Chapter

10 The Byzantine Empire and Russia 330–1613

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1 The Byzantine Empire

2 The Rise of Russia

3 Shaping Eastern Europe

Chapter Review and Assessment

Major Religions in Eastern Europe About 1300 Several religious traditions—including Roman Catholic Christianity, Orthodox Christianity, and Islam—reflect the diversity of Eastern Europe and interaction with its neighbors.

CHAPTER EVENTS GLOBAL EVENTS

SECTION 1 The Byzantine Empire

Reading Focus

How did Justinian extend Byzantine power?

What were the key elements of Byzantine Christianity?

Why did the Byzantine empire collapse?

What was the heritage of the Byzantine empire?

Vocabulary

autocrat patriarch icon

Taking Notes

As you read this section, create an outline of the main ideas. Use Roman numerals to indicate the major headings of the section, capital letters for the subheadings, and numbers for the supporting details. Print out the sample to help get you started.

The emperor Justinian expanded the Byzantine empire, erected grand buildings, and established a code of laws.

Setting the Scene

The bazaars of Constantinople awed visitors. Benjamin of Tudela, a Jewish

traveler from Spain, saw merchants there from the Middle East, Egypt, and

Eastern Europe. “The city's daily income,” he noted, “what with rent from

shops and markets and taxes levied on merchants coming by sea and by

land, reaches 20,000 gold pieces.” As the cities of the western Roman

empire crumbled, Constantinople prospered. With its high walls and

golden domes, it stood as the proud capital of the Byzantine empire.

The Growth of Byzantine Power

You will recall that, as German invaders pounded the Roman

empire in the west, emperors shifted their base to the eastern

Mediterranean. The emperor Constantine rebuilt the Greek city

of Byzantium and gave it the name Constantinople. In 330, he

made Constantinople the new capital of the empire. From this

“New Rome,” roads fanned out to the Balkans, to the Middle

East, and to North Africa. In time, the eastern Roman empire

became known as the Byzantine empire.

Constantinople The vital center of the empire was

Constantinople. The city was located on the shores of the

Bosporus, a strait that linked the Mediterranean and Black

seas. Constantinople had an excellent harbor and was guarded

on three sides by water. Later emperors built an elaborate

system of land and sea walls to bolster its defenses. Equally

important, Constantinople commanded key trade routes

linking Europe and Asia. For centuries, the city's favorable

location made it Europe's busiest marketplace. There,

merchants sold silks from China, wheat from Egypt, gems

from India, spices from Southeast Asia, and furs from Viking

lands in the north.

At the center of the city, Byzantine emperors and empresses

lived in glittering splendor. Dressed in luxurious silk, they

attended chariot races at the Hippodrome, an arena built in the

200s. Crowds cheered wildly as rival charioteers careened

their vehicles around and around. The spectacle was another

reminder of the city's glorious Roman heritage.

A Blending of Cultures After rising to spectacular heights, the

Byzantine empire eventually declined to a small area around

Constantinople itself. Yet it was still in existence nearly 1,000

years after the fall of the western Roman empire. As the heir to

Rome, it promoted a brilliant civilization that blended ancient

Greek, Roman, and Christian influences with other traditions

of the Mediterranean world.

The Quest for Silk

It is nearly impossible for us today to imagine how rare and costly silk was in the Byzantine empire. Wars made the supply unreliable. Persia, which controlled the silk trade with China, levied high taxes that made silk outrageously expensive.

The Byzantine emperor Justinian wanted a reliable supply of silk at a reasonable price. He tried to set up other trade routes, but with little success. In the end, smugglers changed the picture. According to one legend, monks sneaked silkworm eggs out of China in their walking sticks. Although the details are unclear, the results are not. By the 700s, state-owned silk factories in the Byzantine empire fed a growing and profitable silk industry.

Theme: Economics and TechnologyWhy did the Persians want to keep control over the silk trade with China?

The Age of Justinian

The Byzantine empire reached its greatest size under the emperor Justinian, who ruled from

527 to 565. Justinian was determined to revive ancient Rome by recovering the provinces that

had been overrun by invaders. Led by the brilliant general Belisarius, Byzantine armies

reconquered North Africa, Italy, and southern Spain. The fighting exhausted Justinian's

treasury and weakened his defenses in the east. In the end, the victories were temporary.

Justinian's successors lost the bitterly contested lands.

Hagia Sophia Justinian left a more lasting monument in his buildings. To restore Roman glory,

he launched a program to beautify Constantinople. His great triumph was the church of Hagia

Sophia (“Holy Wisdom”). Its immense, arching dome improved on earlier Roman buildings.

The interior glowed with colored marble and embroidered silk curtains. Seeing this church,

the emperor recalled King Solomon's temple in Jerusalem. “Glory to God who has judged me

worthy of accomplishing such a work as this!” Justinian exclaimed. “O Solomon, I have

surpassed you!”

Inside the Church of Hagia Sophia, dazzling mosaics adorn the walls. This mosaic shows

Christ Pantocrator, center, flanked by Emperor Constantine IX Monamachus and the

Empress Zoë.

Code of Laws Justinian is best remembered for his reform of the law. Early in his reign, he set

up a commission to collect, revise, and organize all the laws of ancient Rome. The result was

the Corpus Juris Civilis, or “Body of Civil Law,” popularly known as Justinian's Code. This

massive collection included laws passed by Roman assemblies or decreed by Roman

emperors, as well as the legal writings of Roman judges and a handbook for students.

Justinian's Code had an impact far beyond the Byzantine empire. By the 1100s, it had reached

Western Europe. There, both the Roman Catholic Church and medieval monarchs modeled

their laws on its principles. Centuries later, the code also guided legal thinkers who began to

put together the international law in use today.

Absolute Power Justinian used the law to unite the empire under his control. He ruled as an

autocrat, or sole ruler with complete authority. The emperor also had power over the Church.

He was deemed Christ's co-ruler on Earth. As a Byzantine official wrote, “The emperor is

equal to all men in the nature of his body, but in the authority of his rank he is similar to God,

who rules all.” Unlike feudal monarchs in Western Europe, he combined both political power

and spiritual authority. His control was aided by his wife, Theodora. A shrewd politician, she

served as adviser and co-ruler to Justinian and even pursued her own policies.

Changing Fortunes In the centuries after Justinian, the fortunes of the empire rose and fell.

Attacks by Persians, Slavs, Vikings, Mongols, and Turks were largely unsuccessful. The

empire thus served as a buffer for Western Europe. Beginning in the 600s and 700s, however,

Theodora 500–548

From humble beginnings as the daughter of a bearkeeper, Theodora rose to become Justinian's adviser and co-ruler. A shrewd, tough, and sometimes ruthless politician, Theodora did not hesitate to challenge the emperor and pursue her own policies.

Her most dramatic act came during a revolt in 532.

Arab armies gained control of much of the Mediterranean world. Constantinople itself

withstood their attack, and the Byzantines held onto their heartland in the Balkans and Asia

Minor. The empire's greatest strengths came from a strong central government and a

prosperous economy.

Peasants formed the backbone of the empire, working the land, paying taxes, and providing

soldiers for the military. In the cities of the empire, trade and industry flourished. While

Western Europe was reduced to a barter economy, the Byzantine empire preserved a healthy

money economy. The bezant, the Byzantine gold coin stamped with the emperor's image,

circulated from England to China.

“Emperor, if you wish to flee, well and good, you have the money, the ships are ready, the sea is clear,” calmly spoke Theodora. “But I shall stay,” she concluded. “I accept the ancient proverb: Royal purple is the best burial sheet.” Theodora's courageous words inspired Justinian to remain in Constantinople and crush the revolt that threatened his power.

Theme: Impact of the IndividualHow did Theodora affect the outcome of the revolt?

Byzantine Christianity

Christianity was as influential in the Byzantine empire as it was

in Western Europe. But religious divisions grew between the

two regions.

Differences East and West Since early Christian times,

differences had emerged over Church leadership. Although the

Byzantine emperor was not a priest, he controlled Church

affairs and appointed the patriarch, or highest Church official,

in Constantinople. Byzantine Christians rejected the pope's

claim to authority over all Christians.

Further differences developed. Unlike priests in Western

Europe, the Byzantine clergy kept their right to marry. Greek,

not Latin, was the language of the Byzantine Church. The chief

Byzantine holy day was Easter, celebrated as the day Jesus rose

from the dead. In contrast, western Christians placed greater

emphasis on Christmas, the birthday of Jesus.

Schism During the Middle Ages, the two branches of

Christianity drew farther apart. A dispute over the use of icons,

or holy images, contributed to the split. Many Byzantine

Christians prayed to images of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the

saints. In the 700s, however, a Byzantine emperor outlawed the

veneration of icons, saying it violated God's commandment

against worshiping “graven images.”

The ban set off violent battles within the empire. From the west,

the pope took a hand in the dispute, excommunicating the

emperor. Although a later empress eventually restored the use

of icons, the conflict left great resentment against the pope.

To see other examples of Orthodox Christian icons, visit www.phschool.com.

In 1054, other controversies provoked a schism, or permanent

split, between the Byzantine, or Eastern (Greek) Orthodox, and

the Roman Catholic churches. The pope and the patriarch

excommunicated each other. Thereafter, contacts between the

two churches were guarded and distant. They treated each other

as rivals rather than as branches of the same faith.

Crisis and Collapse

By the time of the schism, the Byzantine empire was declining.

Struggles over succession, court intrigues, and constant wars

undermined its strength. As in Western Europe, powerful local

lords gained control of large areas. As the empire faltered, its

enemies advanced. The Normans conquered southern Italy. Even

more serious, the Seljuk Turks advanced across Asia Minor. A

nomadic people out of central Asia, the Seljuks had converted to

Islam in their migrations westward.

The Crusades In the 1090s, the Byzantine emperor called for

western help to fight the Seljuks, who had closed the pilgrimage

routes to Jerusalem. The result was the First Crusade. During

later crusades, however, trade rivalry sparked violence between

the Byzantine empire and Venice. Venetian merchants persuaded

knights on the Fourth Crusade to attack Constantinople in 1204.

For three days, crusaders burned and plundered the city, sending

much treasure westward. Western Christians ruled

Constantinople for 50 years. Although a Byzantine emperor

reclaimed the capital in the 1260s, the empire never recovered.

Venetian merchants gained control of Byzantine trade, draining

the wealth of the empire. More threatening, the Ottoman Turks

overran most of Asia Minor and the Balkans.

Constantinople Falls In 1453, Ottoman forces surrounded the city

of Constantinople. After a siege lasting two months, they

stormed the broken walls. When the last Byzantine emperor was

offered safe passage, he replied, “God forbid that I should live an

emperor without an empire.” He chose instead to die fighting.

Forces led by Ottoman ruler Muhammad II entered the city in

triumph. The ancient Christian city was renamed Istanbul and

became the capital of the Ottoman empire. Hagia Sophia was

turned into an Islamic house of worship, and Istanbul soon

emerged as a great center of Muslim culture.

The Byzantine Heritage

Although Byzantine power had faded long before, the fall of

Constantinople marked the end of an era. To Europeans, the

empire had stood for centuries as the enduring symbol of Roman

civilization. Throughout the Middle Ages, Byzantine influence

radiated across Europe. Even the Ottoman conquerors adapted

features of Byzantine government, social life, and architecture.

What was the Byzantine heritage? For 1,000 years, the Byzantines

built on the culture of the Hellenistic world. Byzantine civilization

blended Christian religious beliefs with Greek science,

philosophy, arts, and literature. The Byzantines also extended

Roman achievements in engineering and law.

The Arts Byzantine artists made unique contributions, especially

in religious art and architecture, that influenced western styles

from the Middle Ages to the present. Icons, designed to evoke the

presence of God, gave viewers a sense of personal contact with the

sacred. Mosaics brought scenes from the Bible to glowing life. In

architecture, Byzantine palaces and churches blended Greek,

Roman, Persian, and other Middle Eastern styles.

The World of Learning Byzantine scholars preserved the classic

works of ancient Greece. In addition, they produced their own

great books, especially in the field of history.

Like the Greek historians Herodotus and Thucydides, Byzantine

historians were mostly concerned with writing about their own

times. Procopius, an adviser to the general Belisarius, chronicled

the Byzantine campaign against Persia. In his Secret History,

Procopius savagely criticized Justinian and Theodora. He called

the emperor “both an evil-doer and easily led into evil … never of

his own accord speaking the truth.” Anna Comnena is considered

by many scholars to be the western world's first important female

historian. In the Alexiad, she analyzed the reign of her father,

Emperor Alexius I. Comnena's book portrayed Latin crusaders as

greedy barbarians.

As the empire tottered in the 1400s, many Greek scholars left

Constantinople to teach at Italian universities. They took valuable

Greek manuscripts to the West, along with their knowledge of

Greek and Byzantine culture. The work of these scholars

contributed to the European cultural flowering that became known

as the Renaissance.

SECTION 2 The Rise of Russia

Reading Focus

How did geography help shape early Russia and the growth of Kiev?

Vocabulary

steppe

boyar czar

Taking Notes

Create a timeline that shows events in the rise of Russia between the 700s and 1613. Print out the sample to help get you started.

How did the Mongol conquest affect Russia?

Why did Moscow emerge as the chief power in Russia?

In its early years, Russia was influenced by the Slavs, Vikings, Byzantines, and Mongols.

Setting the Scene

In Russia, a patriotic monk saw a special meaning in the fall of

Constantinople. Moscow, he declared, was a “third Rome,” the successor

to the Roman and Byzantine empires:

“The third Rome … shines like the sun … throughout the whole

universe…. Two Romes have fallen, and the third one stands,

and a fourth one there shall not be.”

—Philotheos, quoted in Tsar and People (Cherniavsky)

Moscow had reason to claim itself heir to the Byzantine empire. Over

many centuries, Byzantine culture greatly influenced the development of

Russian society.

The Geography of Russia

Russia lies on the vast Eurasian plain that reaches from Europe to the

borders of China. Although mapmakers use the Ural Mountains to

mark the boundary between Europe and Asia, these ancient

mountains were long ago worn away to wooded hills. They posed no

obstacle to migration.

Three broad zones with different climates and resources helped

shape early Russian life. The northern forests supplied lumber for

building and fuel. Fur-bearing animals attracted hunters, but poor

soil and a cold, snowy climate hindered farming. Farther south, a

band of fertile land attracted early farmers. This region—today the

country of Ukraine—was home to Russia's first civilization.

A third region, the southern steppe, is an open, treeless grassland. It

offered splendid pasture for the herds and horses of nomadic

peoples. With no natural barriers, the steppe was a great highway,

along which streams of nomads migrated from Asia into Europe.

Russia's network of rivers provided transportation for both people

and goods. The Dnieper (nee puhr) and Volga rivers became

productive trade routes. Major rivers ran from north to south, linking

the Russians early on to the advanced Byzantine world in the south.

Growth of Kiev

During Roman times, the Slavs expanded into southern Russia. Like

the Germanic peoples who pushed into Western Europe, the Slavs had

a simple political organization and were organized into clans. They

lived in small villages, farmed, and traded along the rivers that ran

between the Baltic and the Black seas.

The Varangians In the 700s and 800s, the Vikings steered their long

ships out of Scandinavia. These expert sailors were as much at home

on Russian rivers as on the stormy Atlantic. The Vikings, called

Varangians by later Russians, worked their way south along the

rivers, trading with and collecting tribute from the Slavs. They also

conducted a thriving trade with Constantinople.

Located at the heart of this vital trade network was the city of Kiev. In

time, it would become the center of the first Russian state. Within a

few generations, the Varangians who had settled among the Slavs

were absorbed into the local culture. Viking names like Helga and

Waldemar became the Slavic names Olga and Vladimir.

Byzantine Influences Early on, trade had brought Kiev into the

Byzantine orbit. Constantinople later sent Christian missionaries to

convert the Slavs. About 863, two Greek monks, Cyril and

Methodius, adapted the Greek alphabet so they could translate the

Bible into Slavic languages. This Cyrillic (suh rihl ihk) alphabet

became the written script used in Russia and Ukraine to the present.

In 957, Princess Olga of Kiev converted to Byzantine Christianity.

But it was not until the reign of her grandson Vladimir that the new

religion spread widely. After his own conversion, Vladimir married

the sister of a Byzantine emperor. Soon, Greek priests arrived in Kiev

to preside over the mass baptisms organized by the prince.

As Byzantine Christianity gained strength in Russia, princes began to

see themselves as heirs to many cultural and political aspects of the

Byzantine empire. The Russians acquired a written language, and a

class of educated Russian priests emerged. Russians adapted

Byzantine religious art, music, and architecture. Byzantine domes

capped with colorful, carved “helmets” became the onion domes of

Russian churches.

Byzantine Christianity set the pattern for close ties between Church

and state. Russian rulers, like the Byzantine emperor, eventually

controlled the Church, making it dependent on them for support. The

Russian Orthodox Church would long remain a pillar of state power.

Yaroslav Kiev enjoyed a golden age under Yaroslav the Wise, who

ruled from 1019 to 1054. Like Justinian, he issued a written law code

to improve justice. A scholar, he translated Greek works into his

language. Yaroslav arranged marriages between his children and some

of the royal families of Western Europe.

Kiev declined in the 1100s as rival families battled for the throne.

Also, Russian trading cities were hurt because Byzantine prosperity

faded. As Russian princes squabbled among themselves, Mongol

invaders from central Asia struck the final blow.

The Russians Become Christians

Prince Vladimir of Kiev sent representatives to visit the churches of many lands:

“The envoys reported, ‘When we journeyed among the Bulgars, we beheld how they worship in their temple…. Their religion is not good. Then we went among the Germans, … but we beheld no glory there. Then we went on to Greece, and the Greeks led us to the edifices [buildings] where they worship their God, and we knew not whether we were in heaven or on earth. For on earth there is no such splendor or such beauty, and we are at a loss how to describe it. We know only that God dwells there among men, and their service is fairer than the ceremonies of other nations. For we cannot forget that beauty.’”

—The Primary Chronicle

Primary Sources What

impressed the Russians about the Greek Orthodox Church?

Mongol Conquest

In the early 1200s, a young leader united the nomadic Mongols of

central Asia. As his mounted bowmen overran lands from China to

Eastern Europe, he took the title Genghiz Khan (gehng gihz kahn),

“World Emperor.”

The Golden Horde Between 1236 and 1241, Batu, the grandson of

Genghiz, led Mongol armies into Russia. Known as the Golden Horde,

from the color of their tents, they looted and burned Kiev and other

Russian towns. So many inhabitants were killed, declared a Russian

historian, that “no eye remained to weep for the dead.” From their

capital on the Volga, the Golden Horde ruled Russia for the next 240

years.

The Mongols, although fierce conquerors, were generally tolerant

rulers. They demanded regular payments of heavy tribute, and Russian

princes had to acknowledge the Mongols as their overlords. But as long

as the tribute was paid, the Mongols left Russian princes to rule without

much interference.

Mongol Influences Historians have long debated how Mongol rule

affected Russia. Peasants felt the burden of heavy taxes. Some fled to

remote regions, and others sought protection from Mongol raids by

becoming serfs of Russian nobles. Even though the Golden Horde

converted to Islam, the Mongols tolerated the Russian Orthodox

Church, which grew more powerful during this period. The Mongol

conquest brought peace to the huge swath of land between China and

Eastern Europe, and Russian merchants benefited from new trade

routes across this region.

During the period of Mongol rule, Russians adopted the practice of

isolating upper-class women in separate quarters. Beginning in the

1200s, women became totally subject to male authority in the

household. Husbands could even sell their wives into slavery to pay

family debts.

The absolute power of the Mongols served as a model for later Russian

rulers. Russian princes developed a strong desire to centralize their own

power without interference from nobles, the clergy, or wealthy

merchants. Perhaps most important, Mongol rule cut Russia off from

contacts with Western Europe at a time when Europeans were making

rapid advances in the arts and sciences.

Moscow Takes the Lead

During the Mongol period, the princes of Moscow steadily increased

their power. Their success was due in part to the city's location near

important river trade routes. They also used their positions as tribute

collectors for the Mongols to subdue neighboring towns. When the head

of the Russian Orthodox Church made Moscow his capital, the city

became not just Russia's political center, but its spiritual center as well.

As Mongol power declined, the princes of Moscow took on a new role

as patriotic defenders of Russia against foreign rule. In 1380, they rallied

other Russians and defeated the Golden Horde at the battle of Kulikovo.

Although the Mongols continued their terrifying raids, their strength was

much reduced.

Ivan the Great A driving force behind Moscow's successes was Ivan III,

known as Ivan the Great. Between 1462 and 1505, he brought much of

northern Russia under his rule. He also recovered Russian territories that

had fallen into the hands of neighboring Slavic states.

Ivan built the framework for absolute rule. He tried to limit the power of

the boyars, or great landowning nobles. After he married Sophia-Zoë

Paleologus, niece of the last Byzantine emperor, he adopted Byzantine

court rituals to emphasize Russia's role as the heir to Byzantine power.

Like the Byzantine emperors, he used a double-headed eagle as his

symbol. Ivan and his successors took the title czar, the Russian word for

Ivan the Terrible 1530–1584

“I grew up on the throne,” explained Ivan of his unhappy childhood. His father, Vasily, died when Ivan was only three years old. Intelligent, well read, and

Caesar. “The czar,” claimed Ivan, “is in nature like all men, but in

authority he is like the highest God.”

Ivan the Terrible Ivan IV, grandson of Ivan the Great, further centralized

royal power. He limited the privileges of the old boyar families and

granted land to nobles in exchange for military or other service. At a

time when the manor system was fading in Western Europe, Ivan IV

introduced new laws that tied Russian serfs to the land.

About 1560, Ivan IV became increasingly unstable. He trusted no one

and became subject to violent fits of rage. In a moment of madness, he

even killed his own son. He organized the oprichniki(aw preech nee

kee), agents of terror who enforced the czar's will. Dressed in black

robes and mounted on black horses, they slaughtered rebellious boyars

and sacked towns where people were suspected of disloyalty. Their

saddles were decorated with a dog's head and a broom, symbols of their

constant watchfulness to sweep away their master's enemies.

The czar's awesome power, and the ways he used it, earned him the title

“Ivan the Terrible.” When he died in 1584, he left a land seething with

rebellion. But he had introduced Russia to a tradition of extreme

absolute power.

religious, young Ivan was crowned czar at age 17.

Though Ivan had long been a harsh ruler, his behavior became increasingly unstable after his wife died. Prone to violence, he crushed any opposition, real or imagined. He had thousands of people killed in the city of Novgorod because he feared a plot. Almost every noble family was affected by his murders. “From Adam to this day I have surpassed all sinners,” he confessed in his will.

Theme: Impact of the IndividualHow did Ivan's reign affect Russia?

Looking Ahead

Disputes over succession, peasant uprisings, and foreign invasions soon

plunged Russia into a period of disorder. This “Time of Troubles” lasted

from 1604 to 1613. Finally, the zemsky sobor (zehm skee suh bawr), an

assembly of clergy, nobles, and townsmen, chose a new czar, 17-year-old

Michael Romanov. His reign established the Romanov dynasty, which

would rule Russia until 1917.

In the 1600s, Russia was an emerging power. Like monarchs in France or

Spain, the czars expanded national borders and centralized royal control.

But Russia developed along far different lines. Byzantine influences had

helped establish a strong tradition of autocratic rule. Later Russian rulers

were generally more autocratic than western kings and queens.

Authoritarian leaders, from Peter the Great and Catherine the Great to

Joseph Stalin, would shape Russian history down to this century.

SECTION 3 Shaping Eastern Europe

Reading Focus

How did geography influence developments in Eastern Europe?

Why did Eastern Europe become a cultural crossroads with a diverse mix of peoples?

What threats did the early kingdoms of Europe face?

Vocabulary

ethnic group

diet

Taking Notes

Print out the concept web. As you read the section, fill in the blank circles with relevant information about Eastern Europe. Add more circles if needed.

Ethnic diversity contributed to the varied cultural traditions of Eastern Europe.

Setting the Scene

Many times in the past hundred years, people have opened their

newspapers to find news about turbulent events in Eastern Europe. In

1914, a political assassination by Serbian nationalists triggered World War

I. In 1938 and 1939, German aggression in Czechoslovakia and Poland

sparked World War II. In 1989, revolts in Eastern European nations helped

topple the Soviet empire. In the 1990s, war again erupted in the Balkans as

rival national groups clashed in Bosnia and Kosovo.

The roots of such conflicts lie deep in the history of Eastern Europe. As

you will see, it has been a history often marked by war, revolution, and

foreign conquest. At the same time, its diverse mix of peoples has enriched

the culture of the region.

Balkan Boiling Pot

Throughout the 1990s, violence exploded in the Balkans. In 1992, Eastern Orthodox Serbs, Bosnian Muslims, and Catholic Croats fought a bloody civil war in Bosnia. In 1998, Christian Serbs and Muslims of Albanian heritage clashed in Kosovo.

The modern-day wars echo ethnic struggles that have gone on for more than 600 years in the Balkans. In 1389, Turkish soldiers from the Ottoman empire defeated Serbs at the Battle of Kosovo and took over the region. Different ethnic groups practicing different religions dispersed throughout the area. Even though they were forced to live together, the different groups have

remained fiercely independent. Instead of being a melting pot of cultures, the Balkan region has continued to simmer and occasionally boil over.

Theme: Religions and Value SystemsHow have religions and ethnic groups affected life in the Balkans?

The Geography of Eastern Europe

The region known as Eastern Europe is a wide swath of territory lying

between German-speaking Central Europe to the west and the largest

Slavic nation, Russia, to the east. Many peoples and many nations have

flourished in the area over the centuries.

Eastern Europe reaches from the chilly waters of the Baltic Sea, down

across the plains of Poland, then through the mountainous Balkans. The

Balkan Peninsula, a roughly triangular arm of land, juts southward into the

warm Mediterranean. Several geographic features contributed to

developments in Eastern Europe. Much of the region lies on the great

European plain that links up with the steppes of southern Russia.

The main rivers of Eastern Europe, like the Danube and the Vistula, flow

either south into the Black Sea or north into the Baltic Sea. Goods and

cultural influences traveled along these river routes. As a result, the

Balkans in the south felt the impact of the Byzantine empire and, later, the

Muslim Ottoman empire. In contrast, the northern regions bordering

Germany and the Baltic Sea forged closer links to Western Europe.

The Blue Danube

“The Danube is Eastern Europe's great throbbing artery,” wrote one journalist. “No other river in Europe … flows through as many nations … or echoes to as many languages.” For more than 2,500 years, the Danube River has been a pathway for armies, goods, and ideas. Greek traders sailed along the lower part of the river as early as 600 b.c. Roman and, later, Ottoman armies built forts along its banks. Some of those fortresses grew into major cities, including Budapest and Belgrade. Today, dams on the 1,800 mile-long “Blue Danube” are a vital source of electric power.

Theme: Geography and History What resources has the Danube provided over the centuries?

A Diverse Mix of Peoples

Eastern Europe's geography has made it a cultural crossroads. The ease of

migration encouraged many different peoples to seek new homes, as well as

increased power, in the region. As a result, Eastern Europe now includes a

wealth of languages and cultures.

The Balkans In the early Middle Ages, the Slavs spread out from a central

heartland in Russia. The West Slavs filtered into present-day Poland and

the Czech and Slovak republics. The South Slavs descended into the

Balkans and became the ancestors of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.

The Balkans were peopled by other ethnic groups as well. An ethnic group

is a large group of people who share the same language and cultural

heritage. Waves of Asian peoples migrated into Eastern Europe, among

them the Huns, Avars, Bulgars, Khazars, and Magyars. Vikings and other

Germanic peoples added to the mix.

Although Byzantine civilization influenced many people in Eastern

Europe, conflict often erupted. In this illustration from the 1300s,

Byzantine knights defeat Bulgar soldiers.

Powerful neighboring states exercised strong cultural influences on Eastern

Europe. Byzantine missionaries carried Eastern Orthodox Christianity and

Byzantine culture throughout the Balkans. German knights and

missionaries from the West spread Roman Catholic Christianity to Poland,

Hungary, the Czech area, and the western Balkans. In the 1300s, the

Ottomans invaded the Balkans, spreading Islam into pockets of that area.

Jewish Settlements In the late Middle Ages, Eastern Europe was a refuge

for many Jewish settlers. Western European Christians launched brutal

attacks on Jewish communities, particularly during the Crusades and the

Black Death. To escape persecution, many Jews fled east. Monarchs in

England, France, and Spain also expelled Jews from their lands.

In the 1300s, Polish kings followed a policy of toleration toward Jews. As a

result, Jewish villages sprang up in Poland and other sparsely populated

areas of Eastern Europe. Jewish merchants and scholars contributed to the

economic and cultural development of Poland during this period.

Early Kingdoms

During the Middle Ages, Eastern Europe included many kingdoms and

small states. Sometimes, empires absorbed national groups. Alliances or

royal marriages might bind others together for a time. To get a sense of

these shifting fortunes, we will look at the kingdoms of Poland, Hungary,

and Serbia.

Poland Missionaries brought Roman Catholicism to the West Slavs of

Poland in the 900s. A century later, the first Polish king was crowned. To

survive, Poland often had to battle Germans, Russians, and Mongols.

Poland's greatest age came after Queen Jadwiga (yahd vee gah) married

Duke Wladyslav Jagiello (vwah dihs wahv yahg yeh loh) of Lithuania in

1386. Poland-Lithuania controlled the largest state in Europe, stretching

from the Baltic to the Black Sea. Jadwiga supported a university in

Cracow, which became a major center of science and the arts.

Unlike Russia or Western Europe, Poland gradually increased the power of

its nobles at the expense of the monarch. They met in a diet, or assembly,

where the vote of a single noble was enough to block the passage of a law.

This liberum veto, or “free veto,” made it hard for the government to take

decisive action.

Without a strong central government, Poland declined. It enjoyed a final

moment of glory in 1683 when the Polish king Jan Sobieski (yahn saw

byeh skee) broke the Ottoman siege of Vienna. In the next century,

however, Poland was gobbled up by ambitious neighbors and disappeared

from the map entirely.

Hungary The Magyars raided Europe from the Asian steppes and settled in

Hungary. Like the West Slavs of Poland, they adopted Roman Catholic

Christianity. During the Middle Ages, the country was much larger than it

is today. Hungarian rulers controlled present-day Slovakia, Croatia, and

parts of Romania.

Like King John of England, the Hungarian king was forced to sign a

charter recognizing the rights of his nobles. Known as the Golden Bull of

1222, it strictly limited royal power.

The Mongols overran Hungary in 1241, killing perhaps as much as half its

population. They soon withdrew, so their invasion did not have the same

impact it had on Russia. The expansion of the Ottoman Turks, though,

ended Hungarian independence in 1526.

Serbia During the 600s, South Slavs settled the mountainous Balkans.

Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, and other Slavic peoples in the Balkans had

different histories during the Middle Ages. The Serbs accepted Orthodox

Christianity. By the late 1100s, they had set up their own state, which

reached its height under Stefan Dušan (steh fahn doo shahn). Stefan also

encouraged Byzantine culture, even modeling his law code on that of

Justinian.

Dušan's successors lacked his political gifts, however, and Serbia could not

withstand the advance of Ottoman Turks. At the battle of Kosovo in 1389,

Serbs fought to the death, a memory still honored by their descendants

more than 600 years later.

Looking Ahead

Migration, conquest, dynastic marriages, and missionary activity helped

produce a tangle of overlapping claims to territories in Eastern Europe.

During the 1600s and 1700s, large empires to the east and west swallowed

up much of the region. Yet whenever they had a chance, the peoples of

Eastern Europe tried to recover their independence. In later chapters, we

will see how the desire to rebuild separate states repeatedly ignited new

turmoils.