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Transcript of Chapter 6: Learning How Nurture Changes Us Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009.
Chapter 6:Chapter 6:LearningLearning
How Nurture Changes UsHow Nurture Changes Us
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Lecture PreviewLecture Preview Discuss classical conditioning and how
complex behaviors can arise from it Distinguish classical from operant
conditioning, and the principles of reinforcement
Explore the basis of observational and insight learning
Discuss biological influences on learning Evaluate learning fads
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True or False?True or False?
Once you reach adulthood, the brain is basically fixed and does not change.
False. Recent evidence suggests that new neurons grow even in the adult brain, especially areas of the brain involved in learning.
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Basic TerminologyBasic Terminology Learning - change in an organism’s behavior
or thought as a result of experience Habituation - process by which we respond
less strongly over time to repeated stimuli Sensitization - process by which we respond
more strongly over time (especially for dangerous, irritating stimuli) Eric Kandel earned the Nobel prize for his studies
of habituation and sensitization in Aplysia (the sea slug)
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Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov - studied digestion in dogs, noted associative conditioning between neutral stimuli and meat powder (Pavlovian conditioning)
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Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Pavlov described classical conditioning, involving:
UCS unconditioned stimulus - biologically significant stimulus that produces automatic response
UCR unconditioned response - automatic response to a UCS that occurs without learning
CS conditioned stimulus - initially neutral stimulus, becomes associated with the UCS through conditioning
CR conditioned response - learned response
By virtue of CS-UCS pairing, the CS comes to elicit the CR, a response closely related, but not identical, to the UR
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning ModelPavlov’s Classical Conditioning Model
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Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning
Where do we see classical conditioning used everyday?
Can you see how classical conditioning can explain how we learn prejudice?
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning
Aversive conditioning - classical conditioning to an unpleasant UCS Avoidance response
Classical conditioning is adaptive in preparing the organism for the impending US Psychopathic personalities - indifferent to
signals of threat
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Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning
Acquisition - learning phase during which a CR is established
Extinction - gradual decrease and elimination of the CR when the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS
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Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Spontaneous recovery - sudden
reemergence of an extinguished CR after a delay
Renewal effect - tendency of an extinguished CR to return when revisiting the original conditioning environment
Phobias - intense and irrational fears Some acquired via classical conditioning Subject to spontaneous recovery and
renewal
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Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Stimulus generalization - elicitation of a
CR to stimuli that are highly similar to, but not identical to, the CS Generalization gradient - the more similar to
the original CS the new CS is, the stronger will be the CR
Stimulus discrimination - opposite of stimulus generalization; occurs when we exhibit a CR to certain CSs, but not others
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Applications of Classical Applications of Classical Conditioning to Daily LifeConditioning to Daily Life
1) Advertising - pairing positive USs with product CSs
Latent inhibition - when we’ve experienced a CS alone many times, it’s difficult to classically condition it to another stimulus (e.g., highly known vs. novel brands)
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Applications of Classical Applications of Classical Conditioning to Daily LifeConditioning to Daily Life
2) Acquisition of fears: Little Albert Watson & Reyner (1920) sought to disprove the
Freudian view of phobia, reflecting deep-seated unconscious conflict
They recruited an infant, Albert, and paired a white rat (CS) with a loud clanging metal noise (UCS)
Five days later, Albert exhibited fear of the rat, and similar stimuli, including a rabbit, dog, furry coat, and Santa Claus mask (generalization of phobia)
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Applications of Classical Conditioning Applications of Classical Conditioning to Daily Lifeto Daily Life: : Little AlbertLittle Albert
Led to the conditioning model of phobias Classical conditioning also offers a way to
get rid of phobia Mary Clover Jones (1924) successfully treated
three-year-old Peter, who had a phobia of rabbits, by slowly introducing a rabbit paired with candies
Similar exposure therapy is still the main behavioral treatment for irrational fears
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Applications of Classical Applications of Classical Conditioning to Daily LifeConditioning to Daily Life
3) Disgust reactions - in most cases, a product of classical conditioning because CSs associated with disgusting UCSs come to elicit disgust themselves Rozin (1986) subjects show a great reluctance to
eat a piece of fudge shaped like dog feces Subjects show a great reluctance to drink a
sucrose solution labeled poison, even when they put the meaningless label on there (“better safe than sorry” heuristic)
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Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning
Or instrumental conditioning - acquiring behaviors as a result of the outcome or consequence of those behaviors The organism gets something out of the
response or “operates” on its environment(e.g., using biscuits as a treat, a trainer teaches a dog to sit)
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Differences Between Operant and Differences Between Operant and Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning
Elicited by UCS or CS
Organism emits response in a seemingly
voluntary fashion
Independent of what the animal does
Organism must make response
Often involves autonomic nervous
system
Often involves the skeletal muscles
Classical Operant
Response
Reward
BodySystem
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Law of EffectLaw of Effect E. L. Thorndike (1898) studied cats in puzzle boxes,
which led to the law of effect: If a response, in the presence of a stimulus, is followed
by a satisfying state of affairs, the bond between stimulus and response will be strengthened
According to Thorndike and others, learning involves an association between a stimulus and response (S-R), with the reward stamping in this connection• Lack of insight in cats
Thorndike’s Puzzle BoxThorndike’s Puzzle Box
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
B. F. Skinner and ReinforcementB. F. Skinner and Reinforcement
Skinner developed a highly efficient conditioning chamber (Skinner box) that allows for conditioning and automated behavior measurement Typically contains bar that delivers food
when pressed, food dispenser, and light that signals when reward is forthcoming
Rat in Skinner Box and Electronic Device Rat in Skinner Box and Electronic Device for Recording the Rat’s Behaviorfor Recording the Rat’s Behavior
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Terminology in Operant Terminology in Operant ConditioningConditioning
Positive reinforcement - pleasant stimulus is given to increase the probability of a response (e.g., cell phone for good grades)
Negative reinforcement - unpleasant stimulus is removed to increase the probability of a response (e.g., Aidan’s mother’s nagging stops when he picks up his room)
Punishment - unpleasant stimulus is given, or pleasant stimulus is taken away, to decrease the probability of a response (e.g., cell phone taken away for breaking curfew)
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Punishment tends to be ineffectivePunishment tends to be ineffective
It tells the organism what not to do, rather than what to do
Creates anxiety that can interfere with future learning
Encourages subversive behavior (sneakiness)
Provides a model for aggressive behavior Physical punishment is associated with
aggression in adulthood: but what about the role of genetics?
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Principles of Principles of ReinforcementReinforcement
Partial reinforcement - behaviors that we reinforce only occasionally are slower to extinguish than those we reinforce continuously
Schedules of reinforcement - pattern of reinforcing a behavior Fixed Ratio - after regular number of responses Variable Ratio - after specific number of responses, on
average Fixed Interval - after specific amount of time Variable Interval - after an average time interval
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Applications of Operant Applications of Operant ConditioningConditioning
Shaping by successive reinforcement - reinforcing behaviors that aren’t quite the target behavior but that are progressively closer versions of it
Chaining - linking a number of interrelated behaviors to form a longer series
Premack principle - a less frequently performed behavior can be increased by reinforcing it with a more frequent behavior Grandma’s rule - vegetables before dessert
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Applications of Operant Applications of Operant ConditioningConditioning
Superstitious behavior - behavior linked to reinforcement by sheer coincidence (e.g., lucky charm effect)
Prejudice- how is it developed through operant conditioning?
Token economies - mental hospital staff can reinforce patients who behave in a desired fashion using tokens, chips, points, or other secondary reinforcers Secondary reinforcers - neutral objects that patients can later
trade in for… Primary reinforcers - items or outcomes that are naturally
pleasurable, such as a favorite food or drink
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Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA)Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA)
ABA - a set of techniques, pioneered by Ivar Lovaas at UCLA, and based on operant conditioning principles, that relies on the careful measurement of behavior before and after implementing interventions Shaping techniques with primary reinforcers
Children with autism treated with ABA show significant progress in language and intellectual skills
Before Lovaas, many of these children would have been institutionalized
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Two-Process Theory: Putting Classical Two-Process Theory: Putting Classical and Operant Conditioning Togetherand Operant Conditioning Together
Classical and operant conditioning are distinct in many ways, including underlying brain systems, but how they interact is called two-process theory People acquire phobias via classical conditioning,
then avoid their feared stimulus(e.g., avoiding dogs after dog bite)
This avoidance produces negative reinforcement, via anxiety reduction, maintaining the phobic response
So phobias may involve classically conditioned fear AND operant avoidance
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Apply Your ThinkingApply Your Thinking Sarah is afraid of flying. She prides
herself on not taking any pills. What are some ways she may be able to enjoy flying more?
Exposure therapy and extinction Positive reinforcement
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Other Forms of LearningOther Forms of Learning
Latent learning - learning that isn’t directly observable; we learn many things without showing them Emphasizes the difference between
competence (what we know) and performance (showing what we know)
Challenge to radical behaviorism, implies reinforcement isn’t necessary
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Other Forms of LearningOther Forms of Learning
Observational learning - learning by watching others (models), without instruction or reinforcement Brain basis? Perhaps mirror neurons Aggressive behavior: Bandura (1963) had
children watch an adult ignoring or punching a Bobo doll and shouting things like “Kick him”
Children who watched the aggressive adult model were aggressive to the Bobo doll later
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Media Violence Leads to Media Violence Leads to Real-World Aggression?Real-World Aggression?
Scores of investigators have proposed that violent TV programs promote aggressiveness in children
Correlation or causation? Longitudinal designs Laboratory experiments Field studies (e.g., examining aggression in a town with no
TV)
From these studies - media violence contributes to aggression in some circumstances
Longitudinal Study of Individuals Who Longitudinal Study of Individuals Who Watched Violent TV as ChildrenWatched Violent TV as Children
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Apply Your ThinkingApply Your Thinking A school teacher is having trouble with Audrey hitting
her classmates. He notifies the father, who spanks Audrey. The next day Audrey hits another classmate. When an adult angrily approaches her, she cowers in fear. What happened and what should the teacher do?
Audrey demonstrated observational learning/modeling.
Audrey shows classical conditioning of fear. The father should be taught that modeling good
behavior and using reinforcement-based strategies will be more effective than punishment.
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Other Forms of LearningOther Forms of Learning
Kohler (1925) studied apes solving problems, in one case, reaching bananas by putting together two sticks that were not long enough individually Seemed evidence for “Aha!” phenomenon
Insight learning - when subjects suddenly “get” the solution to a problem, and from there on get it right almost every time
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Biological Influences Biological Influences on Learningon Learning
Preparedness regarding phobias suggests that we’re evolutionarily predisposed to fear certain stimuli more than others Monkeys are predisposed to become afraid of things such
as toy snakes and alligators, but not toy flowers or rabbits About half of dog phobics have never had direct negative
experience with a dog Classical conditioning does not account for all phobias
Tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement: instinctive drift Breland’s “coin washing” raccoons
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Learning Fads: Learning Fads: Do They Work?Do They Work?
Sleep-assisted learning - listening to audio tapes while you sleep Learn Morse code quicker? Better controlled studies suggested that the tapes awoke
the subjects, they were not really asleep Accelerated learning - SALTT Discovery learning - giving students experimental materials
and asking them to figure out scientific principles on their own Klahr (2004) - 3rd, 4th graders asked to figure out variables
affecting how quickly a ball rolls down a ramp• Only 23% learned the principles using discovery learning, but
77% did with direct instruction
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Learning Styles: Learning Styles: Fact or Fictional Fad?Fact or Fictional Fad?
Do all individuals have their own distinctive learning styles? Analytical or spatial or verbal learners? Findings not reliable Studies show tailoring learning methods to a
particular style doesn’t result in enhanced learning
Most of us use a mixture of styles
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Apply Your ThinkingApply Your Thinking One treatment for alcoholism is a drug (pill)
called Antabuse® – it makes you very sick when you drink alcohol. Should this treatment work? Based on the principles we’ve discussed, why or why not?
Yes, via conditioned taste aversion No, avoidance and noncompliance