Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Religion (Chapter 10)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Religion(Chapter 10)


The BIG Questions

What is religion and what are the basic features of religions?

How do world religions illustrate globalization and localization?

What are some important aspects of religious change in contemporary times?


Religion in Comparative Perspective

What is religion? Magic versus Religion Theories of the origin of religion Religious beliefs Religious practices


What is religion? Religion is beliefs and actions related

to supernatural beings and forces Includes both beliefs and behaviors

Religion is related to people’s worldview, or way of understanding how the world came to be, its design, and their place in it


Magic versus religion Magic is seen as people’s attempt to

compel supernatural forces and beings to act in certain ways

Religion, in contrast, attempts to please supernatural forces or beings


Magic versus religion Magic and religion have been focuses on

anthropologists’ attention since the late 1800’s. They developed an evolutionary model.

Science – most “rational” and civilized

Religion

Magic – originally viewed as less spiritual and ethical, and therefore more “primitive”


Another early religious evolutionary model…

Monotheism – belief in one deity

Polytheism – belief in many deities

Animism – the belief in “souls” or doubles Often a belief that animals, plants, and

other entities have souls in addition to humans


Evolutionary Models Today Today anthropologists do not believe in

the evolutionary model of magic to religion to science or from animism to polytheism to monotheism. Why?


Evolutionary Models Today Today anthropologists do not believe in

the evolutionary model of magic to religion to science or from animism to polytheism to monotheism. Why?

Is not very culturally relative Does not account for the fact that people in a

society (and even in a “modern” society) may believe in magic, religion, and science!

Does not take into account religious pluralism Can find truth in different religions


Contemporary Examples of Magic in “modern” society Curses – most dreaded form of magic,

placed upon people with the intention of harming them Cubs curse!

Lucky rabbits foot


Contemporary Examples of Magic in “modern” society Professional Sports

http://www.cbc.ca/sports/columns/top10/superstition.html

2005 study of 77 professional baseball players in the U.S. and Japan found 74% of the players engaged in at least one superstitious behavior before or during a game


Theoretical Perspectives on Religion Religion may provide ways of

explaining and coping with universal human problems of life and death, illness, and misfortune

Religion may help reduce anxiety and uncertainty

Religion may provide a way to maintain group continuity through shared symbols and rituals


Theoretical Perspectives on Religion Religion may provide a model of life

(how to understand the world) and a model for life (how to behave in the world)

Religion is a “projective system” that expresses people’s unconscious thoughts, wishes, and worries

Religion may provide a superficial form of comfort to the poor, preventing uprisings against the rich


Theoretical Perspectives on Religion

Religion provides ways of explaining and coping with universal human problems - Tylor

Religion provides a superficial form of comfort to the poor, preventing uprisings against the rich - Marx

Religion is a “projective system” that expresses people’s unconscious thoughts, wishes, and worries – Freud

Religion offers a “model of and for life” – Geertz

Religion serves society by giving it cohesion through shared symbols and rituals – Durkheim


Expressing Beliefs

Religious beliefs are expressed and transferred over the generations in two main forms Myths

Stories that convey messages about supernatural forces or beings indirectly through the story itself

Doctrine Direct statements about religious beliefs


Myths

Myths express core beliefs and teach morality, often in a form understandable and accessible to all (including children)

Often exist in oral form Myths may contain both moral lessons

and practical ones Myths may store and transmit information

related to making a living and managing economic crises


Doctrine Doctrine is written and formal It links incorrect beliefs and behaviors with

punishments Associated with institutionalized, large-scale

religions rather than small-scale religions May not be accessible to all

Doctrine is often guarded by the powerful and highly educated – e.g. Catholic popes have the power to change doctrine


Beliefs about Supernatural Forces and Beings Supernatural forces and beings range

from impersonal forces to those that look just like human

Supernatural forces and beings range from being all-powerful creators to mischievous annoyances


Beliefs about Supernatural Forces and Beings

Animatism – refers to belief systems in which the supernatural is conceived of as an impersonal power Mana – impersonal

force that is neither spirit nor deity Is more like a substance

Something souls are made out of

Manifests itself in objects and people

Luck


Beliefs about Supernatural Forces and Beings Zoomorphic supernaturals – deities in

the shape, or partial shape, of animals e.g Sphinx


Beliefs about Supernatural Forces and Beings Anthropomorphic supernaturals –

deities in the form of humans Have emotions e.g. ancient Greek gods


Beliefs about Supernatural Forces and Beings Pantheons – collections of deities

responsible for different areas, different aspects of life May have hierarchies


Beliefs about Supernatural Forces and Beings

Deceased ancestors can also become supernatural e.g. Japan ancestor veneration/worship

National holidays in which deceased ancestors are believed to visit living relatives’ homes and when family members visit gravesites

Mexico’s Day of the Dead


Beliefs about Sacred Space Beliefs about sacred space probably exist in

all religions, but such beliefs are more prominent in some religions than others

Sacred spaces can include… Natural sites – rock formations, rapids in a river,

etc. Culturally constructed sites Marked or unmarked sites Temporarily sacred site or permanently sacred

sites Contested sacred spaces

Claims to sacred space are frequently the basis of conflict between people of different faiths and between believers and commercial interests


Ritual A ritual is a patterned form of behavior

that is focused on the supernatural realm Many rituals are the enactment of beliefs

expressed in myth and doctrine Ritual is religion in action!


Ritual Secular ritual – patterned forms of behavior

with no connection to the supernatural realm Sorority or fraternity initiation

Some ritual events combine both secular and sacred elements Thanksgiving

Sacred elements – give thanks to God (originally for the survival of the pilgrims)

Secular elements – watching football


Ritual Rituals can be periodic

Periodic rituals are performed annually to mark a seasonal milestone such as planting or harvesting or to commemorate some important event e.g. Thanksgiving, Christmas, Buddha’s Day


Ritual …or nonperiodic

Nonperiodic rituals occur irregularly, at unpredictable times, in response to unscheduled events e.g. funerals, weddings, birth, last rights, puberty

ceremony


Some Common Types of Rituals Life-cycle rituals

Life-cycle rituals are rites of passages that mark a change in status from one life stage to another of an individual or group

Usually involves a period of… Separation Transition (liminality) Reintegration

Examples include… Puberty rituals Marriage


Some Common Types of Rituals Pilgrimage

A pilgrimage is round-trip travel to a sacred place or places for purposes of religious devotion or ritual

Often involve hardships Often involves separation, transition (liminality), and

reintegration as well Example

Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca (birthplace of Muhammad) Every able bodied Muslim is supposed to go on a

pilgrimage here at least once in their lifetime Demonstrates devotion to Allah and solidarity with other

devotees of the Islamic faith communitas – a sense of collective unity out of individual

diversity


Some Common Types of Rituals Great Mosque in Mecca 88 acres & can hold 800,000 worshipers

inside!


Mecca


Some Common Types of Rituals Rituals of Inversion

A ritual of inversion is a ritual in which normal social roles and relations are temporarily inverted.

Are believed to allow for social pressure to be released and to maintain social order

Examples Carnival – Brazil, France, Italy Mardi Gras – New Orleans Halloween

A night of disguises and reversals Allows kids to play bad and evil for a night in the dark Eat lots of candy and get candy from random strangers Shifts adult-child power balance


Some Common Types of Rituals Sacrifice

Sacrifice is the offering of something for transfer to the supernaturals

Probably one of the oldest forms of rituals May involve human sacrifice (whole human

or body parts), animal sacrifice, offering fruits, vegetables, grains, flowers

Example Aztec human sacrifice


• Aztec gods “ate” human hearts and “drank” human blood

• Victims were usually prisoners of war or slaves

• Once victims were sacrificed, the body was prepared for cooking

• Why? A way of showing political strength and feeding the poor (Harris 1977)

• Why? To satisfy the gods, based on religious logic that had to sacrifice humans to sustain the sun and the world (Sanday 1986)

Aztec Human Sacrifice and Cannibalism


Religious Specialists Rituals may require informal knowledge

gained through everyday enculturation or they may require extensive formal training to be done correctly

Some specialists include… Shaman/shamanka Priest/priestess Diviner Prophet Witches


Religious Specialists A shaman/shamanka is a part-time

religious specialist who gains status through a direct relationship with the supernaturals, often by being “called”


Religious Specialists A priest/priestess is a full-time

religious specialist whose position is based mainly on abilities gained through formal training


Other Religious Specialists A diviner is a religious specialist who is

able to discover the will and wishes of the supernaturals through techniques such as reading animal entrails Those in Azande culture who interpret the

oracles Tarot card reader Palm reader Tea leaf reader


Other Religious Specialists A prophet is a specialist who conveys

divine revelations usually gained through visions or dreams Attractive and powerful personality May be able to perform miracles Status as a prophet might be contentious


Other Religious Specialists A witch is someone who uses psychic

powers and affects people through emotion and thought Mainstream society often views witchcraft

as a negative, but there are real life “good witches”

Wicca – religion based on ancient witchcraft practices, neopagan nature-based religion Strives for harmony, balance, and peace Spells strive for healing and harmony


World Religions A world religion is a religion with many

followers that cross country borders Major contemporary world religions

include… Christianity Islam Hinduism Buddhism

Other contemporary world religions include… Judaism Confucianism Taoism Shintoism African belief systems


Hinduism Around 900 million people in the world are Hindus About 80% of all Hindus live in India Hinduism does not actively seek converts Core sacred texts are four Vedas Polytheistic religion with a diversity of sacred sites,

large and small A variety of different pilgrimage sites associated

with various deities and their shrines Are varieties (e.g. between the way different castes

worship the various deities) but there is a “unity in diversity” of the religion provided by some core elements in the Vedas (e.g. belief in reincarnation and karma – fate determined by previous existence)


Hinduism

Most Hindus live in India

Core texts: the 4 Vedas

Incorporates diversity of ways to be Hindu

Rich polytheism

“Unity in diversity”

Sacred sites range from a pile of stones under a

tree to monumental temples


Buddhism Around 400 million people around the world

are Buddhists Founding figure Siddhartha Gautama (566-

486 BCE) – the Buddha Started in northern India where the Buddha

grew up First arose as protest against features of

Hinduism such as the caste system Share some shared beliefs with Hinduism,

such as the belief in karma and reincarnation Buddhism is most prevalent today in inner

Asia, Southeast Asia, China, and Sri Lanka


Buddhism No accepted single text Importance of the Buddha shared Also believe in reincarnation and karma Goal is to achieve nirvana = enlightenment

and the overcoming of human suffering in this life

Doesn’t actively seek converts Strong tradition of monasticism

Monks and nuns renounce the everyday world and spend their lives meditating and doing good works

Also have important pilgrimage sites Sarnath – place of Buddha’s first teaching Gaya – place of Buddha’s first enlightment


Buddhism originated in India and spread throughout eastern and southeastern Asia


Judaism There are about 15 million Jews worldwide Found most often in the U.S., Israel, Europe,

and Russia Share in the belief in the Torah (Pentateuch,

Five Books of Moses) as the revelation of God’s truth Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,

Deuteronomy A key feature is the identification of what is

wrong with the present and how to escape, overcome, or survive that situation (tension between exile and return)

High regard for human life


Judaism Words, both spoken and written, are important Monotheistic religion Distinctive dietary pattern of kosher Emphasis on truth telling Pilgrimages are also important

Most sacred place is the Kotel, or Western Wall in Jerusalem Site where God asked Abraham to sacrifice

his son Isaac Site of King Solomon’s the First Temple, King

Herod’s the Second Temple Doesn’t try to convert new members

Dispute about who should be considered a Jew


Jerusalem is the holiest city of Judaism, the third holiest city of Islam, and holy to many Christians as well


The Kotel, or Western Wall, in Jerusalem, a pilgrimage site especially for Jewish people


Christianity Are about 2 billion Christians in the world

Largest of the world religions Majority religion of Australia, New Zealand, the

Philippines, Papua New Guinea, most countries of Europe and of North and South America, and about a dozen southern African countries

Minority religion throughout much of Asia Has many ties with Judaism – Christianity

sprang from Judaism in the Middle East Many branches and denominations worldwide Three largest branches of Christianity are…

Roman Catholic, Protestant, Eastern Orthodox


Christianity Belief that Jesus Christ is the messiah who

came to earth in fulfillment of the prophesies contained in the Hebrew scripture Belief that God sent His Son to earth as a sacrifice

for the welfare of humanity Teachings of Jesus as model for behavior

and moral guidance Basic text is the Bible (both Old and New

Testaments) Does actively try to convert others to

Christianity


The Vatican, in Rome, is the center of Roman Catholicism and also a popular tourist site


Islam There are about 1.4 billion Muslims (followers

of Islam) in the world The second largest world religion Most of the world’s Muslims live in South Asia

or Southeast Asia Muslim-majority nations are located in

northern Africa; the Middle East, including Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Bangladesh in South Asia; and several nations in Central Asia and Southeast Asia

Youngest of the world religions Based on the teachings of the prophet

Muhammad (570-632)


Islam Strive for peace Monotheistic religion – one God (Allah) Qu’ran (Koran) is the key text of Islam Five Pillars of Islam

Profession of faith in Allah Daily prayer Fasting Contributing alms for the poor Pilgrimage to Mecca (the Hajj)

Sunni and Shi’a are the two major branches Local variations in ritual practices Does actively strive for converts to Islam


African Religions First spread outside of Africa in earlier

centuries with the coerced movement of people as slaves

African diaspora religions are prominent in the U.S., Caribbean, Central and South America New forms emerging especially in the

Western Hemisphere Influenced by world religions such as

Christianity and Islam


African Religions Some commonalities of African religions

include… Myths about a split between a creator deity

and humans A pantheon of supernaturals – range from

powerful gods to lesser spirits Elaborate initiation rituals and sacrifices

Elaborate dances, meals, often animal sacrifices

Altars within shrines as focal places where humans and deities meet

Close links with healing


World Religions No world religion exists as a single,

homogenous entity Each world religion comprises many

local variants May have religious syncretism –

elements of two or more religions blended together

Religious pluralism – when various religious beliefs coexist together, but do not blend elements


Virgin of Guadalupe

Syncretically represents both the Virgin Mary and the indigenous Mexican goddess Tonantzin, providing a way for 16th century Spaniards to gain converts among the indigenous population of early Mexico


World Religions

Photographs of the various world religions’ religious practices http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27857596/


Religious Change Nowhere are religions frozen and

unchanging Anthropologists look at…

Resurgence of religions that seemed to have been headed toward extinction through colonial forces, but are now being revitalized

Revitalization of religions in socialist states that were once suppressed

Religious pluralism and religious syncretism


Religious Change Revitalization movements

Seek to bring about positive change by reconstructing parts of religion threatened by outside forces

Often arise in the context of rapid cultural change and appear to represent a way for people to try to make sense of their changing world and their place in it e.g. Ghost Dance movement Cargo cults


Religious Change Contested Sacred Sites

Religious conflict often becomes focused on sacred sites

Jerusalem – holy sites sacred to Muslims, Jews, and Christians

India – sites of conflict between Muslims and Hindus

U.S. – racial, ethnic, and religious conflict

e.g. white racists burning African American churches

Native American’s land being destroyed for the sake of urban growth, petroleum and mineral extraction, and even recreational sports


Religious Change Religious Freedom as a Human Right

According to a United Nations Declaration, freedom from religious persecution is a universal human right

Violations of this right by countries and by competing religions are common

Sometimes people who are persecuted on religious grounds can seek and obtain sanctuary in other places or nations


The BIG Questions Revisited

What is religion and what are the basic features of religions?

How do world religions illustrate globalization and localization?

What are some important aspects of religious change in contemporary times?

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Religion (Chapter 10)

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