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LearningStimulus: Event that activates the behaviour
Response: Observable reaction to a stimuli
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Define Learning
Learning is a
relatively permanent
change in behavior asa result of experience.
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Classical Conditioning
In classical
conditioning(Learning), we learn to associate
two stimuli and
anticipate events.
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Cont..
Conditioned Stimulus: Stimulus that evokes anemotional or physiological response afterconditioning.
Conditioned Response: Learned response to apreviously neutral stimulus.
Generalisation: Responding in the same way tosimilar stimuli.
Discrimination:Responding differently to similarbut not identical stimuli.
Extinction: Gradual disappearence of a learnedresponse.
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For example, we learn that a
flash of lightening signals animpending crack of thunder, so
we start to brace ourselves when
lightening flashes nearby.
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Two related events:
Lightning
Stimulus 1
Thunder
Stimulus 2
Result after repetition
We seelightning
Stimulus
We wince
anticipating
thunder
Response
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Operant Conditioning In operant conditioning, we
learn to associate a responseand its consequence, and we
repeat acts followed by
rewards, and avoid actsfollowed by punishment.
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For example, we learn that whenwe get good grades, we get
money, so we continue to getgood grades. Or, if we dont getgood grades, we lose privileges.
To avoid losing privileges, weget good grades.
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Social/Vicarious/Observational
Learning
In social learning (or
observational learning),we learn from others
experiences andexamples.
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For example, chimpanzees
sometimes learn behaviors merely
by observing others perform them.
If one animal watches another
learn to solve a puzzle that gains afood reward, the observing animal
may perform the trick as well, and
even more quickly.
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Classical
Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov - Russian;
Medical doctor who spent twodecades studying the digestivesystem. Nobel Prize in 1904.
Studied learning for the nextthree decades, by accident.
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Classical Conditioning
After studying salivary secretion in dogs,he knew that when he put food in a dogs
mouth the animal would invariably
salivate. He also began to notice thatwhen he worked with the same dog
repeatedly, the dog began salivating to
stimuli associated with food the sight of
food, the food dish, the mere presence of
the person bringing the food, even the
sound of oncoming footsteps in
anticipation of the food
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Classical Conditioning Pavlovs Experiment:
Through experimentation, Pavlov asked:
If a neutral stimulus (something the dogcould see or hear) regularly signaled thearrival of food, would the dog associate
the two stimuli (the food and the neutralstimuli)? If so, would the dog begin tosalivate to the neutral stimulus inanticipation of the food?
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Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that naturally
and automatically
triggers a response
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Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Response
The unlearned, naturallyoccurring response to the
unconditioned stimulus
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Classical Conditioning
For example:
For Pavlov, the UCS was
food and the UCR was
the dogs salivation
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Classical Conditioning Pavlovs Experiment (continued):
Just before placing food in the dogsmouth to produce salivation, Pavlov
sounded a tone. After several
pairings of tone and food, the dogbegan to salivate to the tone alone, in
anticipation of the food.
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Classical Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus
An originally irrelevantstimulus that, after association
with and unconditioned
stimulus, comes to trigger a
conditioned response
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Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Response
The learned response to apreviously neutral
conditioned stimulus
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Classical Conditioning For example:
For Pavlov, the previously neutral stimulus
was the tone. During conditioning, the
tone was paired with the food (UCS).
After conditioning, the tone, when
presented alone, produced salivation in thedog. The tone is now considered the CS,
and the dogs salivation to the tone alone is
now considered the CR.
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UCS
(drug)
UCR(nausea)
CS
(waitingroom)
CS
(waiting
room)CR
(nausea)
UCS
(drug)
UCR
(nausea)
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1. While George was having a cavity filled by his dentist,the drill hit a nerve that had not been dulled byanesthetic, a couple of times. Each time he cringed in
pain. George now gets anxious each time he sees thedentist.
What is the:
Unconditioned stimulus: ____________________
Unconditioned response: ____________________
Conditioned stimulus: ____________________
Conditioned response: ____________________
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You ride a roller coaster
and get sick afterward.Now, whenever you are
near a roller coaster youfeel queasy.
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Your relationship is going
badly and your significantother has yelled at youwithout warning several
times. You now feel tenseand fearful any time that youare around him or her.
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Four MajorConditioning Processes
Generalization Discrimination
Extinction Spontaneous Recovery
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Acquisition The initial stage in classical
conditioning
The phase associating a neutral
stimulus with an unconditioned
stimulus so that the neutral stimuluscomes to elicit a conditioned
response
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Acquisition Findings:
The time between presenting the neutral
stimulus and the unconditioned stimulusneeds to be short. For most species and
procedures, about second works best.
Conditioning is more likely to occur if theconditioned stimulus is presented before
the unconditioned stimulus
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Generalization The tendency, once a response has been
conditioned, for stimuli similar to the
conditioned stimulus to elicit similarresponses
IE. A dog responding to a bell tone may
also respond to a similar sounding doorbell.
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Discrimination The learned ability to distinguish
between a conditioned stimulus and
other stimuli that do not signal an
unconditioned response
IE. A child is bitten by a dog, and onlyfears that dog. Other dogs dont illicit
an automatic fear response.
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Extinction The diminishing of a conditioned
response when an unconditioned
stimulus no longer follows a
conditioned stimulus
If the food no longer follows the belltone, eventually the dog will no longer
associate the bell tone with food and
will stop salivating.
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Spontaneous Recovery The reappearance, after a rest period,
of an extinguished conditioned
response.
The conditioned response continues
to get weaker after less pairings ofthe CS and the UCS, and after more
and more rest periods
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Classical Conditioning Extra Little Albert ExperimentFearConditioning
An 11-month infant named Albert feared loud
noises, but not white rats. In the experiment,when Albert was presented with a white rat and
reached out to touch it, a hammer was struck on a
steel beam behind his head. After seven
repetitions of seeing the rat and then hearing thefrightening noise, Albert burst into tears at the
mere sight of the rat.
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Classical Conditioning - Extra Five days after the testing, Albert
showed generalization of hisconditioned response by reacting
with fear to a rabbit, a dog, and a
sealskin coat.
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The Effect of motives: Motive effects theconditioned response.The dog was hungry so
associated bell with food. Time factor between two stimuli: there should
be less gap in time between two stimuli toevoke a conditioned response and percieve the
relation between two stimuli. Repetition of the stimuli:This is done for
association of neutral stimulus with UCS
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Operant: voluntary behaviour emitted by an
organism
Operant conditioning : learning in whichvoluntary behaviour is strenthened or
weakened by antecedents(EVENTS BEFORE
AC
TION) or consequences(EVENTS A
FTERACTION)
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Operant Conditioning Type of learning in which
behavior is strengthened iffollowed by a reinforcer, or
diminished if followed by a
punisher
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Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinners Experiments:
Based on Edward Thorndikes LAW OF
EFFECT states that rewarded behavior islikely to recur
Experiments conducted with animals in an
operant chamber (Skinner Box) asoundproof box, with a bar or key that an
animal presses or pecks to release a reward
of food or water
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Operant Conditioning
Shaping while conditioningan animal to perform certain
behaviors, reinforcers aresuccessively given only as the
subject gets closer to theultimate behavior goal
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IE. If the purpose of putting a rat in a
maze is to teach it to get from Point A to
Point B while following a certain path,then every time the rat makes a turn
towards the right path, a reward should
be given. If it makes a turn towards thewrong path, NO reward is given.
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Operant Conditioning If we can shape animals to
respond to one stimulus andnot to another, then obviously
they can perceive the
differences.
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IE. Some pigeons have been trained to be
able to distinguish between Bach and
Stravinsky. IE. If the goal of a teacher is to get all
students to strive for 100% accuracy on
their spelling tests, then every time astudent improves on successive spelling
tests they should be rewarded. NOT just
reward those that get a 100%.
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Operant
Conditioning
Reinforcement any event
that increases the frequencyof a preceding response, or
strengthens the behavior that it
follows
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IE. Being able to borrow the
car after the dishes are donewill increase the likelihood
that you will do the dishes
again.
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Operant
Conditioning
Positive Reinforcement
strengthens a response bypresenting a typically pleasurable
stimulus after a response.
IE. Food for a hungry animal.Attention, approval, money for
people.
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Operant
Conditioning
Negative Reinforcement
strengthens a response byreducing or removing an
aversive stimulus
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IE. Taking aspirin to relieve a headache
will increase the behavior of taking
aspirin because it reduces or eliminatesthe pain. Smoking a cigarette to relieve
stress will increase the behavior of
smoking because it reduces or eliminatesanxiety and pressure.
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Operant
Conditioning
Positive ADDS a desirable
stimulus, like getting a hug or
watching t.v.
Negative REMOVES an
aversive stimulus, like fasteninga seatbelt to stop the annoying
beeping
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Operant
Conditioning
Primary Reinforcersone thatprimarily satisfies a biological
need
Conditioned or Secondary
Reinforcers a stimulus that islearned, and/or is associated witha primary reinforcer
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IE. Primary reinforcers may
be food, or pain relief.Secondary reinforcers may
be money, praise, good
grades, a pleasant tone of
voice.
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Operant
Conditioning
Immediate and Delayed Reinforcers
How quickly does a reinforcement
needed to be given after a desiredbehavior has been exhibited in order for
the behavior to be conditioned? How
often does the reinforcement need to begiven to condition proper behavior?
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Operant
Conditioning
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response
immediately, every time it
occurs. Learning occurs quickly,
but as soon as reinforcementends, extinction occurs very
quickly also.
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You go to the same soda machine
every day, put your money into it,
and it delivers a soda. On Friday,
you put your money into it and it
doesnt work. Same thing Saturday.You stop using the machine, though
a week later you may try again.
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Operant
Conditioning
Partial (Intermittent)
Reinforcement Reinforcing a
response only part of the time.
This results in slower acquisition
of a response, but much greaterresistance to extinction also.
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IE. Slot machines. You may
win only once in long while,but youll keep playing
because the reinforcement is
worth it, and the habit may last
a long time.
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Operant
Conditioning
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
Schedules:
Fixed-Ratio = a schedule of
reinforcement that reinforces only
after a specified numberofresponses.
IE. Every 10th sale gets a prize.
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Operant
Conditioning
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
Schedules:
Variable-Ratio Schedule = a
schedule of reinforcement that
reinforces a response after anunpredictable numberof responses
IE. Slot machines, fishing.
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Operant
Conditioning
Partial (Intermittent) ReinforcementSchedules:
Fixed-interval schedules = a scheduleof reinforcement that reinforces aresponse only after a specified timehas elapsed
IE. At the end of every 30 minutes anew batch of cookies will be baked.
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Operant
Conditioning
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
Schedules:
Variable-Interval Schedules = aschedule of reinforcement that
reinforces a response at unpredictable
time intervals IE. Youve Got Mailyou dont
know when you will get an email,
but ou are alwa s checkin for it.
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Operant
Conditioning
Punishment An event that
decreases the behavior that it
follows
May be done by administering an
undesirable consequence, or bywithdrawing a desirable
consequence
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IE. Shock treatment and
spanking are added,
undesirable consequences,
while taking away phone or
car privileges withdrawsdesirable consequences.
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Operant
Conditioning
Issues/Questions regarding punishments
Physical punishments are not forgotten, just
suppressed
Physical punishments may increase
aggressiveness by demonstrating that
aggression is a way to cope with problems Punishments may create fear
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Operant
Conditioning
If punishment isnt delivered swiftly,
or proportionally with regards to the
crime, those punished may beconfused, depressed, or helpless
Punishments still do not teach the
proper behavior it only suppressesunwanted behaviors
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Observational
Learning
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Observational Learning
Observational
Learning is learningby watching and
imitating others
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Observational Learning For example, a child sees
his big sister burn herfingers on the stove has
thereby learned not totouch it.
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Observational Learning
Modeling is the
process of observingand imitating a
specific behavior
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Observational Learning Pro-Social Models
exemplify positive,constructive, helpful
behavior. Anti-SocialModels exemplify negative
and hurtful behavior.
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Observational Learning Mirror Neurons in the
frontal lobe are partiallyresponsible for allowing
humans to imitate simplelanguage and emotions
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Observational Learning
Albert Banduras Experiment
The Bobo Doll
Children exposed to an adult
taking out their frustrations on a
Bobo doll would imitate theirpunches and kicks when presented
with a Bobo doll when they were