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LearningStimulus: Event that activates the behaviour

Response: Observable reaction to a stimuli

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Define Learning

Learning is a

relatively permanent

change in behavior asa result of experience.

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Classical Conditioning

In classical

conditioning(Learning), we learn to associate

two stimuli and

anticipate events.

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Cont..

Conditioned Stimulus: Stimulus that evokes anemotional or physiological response afterconditioning.

Conditioned Response: Learned response to apreviously neutral stimulus.

Generalisation: Responding in the same way tosimilar stimuli.

Discrimination:Responding differently to similarbut not identical stimuli.

Extinction: Gradual disappearence of a learnedresponse.

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For example, we learn that a

flash of lightening signals animpending crack of thunder, so

we start to brace ourselves when

lightening flashes nearby.

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Two related events:

Lightning

Stimulus 1

Thunder

Stimulus 2

Result after repetition

We seelightning

Stimulus

We wince

anticipating

thunder

Response

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Operant Conditioning In operant conditioning, we

learn to associate a responseand its consequence, and we

repeat acts followed by

rewards, and avoid actsfollowed by punishment.

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For example, we learn that whenwe get good grades, we get

money, so we continue to getgood grades. Or, if we dont getgood grades, we lose privileges.

To avoid losing privileges, weget good grades.

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Social/Vicarious/Observational

Learning

In social learning (or

observational learning),we learn from others

experiences andexamples.

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For example, chimpanzees

sometimes learn behaviors merely

by observing others perform them.

If one animal watches another

learn to solve a puzzle that gains afood reward, the observing animal

may perform the trick as well, and

even more quickly.

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Classical

Conditioning

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Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov - Russian;

Medical doctor who spent twodecades studying the digestivesystem. Nobel Prize in 1904.

Studied learning for the nextthree decades, by accident.

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After studying salivary secretion in dogs,he knew that when he put food in a dogs

mouth the animal would invariably

salivate. He also began to notice thatwhen he worked with the same dog

repeatedly, the dog began salivating to

stimuli associated with food the sight of

food, the food dish, the mere presence of

the person bringing the food, even the

sound of oncoming footsteps in

anticipation of the food

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Classical Conditioning Pavlovs Experiment:

Through experimentation, Pavlov asked:

If a neutral stimulus (something the dogcould see or hear) regularly signaled thearrival of food, would the dog associate

the two stimuli (the food and the neutralstimuli)? If so, would the dog begin tosalivate to the neutral stimulus inanticipation of the food?

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Unconditioned Stimulus

A stimulus that naturally

and automatically

triggers a response

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Unconditioned Response

The unlearned, naturallyoccurring response to the

unconditioned stimulus

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For example:

For Pavlov, the UCS was

food and the UCR was

the dogs salivation

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Classical Conditioning Pavlovs Experiment (continued):

Just before placing food in the dogsmouth to produce salivation, Pavlov

sounded a tone. After several

pairings of tone and food, the dogbegan to salivate to the tone alone, in

anticipation of the food.

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Classical Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus

An originally irrelevantstimulus that, after association

with and unconditioned

stimulus, comes to trigger a

conditioned response

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Conditioned Response

The learned response to apreviously neutral

conditioned stimulus

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Classical Conditioning For example:

For Pavlov, the previously neutral stimulus

was the tone. During conditioning, the

tone was paired with the food (UCS).

After conditioning, the tone, when

presented alone, produced salivation in thedog. The tone is now considered the CS,

and the dogs salivation to the tone alone is

now considered the CR.

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UCS

(drug)

UCR(nausea)

CS

(waitingroom)

CS

(waiting

room)CR

(nausea)

UCS

(drug)

UCR

(nausea)

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1. While George was having a cavity filled by his dentist,the drill hit a nerve that had not been dulled byanesthetic, a couple of times. Each time he cringed in

pain. George now gets anxious each time he sees thedentist.

What is the:

Unconditioned stimulus: ____________________

Unconditioned response: ____________________

Conditioned stimulus: ____________________

Conditioned response: ____________________

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You ride a roller coaster

and get sick afterward.Now, whenever you are

near a roller coaster youfeel queasy.

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Your relationship is going

badly and your significantother has yelled at youwithout warning several

times. You now feel tenseand fearful any time that youare around him or her.

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Four MajorConditioning Processes

Generalization Discrimination

Extinction Spontaneous Recovery

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Acquisition The initial stage in classical

conditioning

The phase associating a neutral

stimulus with an unconditioned

stimulus so that the neutral stimuluscomes to elicit a conditioned

response

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Acquisition Findings:

The time between presenting the neutral

stimulus and the unconditioned stimulusneeds to be short. For most species and

procedures, about second works best.

Conditioning is more likely to occur if theconditioned stimulus is presented before

the unconditioned stimulus

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Generalization The tendency, once a response has been

conditioned, for stimuli similar to the

conditioned stimulus to elicit similarresponses

IE. A dog responding to a bell tone may

also respond to a similar sounding doorbell.

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Discrimination The learned ability to distinguish

between a conditioned stimulus and

other stimuli that do not signal an

unconditioned response

IE. A child is bitten by a dog, and onlyfears that dog. Other dogs dont illicit

an automatic fear response.

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Extinction The diminishing of a conditioned

response when an unconditioned

stimulus no longer follows a

conditioned stimulus

If the food no longer follows the belltone, eventually the dog will no longer

associate the bell tone with food and

will stop salivating.

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Spontaneous Recovery The reappearance, after a rest period,

of an extinguished conditioned

response.

The conditioned response continues

to get weaker after less pairings ofthe CS and the UCS, and after more

and more rest periods

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Classical Conditioning Extra Little Albert ExperimentFearConditioning

An 11-month infant named Albert feared loud

noises, but not white rats. In the experiment,when Albert was presented with a white rat and

reached out to touch it, a hammer was struck on a

steel beam behind his head. After seven

repetitions of seeing the rat and then hearing thefrightening noise, Albert burst into tears at the

mere sight of the rat.

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Classical Conditioning - Extra Five days after the testing, Albert

showed generalization of hisconditioned response by reacting

with fear to a rabbit, a dog, and a

sealskin coat.

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The Effect of motives: Motive effects theconditioned response.The dog was hungry so

associated bell with food. Time factor between two stimuli: there should

be less gap in time between two stimuli toevoke a conditioned response and percieve the

relation between two stimuli. Repetition of the stimuli:This is done for

association of neutral stimulus with UCS

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Operant: voluntary behaviour emitted by an

organism

Operant conditioning : learning in whichvoluntary behaviour is strenthened or

weakened by antecedents(EVENTS BEFORE

AC

TION) or consequences(EVENTS A

FTERACTION)

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Operant Conditioning Type of learning in which

behavior is strengthened iffollowed by a reinforcer, or

diminished if followed by a

punisher

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Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinners Experiments:

Based on Edward Thorndikes LAW OF

EFFECT states that rewarded behavior islikely to recur

Experiments conducted with animals in an

operant chamber (Skinner Box) asoundproof box, with a bar or key that an

animal presses or pecks to release a reward

of food or water

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Operant Conditioning

Shaping while conditioningan animal to perform certain

behaviors, reinforcers aresuccessively given only as the

subject gets closer to theultimate behavior goal

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IE. If the purpose of putting a rat in a

maze is to teach it to get from Point A to

Point B while following a certain path,then every time the rat makes a turn

towards the right path, a reward should

be given. If it makes a turn towards thewrong path, NO reward is given.

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Operant Conditioning If we can shape animals to

respond to one stimulus andnot to another, then obviously

they can perceive the

differences.

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IE. Some pigeons have been trained to be

able to distinguish between Bach and

Stravinsky. IE. If the goal of a teacher is to get all

students to strive for 100% accuracy on

their spelling tests, then every time astudent improves on successive spelling

tests they should be rewarded. NOT just

reward those that get a 100%.

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Operant

Conditioning

Reinforcement any event

that increases the frequencyof a preceding response, or

strengthens the behavior that it

follows

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IE. Being able to borrow the

car after the dishes are donewill increase the likelihood

that you will do the dishes

again.

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Operant

Conditioning

Positive Reinforcement

strengthens a response bypresenting a typically pleasurable

stimulus after a response.

IE. Food for a hungry animal.Attention, approval, money for

people.

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Operant

Conditioning

Negative Reinforcement

strengthens a response byreducing or removing an

aversive stimulus

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IE. Taking aspirin to relieve a headache

will increase the behavior of taking

aspirin because it reduces or eliminatesthe pain. Smoking a cigarette to relieve

stress will increase the behavior of

smoking because it reduces or eliminatesanxiety and pressure.

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Operant

Conditioning

Positive ADDS a desirable

stimulus, like getting a hug or

watching t.v.

Negative REMOVES an

aversive stimulus, like fasteninga seatbelt to stop the annoying

beeping

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Operant

Conditioning

Primary Reinforcersone thatprimarily satisfies a biological

need

Conditioned or Secondary

Reinforcers a stimulus that islearned, and/or is associated witha primary reinforcer

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IE. Primary reinforcers may

be food, or pain relief.Secondary reinforcers may

be money, praise, good

grades, a pleasant tone of

voice.

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Operant

Conditioning

Immediate and Delayed Reinforcers

How quickly does a reinforcement

needed to be given after a desiredbehavior has been exhibited in order for

the behavior to be conditioned? How

often does the reinforcement need to begiven to condition proper behavior?

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Operant

Conditioning

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response

immediately, every time it

occurs. Learning occurs quickly,

but as soon as reinforcementends, extinction occurs very

quickly also.

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You go to the same soda machine

every day, put your money into it,

and it delivers a soda. On Friday,

you put your money into it and it

doesnt work. Same thing Saturday.You stop using the machine, though

a week later you may try again.

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Operant

Conditioning

Partial (Intermittent)

Reinforcement Reinforcing a

response only part of the time.

This results in slower acquisition

of a response, but much greaterresistance to extinction also.

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IE. Slot machines. You may

win only once in long while,but youll keep playing

because the reinforcement is

worth it, and the habit may last

a long time.

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Operant

Conditioning

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

Schedules:

Fixed-Ratio = a schedule of

reinforcement that reinforces only

after a specified numberofresponses.

IE. Every 10th sale gets a prize.

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Operant

Conditioning


Schedules:

Variable-Ratio Schedule = a

schedule of reinforcement that

reinforces a response after anunpredictable numberof responses

IE. Slot machines, fishing.

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Operant

Conditioning

Partial (Intermittent) ReinforcementSchedules:

Fixed-interval schedules = a scheduleof reinforcement that reinforces aresponse only after a specified timehas elapsed

IE. At the end of every 30 minutes anew batch of cookies will be baked.

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Operant

Conditioning


Schedules:

Variable-Interval Schedules = aschedule of reinforcement that

reinforces a response at unpredictable

time intervals IE. Youve Got Mailyou dont

know when you will get an email,

but ou are alwa s checkin for it.

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Operant

Conditioning

Punishment An event that

decreases the behavior that it

follows

May be done by administering an

undesirable consequence, or bywithdrawing a desirable

consequence

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IE. Shock treatment and

spanking are added,

undesirable consequences,

while taking away phone or

car privileges withdrawsdesirable consequences.

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Operant

Conditioning

Issues/Questions regarding punishments

Physical punishments are not forgotten, just

suppressed

Physical punishments may increase

aggressiveness by demonstrating that

aggression is a way to cope with problems Punishments may create fear

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Operant

Conditioning

If punishment isnt delivered swiftly,

or proportionally with regards to the

crime, those punished may beconfused, depressed, or helpless

Punishments still do not teach the

proper behavior it only suppressesunwanted behaviors

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Observational

Learning

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Observational Learning

Observational

Learning is learningby watching and

imitating others

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Observational Learning For example, a child sees

his big sister burn herfingers on the stove has

thereby learned not totouch it.

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Modeling is the

process of observingand imitating a

specific behavior

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Observational Learning Pro-Social Models

exemplify positive,constructive, helpful

behavior. Anti-SocialModels exemplify negative

and hurtful behavior.

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Observational Learning Mirror Neurons in the

frontal lobe are partiallyresponsible for allowing

humans to imitate simplelanguage and emotions

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Albert Banduras Experiment

The Bobo Doll

Children exposed to an adult

taking out their frustrations on a

Bobo doll would imitate theirpunches and kicks when presented

with a Bobo doll when they were

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