hall, D’Iribarne, Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner and

others, and which enable us to position various countries according to the

following

criteria:

• hierarchical relations, high power distance vs partnership

• relations within the company, individualism vs sense of community

• relations within the team, assertiveness and competition, or looking for

harmony and consensus

• time management, doing one thing at the same time with a sequential and

planned schedule, or being more spontaneous and flexible.

• attitude to information, formal and explicit communication, or informal and

implicit

• attitude to status, status which is merited and based on achievement, or

status by ascription (according to your background and where you come

from)

This analysis enables every manager concerned to realise why and where their

ways of working and cultural preferences may fit with the culture of some

countries, and why and where they will need to make an effort - and what kind of

effort - to adapt to the national culture encountered.

(3) To assess a person’s suitability or likely level of success in assignments to

specific countries


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(4) To define their own action plan for progress, in particular for training and

coaching

Based on article by Adrian Pilbeam and Benoit Thery. This article is based on an

article which first appeared in Language and Intercultural Training, Volume 17,

No 3, published by LTS Training and Consulting.

For more detailed information on the IMA criteria and rationale go to website:

www.synergy-associates.com/sub/LTS-IMARationale.pdf

how to choose international managers? (PDF)

Or contact: Adrian PILBEAM, LTS Training & Consulting, Bath

Website: http://www.lts-training.com/consult.html

http://www.synergy-associates.com/sub/LTS-IMARationale.pdf

http://www.synergy-associates.com/sub/LTS-IMARationale.pdf

http://www.lts-training.com/consult.html


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The ProGroup’s Tolerance Scale

The ProGroup tolerance scale rates attitudes toward differences: the impact of

different value systems on interactions in the workplace. In The ProGroup’s

Tolerance Scale model, there exist five different 'levels' of reactions people have

to differences:

• Appreciation: "Difference is positive": I enjoy and choose to be around

this person.

• Acceptance: "Difference doesn't matter": I pay attention to this person

and ignore the way he/she is different, the difference is not an issue.

• Tolerance: ''Difference doesn't make me feel completely comfortable": I

treat the other person respectfully, but would prefer not to deal with them if

I had a choice.

• Avoidance: "Difference makes me clearly feel uncomfortable": I try to

avoid the other person.

• Repulsions: "This difference is not normal": Contact with these persons

causes me a lot of discomfort.

Based on article by Shannon Murphy Robinson, Senior Consultant Pro Group®,

Inc., Minneapolis; Minnesota, USA and David WALSH, Openminds, Dublin,

Ireland.

For further details contact: http://www.progroupinc.com/site/page/pg1682.html

www.diversity.ie

http://www.progroupinc.com/site/page/pg1682.html

http://www.diversity.ie/

Intercultural Communication b.v. Intercultural Communication b.v. works with associate consultants, trainers and

interculturalists located in 35 countries across the world. The following five

intercultural competencies are seen by intercultural communication b.v. as an

essential part of every employee’s skill set.

Competence 1: Intercultural Sensitivity

Intercultural sensitivity is the ability to recognize multiple perspectives on an

event or behavior, to recognise one’s own cultural values and those of others,

and to pick up on verbal and nonverbal signals.

Competence 2: Intercultural Communication

This is defined as the ability to adjust one’s communication style to the

communicative needs of people from other cultures.

Competence 3: Building Commitment

Building commitment is the ability to stimulate interaction and cooperation

between people, and to take the lead while at the same time keeping others on

board. It involves sensitivity to the dynamics within larger groups of people inside

and outside the organization, an understanding of these dynamics and the ability

to benefit from them.


Competence 4: Managing Uncertainty

This is the ability to manage the greater uncertainty of intercultural and

international situations and the ability to respond flexibly and work effectively with

new people in intercultural situations.

Competence 5: International orientation

This is defined as the ability to see the world as a workplace. To accept extra

efforts and set-backs when working in other cultures as a matter of course and to

actively search for international business and explore international markets. It

also involves the ability to come to business in various countries in a relatively

short period of time.

For further information go to Website:

http://www.intercultural.nl/html/intercultural_competencies.html


http://www.intercultural.nl/html/intercultural_competencies.html

Discovery Personal Profile Insights Learning & Development Is involved in people and organisational

development. The Insights Discovery System is a model based on the

personality profiling work of Carl Jung. The psychologist Dr Carl G Jung further

developed four broad types of personality identified by other philosophers. He

suggested that all four personality traits or energies are present in all of us, and

the different balances between them make us unique. The Insights Discovery

Personal Profile is believed to be a highly accurate and validated system for

measuring those balances.

The Insights Discovery System profiles the uniqueness of each individual and

illustrates the ways in which individual can recognise and value these

differences. Each Profile includes a Foundation Chapter comprising key pages

such as: Personal Overview, Strengths and Weaknesses, Value to the Team,

Communication, Possible Blind Spots, Opposite Type and Suggestions for

Development. The information contained within the Foundation Chapter can be

extended through Discovery’s supplementary chapters. These support ongoing

development in specific areas.

The full range of psychological types can be depicted on a circle called the

Insights Discovery Wheel. At its simplest it identifies four groups or quadrants:

Fiery Red, Sunshine Yellow, Earth Green and Cool Blue. All individuals have one

of these 'colour energies' as their dominant, preferred style of thinking, working

and interacting with others.

The Eight Primary Types The Observer: Cool Blue, Introverted Thinking

Observers are precise, cautious and disciplined.

The Coordinator: Earth Green/Cool Blue, Introverted Sensation

Coordinators tend to be independent and objective, usually possessing a strong

value system.


The Supporter: Earth Green, Introverted Feeling

Supporters are affable, amiable, steady individuals who get on well with others.

The Helper: Sunshine Yellow/Earth Green, Feeling

Helpers are warm, understanding and sociable individuals who strive for positive

relationships with people both at work and at home.

The Inspirer: Sunshine Yellow, Extraverted Feeling

Inspirers are outgoing and enthusiastic, seeking favourable social environments

where they can develop and maintain networks and contacts.

The Motivator: Fiery Red/Sunshine Yellow, Extraverted Intuition

Motivators have the ability to value results and people equally.

The Director: Fiery Red, Extraverted Thinking

Directors are forceful, decisive and dominant people who tend to be strong

individualists.

The Reformer: Cool Blue/Fiery Red, Thinking

Evidencing gifts of both extraversion and introversion, Reformers are creative

and abstract thinkers who can suffer from unpredictable brilliance in strategic

decision-making.

For further more detailed information go to website:

http://www.insights.com/core/English/TheDiscoverySystem/default.shtm


http://www.insights.com/core/English/TheDiscoverySystem/default.shtm

The Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Competence The Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Competence (BASIC),

identifies certain skills valuable in intercultural communication. They include the

following competencies:

• Display of respect: Acting respectfully, although specific words and body

language differ from culture to culture.

• Orientation to knowledge: Understanding that our knowledge of others is

framed by our cultural experiences; our personal attitudes and opinions are

not universal facts. Statements that allows for no qualifiers, such as "This

entire class . . ." or "All Muslims are . . . ," are examples of cultural bias.

• Empathy: Communicating our awareness of the feelings and thoughts of

others.

• Interaction management: Taking turns and regulating conversations.

• Task role behaviors: Welcoming ideas in group problem-solving activities.

• Relational role behavior: Building relationships with group members by

encouraging participation and mediating conflicts.

• Tolerance for ambiguity: Responding to new situations with comfort, without

defensiveness or judgment.

• Interactive posture: Responding in nonevaluative ways about others’ attitudes,

beliefs and values.

The Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Communication Effectiveness,

Jolene Koester and Margaret Olebe, International Journal of Intercultural

Relations 12 (1998): 233–46.


The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI was developed to provide a tool

for self-assessment of cross-cultural effectiveness. This instrument, which was

originally created in 1987, was revised in both 1989 and 1992. The instrument’s

authors, Colleen Kelley and Judith Meyers, created both the original and the

revised versions of the instrument. Designed to be used as a single assessment

or as part of a multi-assessment training program, the CCAI was developed in

response to the need for a self-assessment instrument designed to measure

cross-cultural adaptability (Kelley & Meyers, 1999). The authors stated that this

instrument is applicable to all cultures assuming that anyone who was adapting

to a new culture would share the same types of feelings and experiences (Kelley

& Meyers, 1995a).

The manual for the CCAI (Kelley & Meyers, 1995a) presents a limited description

of the history of the development of the instrument. Specifically, after a review of

the literature, the authors created a Cross-Cultural Readiness checklist of the

characteristics cited in the literature as being important for cross-cultural

adaptability. A panel of experts then rated the significance of each characteristic

on the checklist in respect to adapting to other cultures. The characteristics with

the highest ratings were then grouped into four categories (flexibility/openness,

emotional resilience, perceptual acuity, and personal autonomy). Based on

information from the cross-cultural adaptability literature, the authors then added

a fifth category (positive regard for others). To restate, the emotionally resilient

person is resourceful and able to deal with stressful feelings in a constructive

way, can cope with ambiguity and bounce back from emotional setbacks.

Flexibility and openness “are characterized by accepting other ways of doing

things, a lack of rigidity, and an ethnorelative perspective” (Brislin & Yoshida,

1994, p. 90). People with these skills enjoy interacting with people who think

differently from themselves and spending time in new and unfamiliar

surroundings. Perceptual acuity “refers to the degree of sensitivity individuals


have in terms of verbal and nonverbal messages, as well as to interpersonal

relations in general” (Brislin & Yoshida, 1994, p. 90). People with perceptual

acuity are sensitive to others, and “are attentive to verbal and non-verbal

behavior, to the context of communication, and to interpersonal relations” (Kelley

& Meyers, 1995, p. 15). Personal autonomy refers to individuals’ abilities to

maintain their personal beliefs and values when challenged in a new culture.

People with personal autonomy have a strong sense of self, and do not need to

rely on cues from their surroundings to make decisions or form their identity.


Appendix A: A List of Alternative Terms for ICC Transcultural communication Cultural Sensitivity Cross-cultural communication Cultural Competence Cross-cultural awareness Communicative Competence Global competitive intelligence Intecultural Cooperation Global Competence Ethnorelativity Cross-cultural adaptation Biculturalism International Competence Multiculturalism International communication Plurilingualism Intercultural interaction Metaphoric Competence Intercultural sensitivity Effective Inter-group Communications


Appendix B: Assessment Tools of Intercultural Communicative Competence

© Alvino E. Fantini, Brattleboro, VT 2006

American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) Proficiency Scale This scale assesses the level of language attainment achieved. (Liskin-Gasparro, 1982) Assessment of Intercultural Competence (AIC) This self–assessment tool, designed in a YOGA Format (self- and other assessment) charts the development of intercultural sojourners over time, and provides normative, formative, and summative indicators. (See preliminary version at <www.sit.edu/publications> in the SIT Occasional Papers Series, Inaugural Issue, Spring 2000, scroll down to pp.25-42, “A Central Concern:

updated version, Developing Intercultural Competence) For a more complete and2005, contact: [email protected]. Australian Second Language Proficiency Ratings (ASLPR) This scale, developed by Ingram and Wylie in 1982, groups various components of language use together in a single band descriptor to assess second language proficiency. Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Communication (BASIC)

ss-cultural equivalence of the Olebe, M., & Koester, J. (1989). Exploring the croBehavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Communication. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13(3), 333-347. Eight scales; validated with 263 university students. Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory (BEVI) Craig N. Shealy, PhD. James Madison University [email protected] Designed to identify and predict a variety of developmental, affective, and attributional processes and outcomes that are integral to Equilintegration Theory (ET), which seeks to explain the processes by which beliefs, values, and ‘worldviews’ are acquired and maintained, why their alteration is typically resisted, and how and

he

pen” to various transformational

under what circumstances their modification occurs. In context of EI theory, tBEVI would appear to be highly suitable for the assessment of international learning. Ultimately the BEVI is designed to determine whether, how and to what degree people are (or are likely to be) “oexperiences such as international education. http://www.acenet.edu/programs/international/fipse/PDF/BEVI_Abstract.pdf Counseling Inventory: A self-report measure of multicultural competencies Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41(2), 137-148. Developed for the counseling milieu. Emphasizes behaviors. Four factors. Large sample. Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) Dr. Colleen Kelley & Dr. Judith E. Meyers. CCAI is designed to help participants understand the qualities that enhance cross-cultural effectiveness, whether or not to work in a culturally


diverse company, whether or not to live abroad, and how to prepare to enter another culture. Measurement: The CCAI measures 4 variables: Emotional Resilience, Flexibility and Openness, Perceptual Acuity, and Personal Autonomy. Intercultural Press 1.800.370.2665 The Cross-Cultural Assessor A personal navigator for successful communication across cultures. This multimedia program measures, builds and manages cross-cultural skills and characteristics, through the use of exercises and questionnaires. http://www.promentor.fi/cca/ Cross-Cultural Counseling Inventory LaFromboise, T. D., Coleman, H. L., &

re of the Cross-Cultural Hernandez, A. (1991). "Development and factor structuCounseling Inventory--Revised." Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 22(5), 380-388. Developed for the counseling milieu. Cross-Cultural Sensitivity Scale (CCSS) Pruegger, V. J., & Rogers, T. B. (1993). "Development of a scale to measure cross- cultural sensitivity in the Canadian context." Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 25(4), 615-621. Normed on undergraduate students. Cultural Competence Self-Assessment Instrument

s identify, improve and enhance cultural competence in staff This instrument helprelations and client service delivery. (Washington, D.C., Child Welfare League of America Publications; 1993; Catalogue number 5065) Cultural Competence Self-Assessment Questionnaire (CCSAQ) Mason, J. L. (1995). Portland State University. Instrument designed to assist service agencies working with children with disabilities and their families in self- evaluation of their cross-cultural competence. Intended for US domestic use. Culture-free Scale This instrument, developed by Chen and Starosta, measures intercultural sensitivity. The Cultural Orientations Indicator® (COI®) TMC’s COI® is a web-based

at allows individuals to assess their personal

particular application in the business world. The

egotiation and leadership ulticultural situations. A validated report is

cross-cultural assessment tool thcultural preferences and compare them with generalized profiles of other cultures. The COI® provides respondents with a personal cultural profile based on ten dimensions that have understanding gained from the personal profile, which is based on TMC’s Cultural Orientations Model™ (COM™), can be applied to the development of specific business, management, sales, marketing, nskills, among others, when applied in mavailable upon request. http://www.tmcorp.com Cultural Self-Awareness Test This simple three-question test helps identify high and low-context characteristics in those who take it. (The Management Center, Graduate School of Business, University of St. Thomas, Minneapolis, MN). The Culture in the Workplace Questionnaire™ is derived from the work of

s you to learn your own cultural profile and how that G.Hofstede, and enablemight compare to others. http://www.itapintl.com/ITAPCWQuestionnaire.htm


Development Communication Index

30 scenarios related to such issues as project progress and

(Developed from Kealy study) This field instrument was used to assess the quality of communication and the accuracy of perception between Canadian advisors and their national counterparts working on a development project. This index representsadaptation skills. Instrument also designed as a problem-solving tool. http://www.tamas.com/samples/source-docs/ROI-Briefings.pdf Dogmatism Scale Milton Rokeach, 1960 Educoas, Editorial February 2002 Maintains the premise that the Internet holds great promise as a tool to foster intercultural communication to create responses to development needs in the Hemisphere. http://www.educoas.org/eng/editorial_feb.asp European Language Portfolio This tool, developed by the Council of Europe in collaboration with the Common European Framework, uses three parts (a passport, a language biography and a dossier) to self-assess intercultural competence (Karen-Margrete Frederiksen, “Foreword: Intercultural Competence”). Expatriate Profile (EP) - Park Li Group. (1996). Expatriate profile workbook.

a computer-based cross-petence self-assessment instrument for international professionals.

(Second ed.). New York: Author. Expatriate Profile iscultural comForeign Assignment Success Test (FAST) Black, J. S. (1988). Work role transitions: A study of American expatriate managers in Japan. Journal of International Business Studies, 19(2), 277-294. Six scales. Validated on 67 American managers in Japan. Fuld & Company, Inc. Competitive Intelligence (CI)CI Learning Center &Tools http://www.fuld.com/ciStrategiesResources.html GAP Test: Global Awareness Profile J. Nathan Corbitt. The GAP measures how much world knowledge a person has concerning selected items about international politics, economics, geography, culture, etc. Intercultural Press, ISBN 1-877-864-55-2 P.O. Box 700 Yarmouth, ME 04096 USA (866)-372-2665 http://www.interculturalpress.com/shop/gaptext.html Global Behavior Checklist Hett, 1991 Global Interface Licensed to administer and interpret the following assessment tools: --Overseas Assignment Inventory (OAI) A self-response questionnaire that examines 14 attitudes and attributes correlated with successful cross-cultural adjustment and performance. Used together with a behavioral interview, theprovides essential input to the expatriate selection proc

OAI ess and helps expatriates

number of important adaptation issues. --Intercultural esigned to provide useful and valid information

tation toward cultural differences and their readiness ral training and development. Used in conjunction with training, the

of Culture and Corporate Culture Profiles: By

raise their awareness of aDevelopment Inventory (IDI) Dregarding respondents' orienfor intercultuIDI is a highly reliable, valid, cross-cultural measure of intercultural sensitivity applicable to a variety of groups of people from different cultural backgrounds. --Trompenaar's Seven Dimensions


means of a questionnaire developed by Dr Alfons Trompenaars, individuals receive their own cultural profile on each of seven dimensions of culture that then can be compared with the cultural profile of any other group or individual in an expanding database of over 35,000 managers. --Objective Job Quotient Syste(OJQ) A computer-assisted

m tool that provides cross-culturally appropriate 360°

s"", providing greater reliability and validity. u/how_we_do_it.html

feedback to evaluate and rank employee performance. The OJQ uses multiple raters and ""scaled direct comparisonhttp://www.globalinterface.com.aGlobal Literacy Survey National Geographic Survey Global Mindedness Scale Hett, 1991 The Global Team Process Questionnaire™ (GTPQ), a proprietary instrument developed by ITAP International, helps global teams improve their effectiveness and productivity. http://www.itapintl.com/gtpq.htm Grove and Associates Cross Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) A self-assessment questionnaire that measures an individual's adaptability in four dimensions that may affect his or her ability to have a successful experience in

nce, Flexibility/Openness, vewell.com

another culture. These are Emotional ResiliePerceptual Acuity, and Personal Autonomy. http://www.groHogan Assessment System Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI) Personality analysis http://www.hoganassessments.com Individual-Collectivism Scale Insights Discovery System There are 72 types positioned on the Insights Wheel, which at its simplest divides into four quadrants: Fiery Red©, Sunshine Yellow©, Earth Green© and Cool Blue©. The wheel is divided further into the eight Primary Insights Types. Search for both your color and type, and learn how different personalities can interact with each other. http://www.insightsworld.com/ The Intercultural Competence Assessment (INCA) Project A 3 year Leonardo da Vinci Project which aims to develop a framework, diagnostic tool and record of achievement for the assessment of intercultural competence linked to language competence and subject knowledge competence. Mag. Gabriela Dorn & Mag. Alexandra Cavalieri [email protected] www.lbcnet.at Intercultural Competence Questionnaire Test your intercultural competence with this questionnaire (www.7d-culture.nl/Content/cont053b.htm ). Intercultural Competency Scale Elmer, M. I. (1987). Intercultural effectiveness: “Development of an intercultural competency scale.” Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, MI. Designed with missionaries and foreign students. The Intercultural CONFLICT Style Inventory Mitchell R. Hammer, Ph.D.

. PMB # 705 North Potomac, MD 01-926-7450. [email protected]

Hammer Consulting Group, 267 Kentlands Blvd20878 USA Phone: 301-330-5589 Fax: 3Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) Uses a 44-item inventory based on the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) to assess the extent of an individual's intercultural development along a continuum that ranges from


extreme ethnocentrism to what Bennett calls "ethnorelativism." Ethnorelativism is

rvices are available ople who have completed a qualifying seminar. The

the ability to function at a high level of relational and social involvement in a non-native culture. Developed by Drs. M.J. Bennett & M. Hammer. The IDI is a statistically reliable, valid measure of intercultural sensitivity. The IDI was constructed and tested over a 3-year time period by Mitch Hammer at American University and was piloted successfully by Milton Bennett in both corporate and educational settings. The IDI instrument and IDI analysis sethrough ICI only to those pe3-day seminars prepare people to explain and implement the IDI in corporate, academic, and other organizational settings. +1 (503) 297-4622 8835 SW Canyon Lane, Portland, OR 97225 http://www.intercultural.org Intercultural Orientation Resources (IOR) Predictive Index (PI), Personality analysis, Voluntary checklist http:/www.iorworld.com Intercultural Perspective Taking instrument Steglitz, 1993 Michigan State University Intercultural Living and Working Inventory Living and Working Overseas Predeparture Questionnaire: Keasley, D.J. (1998). Intended as a Professional development tool to help individuals identify the intercultural skills that needs improvement prior to undertaking an international assignment. The ILWI can also be used in the personnel selection process to help interviewers do a more targeted selection interview by focusing on the areas of weakness and risk identified in the ILWI test results. http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/cfsi-icse/cil-cai/ilwi-ici-en.asp The Intercultural Project

Competence. The Interculture Project is a three- which, within the context of students in higher education

st be prepared and supported. ture/mod.htm

Module: Acquiring Intercultural year study (1997-2000),in the UK, is looking at periods of residence spent abroad. It aims to map the obstacles which hinder students’ intercultural competence while there and to define how they might behttp://www.lancs.ac.uk/users/interculIntercultural Readiness Check (IRC, © Intercultural Business Improvement) The IRC is an ideal tool for assessing participants’ intercultural skills in the areas of intercultural sensitivity, communication, leadership and management of

r an assignment, a ensees have full online support and client management

site for more information about the IRC and the next licensing

uncertainty. Clients can fill in the IRC online to prepare foproject or training. IRC lictools. Visit our course. http://www.ibinet.nl Intercultural Sensitivity Inventory (ICSI) Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (1992). "The measurement of intercultural sensitivity using the concepts of individualism and collectivism." International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 16(4), 413-436. Validated with 46 undergraduate and 93 graduate studenFocuses on sensitivity to indiv

ts. idualism versus collectivism differences.

Interultural Sensitivity Index Olsen & Kroeger, 2001 Intercultural Sensitivity Survey Towers, K. L. (1991). Intercultural sensitivity survey: Construction and initial validation. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation,


University of Iowa. Validated with students. Intercultural Specialists’ Ranking Table taken from Training for the Multicultural Managecopyright ©1982 published by Intercultural Press. Table ranks self-

r by Pierre Casse;

understanding, understanding others, interacting with others and general skills. International Assignment Profile.Tel. (713) 539-0669 Internationalism Scale Lutzker, 1960 ITIM: Culture and Management Consultants ITIM has developed a number of tools, which are unique in their precision and accuracy. They are all based on the research results of Hofstede and others, which we have translated and adapted to be of practical assistance in your real life work situation. The research results

ab.html of Hofstede are used as the framework in which all other information can be neatly analyzed, stored and retrieved. http://www.itim.org/4Living and Working Overseas Predeparture Questionnaire Kealey, D. J. (1988). Explaining and predicting cross-cultural adjustment and effectiveness: A

n technical advisors overseas. Hull, Quebec, Canada: Canadian eveloped for the Canadian International

study of CanadiaInternational Development Agency. DDevelopment Agency. Meridian Resources Associates GlobeSmart, Meridian's leading edge, web-based tool that provides detailed knowledge on how to conduct business with people from around the world. http://www.meridianglobal.com/demoregistration.html-___________________________________________________________________________ Model of Intercultural Communication Competence. “Further Testing”,

s ts and analyzed using

ostly supported the previous model. These

discussed.

Arasaratnam, L.A. Spring 2006, in Communication Resource Reports. 23(2), pg.93-99. A new model of intercultural communication was proposed and empirically tested (Arasaratnam, 2004; Arasaratnam & Doerfel, 2005). The present study further tested the model and addressed limitations of the previoutest. Survey data were collected from 400 participanregression analyses. The results mresults plus some new findings in the relationship between empathy and intercultural communication competence areMulticultural Counseling Awareness Scale (MCAS) J. G. Ponterotto et al. (1991) Developed for the counseling milieu. Emphasizes beliefs. Multicultural Counseling Inventory (MCI) Sodowsky, G. R., Taffe, R. C., Gutkin, T. B., &Wise, S. L. (1994). New Left Scale Christie, Friedman, and Ross, 1969 Nipporica Associates Use: Models (Communicating Across Difference, Four

or Leveraging Difference, Diverge/Converge Method of Decision

cotonos, Redundancia,

Phase Model fMaking), Tools (Common Ground, Group Norms, Assessment and Diagnostic Tools, Cultural Pinwheels), Skills (Paraphrasing, Remaining Objective and Involved, Red Flags, Calling Behavior), and Simulation (EBarnga) to develop their abilities to make decisions and solve problems using the


expertise and insight of all concerned with the issue at hand. http://www.nipporica.com/services.htm Overseas Assignment Inventory (OAI) A self-response questionnaire that examines 14 attitudes and attributes correlated with successful cross-cultural adjustment and performance. Used together with a behavioral interview, the OAI provides essential input to the expatriate selection process and helps expatriates raise their awareness of a number of important adaptation issues. http://www.performanceprograms.com/pdf/oai/PDF Objective Job Quotient System Computer-assisted tool that provides cross culturally appropriate 360-degree feedback to evaluate and rank employee performance. PARTNERS Program Model program in Philadelphia, which builds on the elements of both contact theory and intercultural competence theory. Helps students to engage in positive cross-cultural experiences with same age peers across city-suburban, racial and cultural boundaries. Perceptions of US Scale Marion, 1980 Perceptions of Host Country Scale Marion, 1980 Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) Uhes, M. J., & Shybut, J. (1971). "Personal orientation inventory as a predictor of success in Peace Corps training.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 55(5), 498-499. Validated with 92 Peace Corps trainees. Personal Cultural Perspective Profile (PCPP) - Ramsey, M. (1994). Use of a

nselor dvancement of

Personal Cultural Perspective Profile (PCPP) in developing coumulticultural competence. International Journal for the ACounseling, 17(4), 283-290. Developed for the counseling milieu. 14 scales. PCAT: Peterson Cultural Awareness Test PCSI: Peterson Cultural Style Indicator Dr. Brooks Peterson, Owner/President of Across Cultures, Inc. Both of these assessment tools are accessible on-line with a password from Across Cultures, Inc. and are highly reliable and valid instruments for measuring cross-

wareness of cultural differences (i.e. individualism ures). These tools are educational and relevant pre- rcultural learning before/after training and also

cultural effectiveness and anted cultversus group orie

and post- indicators of intepromote global business success. Prospector Spreitzer, G. M., McCall, M. W., & Mahoney, J. D. (1997). Early identification of international executive potential. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(1), 6-29. Prudential Intercultural Overseas Assignment Inventory (OAI), Self-assessment tool, Behavioral analysis, Long Track Record. +1-800-257-4092 www.oaionline.com www.prudential.com/prm Questions, Comments, Concerns (QCC’s) This student tool monitors and evaluates progress for the day or for a current task (www.netc.org/classrooms@work/classrooms/peter/assessing ).


Radicalism-Conservatism Scale Nettler and Huffman, 1957 SAGE Paula Caligiuri, tel: +732-828-8250, [email protected] Schwartz Value Survey (SVS) This survey will provide information concerning the compatibility of a candidate’s cultural orientations and the expected dominant cultural orientations of the target region or country of the assignment. The SVS profile may also provide information about the different value orientations with a multicultural team and their effects on the team’s work. http://www.imo-international.de/englisch/html/svs_info_en.htm School For International Training (SIT) YOGA form

charting their own development. It A self-assessment tool that aids students inwas developed by Alvino Fantini for SIT graduate students. http://www.sit.edu/news/features/feature_08.html Selection Research Int’l (SRI) International Assignment Exercise (IAE), Self-assessment tool, Analysis of situational readiness. +1 (314) 567-6900 www.sri-2000.com Social Distance Scale Social Interaction Scale Bogardus, 1928 Sociocultural Checklist Developed as an initial screening tool for educators in American Public schools who are concerned about the learning and behavior of a specific student from a culturally or linguistically diverse background. Success Factors Chart This chart can be a valuable tool in the selection process when evaluating candidates for intercultural assignments. www.highcontext.com/Articles/srp/Chapter5EffectivenessofCr.php Survey of Opinion of International Competencies Designed to elicit opinion from senior persons in selected Canadian private and public sector corporations and institutions. Team Management Systems- TCO International Australia. TMS categories are

ological, non-hierarchical ross-cultural data to support their model.

oriented to the work place and use non-psychcategories. They also have a lot of cA set of 10 international competencies which describe in a clear professional

highly effective operators to transfer skills from a omestic to an international context: openness, flexibility, personal autonomy,

emotional resilience, perceptiveness, listening, orientation, transparency, cultural knowledge, influencing synergy. http://www.tco-international.com/competencies.asp

context what is required by d

Teaching Tolerance bias test and tips. http://www.tolerance.org/hidden_bias/index.html Test of Intercultural Sensitivity (TICS) David E. Weldon, D. E. Carlston, A. K. Rissman, L. Slobodin, Harry C. Triandis (1975) Tucker International www.tuckerintl.com • International Candidate Evaluation (ICE). Personality analysis. Optional 360°


feedback. • The Opredicts

AI (Overseas Assignment Inventory)- a validated assessment that expatriate candidates’ potential for success if sent on an international

assignment. Dr. Michael Tucker is the author of the OAI. Available on-line. • The ICE (International Candidate Evaluation) - a validated assessment that takes the expatriate selection process to a higher level by involving the candidates’ supervisor. Available on-line. • assessment tool designed to help employees

The IMA (International Mobility Assessment) - an interactive, on-line, self- assess their readiness and mobility

for an international assignment. Available on-line. • The EED (Evaluation of Expatriate Development) and the SEED (Supervisory Evaluation of Expatriate Development) - A safety net for existing expatriates. The EED and SEED are used to evaluate expatriate adjustment to

working in the country of assignment. Their results are incorporated opment Guide, which is given to the

living andinto an Expatriate Evaluation and Develexpatriate to provide feedback and use as a tool to enhance their ongoing international experience. Windham International Windham International Cultural Model Self-assessment tool Counselor analysis +1 (212) 647-0555 www.windhamworld.com Window on the World Expatriate Profile Inventory (EPS) Self-selection tool; Personality analysis +1 (612) 338-3690 www.windowontheworldinc.com Workstyle Patterns ™ (WSP ™) Inventory The McFletcher Corporation. 1999. Worldmindedness Scale Sampson and Smith, 1957


Appendix C: Additional Reading

Abe, H., & Wiseman, R. L. (1983). A cross-cultural confirmation of the

ch. International

f Psychology, 32, 369-386.

mmunication competence research. World Communication, 29,

etence.

resented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication

ons with disabilities as a culture. In L.

& R. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (6th ed., pp.

tercultural communication training: Review,

and a new theoretical framework. In B. Burleson (Ed.), Communication

. M., & Starosta, W. J. (1996). Intercultural communication competence:

dimensions of intercultural effectiveness. International Journal of Intercultural

Relations, 7, 53-67.

Bourhis, R. Y., MoVse, L. C., Perreault, S., & SenJcal, S. (1997). Towards an

interactive acculturation model: A social psychological approa

Journal o

Bradford, L., Allen, M., & Beisser, K. (2000). An evaluation and meta-analysis of

intercultural co

28-51.

Bradford, L., Kane, K. A., & Meyers, R. A. (1996, November). Using focus group

interviews to investigate Latino expectations of communication comp

Paper p

Association, San Diego, CA.

Braithwaite, D. O. (1991). Viewing pers

Samovar

136-142). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Cargile, A. C., & Giles, H. (1996). In

critique,

yearbook 19 (pp. 385-423). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Chen, G

A synthesis. In B. Burleson (Ed.), Communication yearbook 19 (pp. 353-383).

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.


Chen, G. M. & Starosta, W. J. (1997). A review of the concept of intercultural

sensitivity. Human Communication, 1, 1-16.

Chen, G., M., & Starosta, W. J. (1998). A review of the concept of intercultural

ss. Human Communication, 2, 27-54.

n of

al of Speech Communication, 47, 364-379.

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ication Quarterly, 36, 122-144.

ication competence:

pproaches and directions for future research. International Journal of

ation competence problematics in ethnic

iendships. Communication Monographs, 63, 314-336.

ark, CA: Sage.

awarene

Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (2000). The development and validation of the

intercultural sensitivity scale. Human Communication, 3, 2-14.

Chen, G. M., & Tan, L. (1995, April). A theory of intercultural sensitivity. A paper

presented at the annual meeting of the Eastern Communication Association,

Philadelphia.

Coker, D. A., & Burgoon, J. K. (1987). Trait versus state: A compariso

dispositional and situation measures of interpersonal communication

competence. Western Journ

Collier, M. J. (1988). A comparison of conversations among and between

domestic culture groups: How intra- and intercultural competen

Commun

Collier, M. J. (1989). Cultural and intercultural commun

Current a

Intercultural Relations, 13, 287-302.

Collier, M. J. (1996). Communic

fr

Collier, M. J., & Thomas, M. (1988). Identity in intercultural communication: An

interpretive perspective. In Y. Kim & W. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories of

intercultural communication (pp. 99-120). Newbury P


Cupach, W. R., & Imahori, T. T. (1993). Identity management theory:

French managers in the

.S. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14, 405-424.

encies. Working Paper No. 11. Boulder, CO: CONAHEC

onsortium for North American Higher Education Collaboration.

Series. Brattleboro, VT.

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st, W. B. (1992). Being perceived as a competent communicator. In

ective. In R. Wiseman & J. Koester (Eds.), Intercultural communication

nce (pp. 33-71). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Communication competence in intercultural episodes and relationships. In R.

Wiseman & J. Koester (Eds.), Intercultural communication competence (pp. 112-

131). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Dean, O., & Popp, G. E. (1990). Intercultural communication effectiveness as

perceived by American managers in Saudi Arabia and

U

Fantini, Alvino E., Ferando Arias-Galicia, & Daniel Guay. 2001. Globalization and

21st Century Compet

(C

Fantini, Alvino E. Spring 2000. “A Central Concern: Developing Intercultural

Competence,” in SIT Occasional Papers

<

Fox, S. A., & Giles, H. (1993). Accommodating intergenerational contact: A

critique and theoretical model. Journal of Aging Studies, 7, 423-451.

Gao, G., & Gudykunst, W. B. (1990). Uncertainty, anxiety, and adaptation.

International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14, 301-317.

Gudykun

W. Gudykunst & Y. Kim (Eds.), Readings on communicating with strangers (pp.

382-392). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Gudykunst, W. B. (1993). Toward a theory of effective interpersonal and

intergroup communication: An anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM)

persp

compete


Gudykunst, W. B. (1995). Anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) theory:

Current status. In R. Wiseman (Ed.), Intercultural communication theory (pp. 8-

58). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

st, W. B., & Shapiro, R. B. (1996). Communication in everyday

f Intercultural

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2.

in intercultural

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J. C., Chase, L. J., & Arden-Ogle, E. (1985, May). Communication

Honolulu, HI.

, D. J. (1989). A study of cross-cultural effectiveness: Theoretical issues,

applications. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13, 397-

Gudykunst, W. B. (1998). Bridging differences: Effective intergroup

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