Science and Technology in Development

Rich Mulwa, Ph.D.

1. Introduction

1.1 Definition

Agriculture is the art and science of crop and livestock production i.e. the entire range of

technologies associated with production of useful products (plants and animals). These

include soil cultivation, crop and livestock management etc.

Factors influencing kind of agriculture practiced in an area include climate, soil,

topography, proximity to markets, transport facilities, land costs, general economic

performance. These factors vary widely in various parts of the world e.g.

Tropical vs temperate climate

Red soils vs black cotton soils

Highlands vs lowlands

This brings out a wide range of agricultural practices

1.2 Crop and animal domestication and the Anna Karenina principle

Crop production is the use of land, water, light to produce food, fibre, shelter and

recreation. Animal production involves selection, breeding, nutrition and management of

domestic animals for production of meat, milk, eggs, wool, hides, draft power, recreation.

From around 7 million years ago, humans on earth fed themselves on hunting of animals

and gathering of wild plants. Food production started about 11,000 years ago.

Table 1: Independent origins of plants and animal domestication

Area Domesticated Earliest

domestication date

Plants Animals

Southwest Asia Wheat, pea, olive Sheep, goat 8500 B.C.

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China Rice, millet Pig, silkworm 7500 B.C.

Mesoamerica Corn, beans Guinea pig, Llama 3500 B.C.

Sahel Sorghum Guinea fowl 5000 B.C.

Ethiopia Coffee, Teff None XXX

Source: Guns, Germs and Steel; Diamond, J.

All crops and animals are believed to have been derived from wild species. However, the

current crops and animals as we know them have undergone extensive modification from

their wild prototypes as result of continual efforts to improve them.

Table 2: Wild ancestors of domestic animals

Domestic animal Wild ancestor

Sheep Asiatic mouflon sheep

Goat Bezoar goat of West Asia

Cow Extinct Auroch

Pig Wild boar of Eurasia and north Africa

Horse Extinct wild horses of Southern Russia

Donkey African wild ass of North africa

Source: Guns, Germs and Steel; Diamond, J.

“Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.” This is a

line from the novel Anna Karenina by Tolstoy. The author is saying that for a family to be

happy, the marriage has to succeed in many aspects, including attraction, financial

management, religion, in-laws etc. This is true for crop and animal domestication. For

successful domestication the candidate had to succeed in many aspects. Most species were

useless as food and other uses for one ore more reasons:

Indigestibility e.g. most tree barks

Poisonous e.g. some butterfly species and death-cap mushrooms

Low nutritional value e.g. jelly fish

Difficult to gather e.g. insect larvae

Difficult to hunt e.g. rhinos

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Slow growth rates e.g. elephants and Gorillas

Problems of captive breeding e.g. cheetahs

Nasty dispositions e.g. grizzly bears, African Buffalo, zebras

Tendency to panic e.g. antelopes, Deer, gazelles

Social structure e.g. horses, cows, sheep etc.

These factors knock-off most of plant and animal species and retain small proportions

which have hitherto been domesticated.

1.3 Agro-ecological zones and crop and animal production

Sub-Saharan Africa has very diverse agriculture environments, determined primarily by

climate, natural resources and human population density. Sub-Saharan Africa can be

divided into 5 principle agro-ecological zones namely; arid, semi – arid, sub-humid, humid,

and highlands.

The basis of this classification is the amount and the distribution of rainfall, altitude and its

affects on temperature and the length of annual plant growing period. The arid zone covers

over a 1/3 of sub-Saharan Africa. The sub-humid and humid zones each occupy about 20%.

Highlands make only 5% of the region.

The arid zone

The arid agro-ecological receives 0– 500mm of rainfall annually with extreme annual

variations from one part of the zone to the other. It has less than 90 plant growth days and

is only suited for grazing. Substance crop encroachment occurs in the 300 – 500mm rainfall

range. The low and variable rainfall is not suited for cropping in most years. Vegetation

consists of short annual grasses and legumes that wither at the end of the rainy season.

New plants quickly emerge when the rains begin. The zone has scattered shrubs and trees

that are being over- harvested for fuel.

Characteristic soils of this region are shallow saline, coarse textured and low in organic

matter serious land degradation has occurred around water points and areas of permanent

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human habitation. Temperatures are warm to hot for most of the year, with little variation.

In Lodwar, mean daily temperatures range between 290C and 300C. The lowest

temperatures occur in July and August and highest temperatures in March and October.

Mean maximum temperatures range from 330C in July and August to 370C in February and

March. Temperatures are influenced by elevation (altitude) decreasing at the rate of 6 0C

per 1000m.

Year to year variation in rainfall is high, more so in the drier parts of the region. Serious

degradation of land has occurred around water points and areas of permanent human

habitation.

Ruminants are the only practical means of transfering pasture and browse forage into food

and income.  The arid zone in sub-Saharan Africa has 34 million cattle, 42 million sheep 55

million goats and 13 million camels (ILCA, 1987). Of all the agro-ecological zones, the arid

zone has the lowest capacity to supply food, housing and other necessities for humans

(human support capacity).  Consequently this zone is thinly populated and infrastructure is

poorly developed.  Lack of roads limits access to markets and reduces availability of inputs

and consumer goods.

Semi-arid zone

Semi arid agro-ecological zones receive 500mm to 1000mm of rainfall annually. It has a

plant growing season of 90 – 180 days followed by a 7 – 9 month dry season. Soils are

generally low in plant nutrients. High temperatures accelerate the degradation of organic

matter.  This reduces the water holding capacity of the soil – this is particularly serious

because moisture in this zone is very precious.

The lower rainfall areas of this zone (500 – 750mm) areas are best suited for grazing.   In

the higher rainfall areas crop farming and crop livestock system predominate. The main

crops grown are millet, sorghum, groundnut, maize and cowpea.

Livestock keeping is the main economic activity.  In the drier areas of this zone, normadic

and transhumant systems in a very similar way to the arid zone.  There is more crop

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farming in this zone game farming and livestock-wildlife mixed enterprises are also done

here.  

Sub-humid zone

The subhumid zone has 1000mm – 1500mm of annual rainfall. The growing period is 180 –

270 days.  Rainfall is less variable than in the drier zones making crop production less risky

and pastures potentially more productive.  A wide variety of crops is grown in the sub-

humid zone such as cassava, yams, maize, fruits and vegetables.  Cotton growing is

expanding in this region.  The zone is suited to the production of soybeans and leguminous

forages. Farms are generally small reflecting the productivity of the zone.

Forages are of poor quality because the soils are poor.  During the dry season, the protein

content of manure forages often falls below 5%.  Livestock density in this region is low

because of diseases particularly tryponosomiasis. 

Humid zone

This zone has over 1,500mm – annual rainfall, and a growing period of 270 – 365 days.  It

consists of rain forests and derived savannahs.  It is generally lightly settled, except in west

Africa.

The soils suffer from high levels of iron and aluminium and low levels of phosphorus,

calcium, sulfur and numerous micronutrients.  Their organic matter content is low, and

they are fragile and easily degraded when the vegetative cover is lost.

Native vegetation has very low nutritive value for livestock.  The major factor that limits

livestock production is trypanosomiasis.  A high proportion of the cattle are of

trypanotolerance breeds. Expansion of livestock production in this zone would interfere

with tropical forests which have a vital ecological function.  Clearing forest for cattle

production is not likely to be biologically or economically sustainable. 

Highland zone

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The highland agro-ecological zone is defined as the area where temperatures are less than

200C. The area has: favourable climate; relatively moderate disease and pest problem; high

production potential highlands agro-ecological zone is attractive to people and has a

favourable environment for livestock.

Soils are deep, fertile vertisols and nitosols rainfall is bimodal.  There are 2 growing

seasons facilitating perennial pastures.  Forage production is intensive.  A wide range of

vegetable matter and cultivated forages are used to feed livestock.

Highlands have the greatest density of people and livestock. The most common farming

system is small-holder crop-livestock farms.  Most of the area is described as kikuyu grass

ecological zone and has a high potential for crop production.

1.4 Mathusian Theory on Population

According to Malthusian theory of population, population increases at a geometrical rate

where as food supply increases at an arithmetical rate. This disharmony would lead to

widespread poverty and starvation which would only be checked by natural occurrences

such as:

Disease

High infant mortality

Famine

War

Moral restraint

An example where high population growth rates have been recorded is the East African

region. In 1950, the population in the area which now comprises Kenya, Uganda and

Tanzania was estimated at 23 million. By 1975, this had become 49 million. This indicates

that the growth rate was in excess of 3% per annum. To get the measure of this rate of

increase, we may calculate that, if it were it to continue, there would be 104.39 million

people by the turn of the turn of century (this seems true); 222.40 million by 2025 and

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473.81 million by 2050. That is to say, by the year 2050, the East African population would

equal that of China in the year 1900 and it would exceed the Indian population of the year

1975.

These numbers are impossible; and an epidemic of AIDS has already supervened which

seems bound to retard the growth of population. If such numbers were to be realized, food

production would be greatly compromised and the region could be caught in a Malthusian

trap. However, one of the main criticisms to the theory is that Malthus ignored increased

food production due to advancement in agricultural science and technology.

1.5 Agrarian Revolution

A revolution in agriculture saw the introduction of farming methods that relied upon crop

rotation and which achieved various other organizational changes that enhanced the

essential processes of nitrogen fixation. That is to say, the fertility of the soil was greatly

increased over wide areas of farmland. The agricultural revolution was necessary to

sustain the increasing number of urban dwellers and non-agricultural laborers.

1.6 Green revolution

In the 20th century, massive public investments in modern scientific research for

agriculture led to dramatic yield breakthroughs in the industrial countries. The story of

English wheat is typical. It took nearly 1,000 years for wheat yields to increase from 0.5 to

2 metric tons per hectare, but only 40 years to climb from 2 to 6 metric tons per hectare.

Modern plant breeding, improved agronomy, and the development of inorganic fertilizers

and modern pesticides fueled these advances. Most industrial countries achieved sustained

food surpluses by the second half of the 20th century, and eliminated the threat of

starvation.

2. Science and technology in Agriculture

2.1 Improving Soil fertility

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Soon after crops were domesticated, the need for fertilizers was realized. The first widely

used fertilizer was manure, but bonemeal, fishmeal, dried blood, sewage, and seaweed all

have served as fertilizers as well. In some cases green manuring is used; this takes place

when crops such as clover or alfalfa are grown and then plowed under and left to rot. A

1669 paper published in England, however, suggested the use of fertilizers to replace soil

minerals--phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, iron, and magnesium.

According to Liebig's Law of the Minimum, growth is controlled not by the total of

resources available, but by the scarcest resource (limiting factor). This concept was

originally applied to plant or crop growth, where it was found that increasing the amount

of plentiful nutrients did not increase plant growth. Only by increasing the amount of the

limiting nutrient (the one most scarce in relation to "need") was the growth of a plant or

crop improved) i.e. "the availability of the most abundant nutrient in the soil is as available

as the availability of the least abundant nutrient in the soil." This discovery and others have

helped advance the use of fertilizers for crop production.

Synthetic fertilizers have dramatically increased crop yields since the early twentieth

century. Today, however, the amount of synthetic fertilizers in use, coupled with increased

emissions from fossil fuels has resulted in a rate of excess nitrogen deposits on fields and

through runoff in streams and rivers that has caused an increase in growth of algae in

estuaries, oceans, and lakes. As the algae die, they deplete the oxygen supply in the water

resulting in massive fish kills. Clearly, this state of affairs must be addressed, as it will have

a direct effect on biodiversity, and on the health of the planet and its inhabitants. This has

resulted to other approaches of addressing soil fertility.

Despite the developments in fertilizer use, the average intensity of fertilizer use throughout

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) remains much lower than elsewhere (roughly 9 kilograms per

hectare versus 86 kg/ha in Latin America, 104 kg/ha in South Asia, and 142 kg/ha in

Southeast Asia) and has been virtually stagnant during the past decade. According to ABSF,

a large agrochemical company in Germany, even if all land in the world is put under crops

without fertilization, it cannot be able to feed the world. This calls for more innovative way

of improving soil fertility, especially in Africa. One such method has been agroforestry.

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2.2 Agroforestry

Agroforestry is an integrated approach of using the interactive benefits from combining

woody perennials (trees, shrubs, bamboo, palms, etc.) with crops and/or livestock. It

combines agricultural and forestry technologies to create more diverse, productive,

profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems. The importance of this practice

includes:

In sub-humid areas, certain nitrogen fixing trees have the capacity to yield 100-200

kg N per year. This will raise crop yields of of maize to 2-3 tonnes per acre. e.g

Sesbania, Crotolaria.

Biomass transfer: If the woody perennial has high content of nutrients, its biomass

enriches the soil and improves yield e.g. Tithonia.

Multipurpose trees: These include Calliandra which contributes high protein forage

for livestock and foliage (biomass).

Soil conservation through: a) roots holding soil together; b) foliage reducing impact

of raindrops on soils; and c) windbreaks.

2.3 Plant and Animal Breeding

Breeding is the art and science of changing the genetics of plants or animals for the benefit

of humankind. Plant breeding can be accomplished through many different techniques

ranging from simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics for propagation, to

more complex molecular techniques.

Plant and animal breeding have been practiced for thousands of years, since near the

beginning of human civilization. It is now practiced worldwide by individuals such as

gardeners and farmers, or by professional plant breeders employed by organizations.

International development agencies believe that breeding new crops and animals is

important for ensuring food security by developing new plant varieties that are higher-

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yielding, resistant to pests and diseases, drought-resistant or regionally adapted to

different environments and growing conditions; or animal breeds that are higher-yielding,

resistant to pests and diseases etc. Government institutions, universities, crop-specific

industry associations or research centers are instrumental in carrying out breeding

programmes.

2.4 Water use efficiency

Water is essential for crop production. Some plants grow in extreme conditions e.g. water

logged areas e.g. water lillies or paddy rice, and desert conditions e.g. cactus. However,

most food crops grow in what we would term as ‘normal’ conditions. Crops transpire large

amounts of water e.g. maize transpires about 350lbs of water for each kg of dry matter

produced.

Agriculture in developing countries in mainly rainfed, and this compromises food security,

especially in times of drought. This calls for alternative ways of conserving water especially

in situations of drought or limiting water availability. Different irrigation methods have

been developed. These include flood irrigation, furrow irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and

drip irrigation. The latter is more efficient in water utilization. Organizations such as KARI

have developed miniature versions of drip irrigations such as the bucket-kit which can be

used for kitchen gardening.

2.5 Farm mechanization

Farm machines and other advances in farm technology make work easier. For instance in

1850 machines contributed 35% of farm work done in the United States, while people and

animals contributed 13% an 52% respectively. In 1980, machines contributed over 98% of

farm work done, people contributed 1% and animals less than 1%. This contrasts the

situation in most sub-Saharan African countries where production is almost purely a

function of human labor.

A number of machines have been developed for different farm operations. These include

harrowing, planting and tillage.

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3 New Animals in Agribusiness

3.1 Crocodile Farming

Location

The location of the site is very important (if not the most important consideration) for

prospective farmers. Crocodiles need to maintain body temperatures of approximately 30

degrees. Any area where winter temperatures drop consistently below 10 degrees is

considered unsuitable for any form of outdoor breeding. Indoor breeding is expensive as

housing requirements are expensive (all round insulation) and energy cost is high due to

external temperature demand for these houses (which have to be supplied via boilers

through out the year). A good guideline would be to establish if crocodiles were historically

present in the area through out the year.

The site should have a ample supply of clean water and electricity, is close to feed

suppliers, processing plants and links to markets. The site will need to be secured and meet

the requirements of your local authority. You will also need substantial capital (an

economic unit of 3000 skins per year will cost approximately Ksh. 40 million to establish)

and patience (it will take approximately 3 years to establish and another 2 years before you

will produce your first skins).

Feeding

Crocodiles maintained in captivity are fed chickens and/or discarded meat. Sometimes beef

and horse offal is used. Pellet feed made from manufactured ingredients such as carcass

meal, meat meal, fish meal etc. is being developed. Some farms use a combination of the

above.

Products and markets

The main products are skin (80%) and meat (20%). Markets for skins are in Asia (Japan

and Singapore) and Europe - France, for example. Meat is sold in Asia (Japan, China),

Europe and in South Africa.

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Terminology

Hatchlings: baby crocodiles and the term may apply up to one year of age; Clutches : groups

of hatchlings from the same nest; Growers: animals of about one year old to harvest;

Breeders: large adult animals. Breeders are further described as male and female. Males

are sometimes called bulls; Colony: sometimes used to describe a group of growers or

breeders.

3.2 Ostrich Farming

Introduction

The first commercial ostrich farm was established in South Africa in about 1860 solely for

harvesting the feathers every six to eight months. Ostrich farms began to spread gradually

to other countries, particularly Egypt, Australia, New Zealand, the United States and

Argentina, until the total number of ostriches raised commercially reached over 1 million

by 1913.

The ostrich is very adaptable and thrives under extreme conditions. Among the many ways

of regulating its body temperature, it controls heat loss during cold weather by covering its

thighs with its wings, and during hot weather, by lifting and moving its wings, it creates a

gentle breeze. It has a remarkable tolerance to heat, withstanding air temperatures of 56°C

without undue stress.

Ostriches are completely diurnal. They are on their feet for most of the daylight hours,

except when dust-bathing, resting or nesting. They invariably sit down at dusk and remain

virtually inactive throughout the night unless disturbed (Degen et. al., 1989).

The wild ostrich is sexually mature at four to five years of age, while the domesticated

ostrich is mature at two to three years; the female matures slightly earlier than the male.

Male ostriches attain the black-and-white plumage when mature. Females and immature

birds have a much duller colouring, with grayish-brown plumage.

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Ostriches are seasonal breeders, breeding only during particular seasons of the year. On

average, the breeding/mating season lasts from six to eight months every year, although

the timing and duration of breeding can vary with latitude and altitude (Shanawany,

1994a). In the northern hemisphere, breeding commences during March and ends around

August/September (Leuthold, 1977), while in the southern hemisphere it begins around

July/August and finishes by the end of March (Jarvis, Jarvis and Keffen, 1985).

The ostrich lays the largest egg of any living bird. Oddly enough, however, the ostrich egg is

one of the smallest in relation to the size of the bird. Measuring 17 to 19 cm in length, 14 to

15 cm in width and weighing up to 1.9kg, the ostrich egg is only just over 1 percent of the

female's body weight. The eggs vary from white to yellowish white in colour and their hard

shiny surface is pitted with superficial pores of various sizes and shapes.

Products

Feathers: Ostrich feathers are used for cleaning fine machinery and equipment as well as

for decorations and in the fashion industry. The best feathers come from the more arid

regions of the world.

Meat: Ostriches produce red meat that is very similar in taste and texture to veal and beef

depending on the age at which they are slaughtered. It is high in protein yet low in fat. In

Kenya a kg is between Ksh. 3000-4000.

Hide: Ostrich skin (hide) is considered to be one of the most luxurious leathers, and some

even place it on a par with crocodile and snake skin. Ostrich leather is thick, durable and

extremely soft and can be manufactured into a variety of products, such as shoes, bags,

purses and jackets

Medical and medicinal purposes: The tendons of the ostrich leg are used to replace torn

tendons in humans as they are long and strong enough for the human leg, and recent

research in ophthalmology points to the possible use of ostrich eyes in cornea transplants.

Ostriches are able to see clearly for over 12 km, and the cornea is large enough to be

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trimmed down to fit the human eye. Furthermore, the ostrich brain produces a substance

that is being studied for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and other types of dementia.

Future of Ostrich farming

In the last few years, ostrich farming has progressed dramatically and the world ostrich

industry has achieved some economic stability. On many farms, however, the management

of the birds, particularly the young chicks, is still relatively primitive. There is considerable

scope for improvement in the areas of artificial incubation, chick nutrition, environmental

requirements and selective breeding. Unfortunately, despite its great potential, the ostrich

has received and-continues to receive little attention from scientists.

4 Biotechnology

Definition

This is any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or

derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use.

Biotechnology industry has developed in a very short time period to become a multi-billion

dollar industry providing products in the areas of human health care, industrial processing,

environmental bioremediation and food and agriculture.

It is an industry that has developed, been financed and is firmly based in developed

countries (especially North America). Whereas public funding for agricultural research has

stagnated or declined, the biotechnology industry has continued to invest heavily in

agricultural research due to the large advances made in the area and the strengthening of

intellectual property rights for biological materials. The biotechnologies used and

developed by the industry reflect market realities and are used primarily to provide

products for developed countries. The biotechnologies used for food and agriculture are no

exception in this regard.

Most significant breakthroughs in recent years in the area of crop biotechnologies have

stemmed from research into the genetic mechanisms behind economically important traits.

The rapidly progressing discipline of genomics, providing information on the identity,

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location, impact and function of genes affecting such traits, is producing knowledge that has

driven and will increasingly drive the application of biotechnologies in crops.

1.7.1 Biotechnologies based on molecular markers

All living things are made up of cells that are programmed by genetic material called DNA.

This molecule is made up of a long chain of nitrogen-containing bases (A, C, G and T). Only a

small fraction of the sequence in plants makes up genes, i.e. that code for proteins, while the

remaining and major share of the DNA represents non-coding sequences whose role is not

yet clearly understood. The genetic material is organised into sets of chromosomes and the

entire set is called the genome. Molecular markers are identifiable DNA sequences, found at

specific locations of the genome. They may differ between individuals of the same

population. Molecular markers can be used for:

Marker-assisted selection: the use of markers to increase the response to selection.

A quantitative trait (i.e. one such as fruit yield that shows continuous variation and

cannot be classified into a few discrete classes) is usually controlled by many genes,

called quantitative trait loci (QTL). By using molecular markers closely linked to, or

even located within, one or more QTL, information at the DNA-level is used directly

and selection response can be increased.

Marker-assisted introgression, where markers are used to increase the speed or

efficiency of introgression (i.e. the introduction of new gene(s) from a population A

to a population B by crossing A and B and then repeatedly backcrossing to B).

Studies of genetic diversity and of taxonomic/phylogenetic relationships between

plant species or between populations (or varieties) within species.

Studies of biological processes, such as mating systems, pollen movement or seed

dispersal, and of the genetic mechanisms behind physiological traits.

1.7.2 Genetically-modified crops

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are those that have been modified by the

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application of recombinant DNA technology (where DNA from one organism is transferred

to another organism). The term ''transgenic crops'' is also used for genetically modified

crops, where a foreign gene (a transgene) is incorporated into the plant genome. It may

help us to distinguish between 3 distinctive types of genetically-modified crops:

Wide Transfer: where genes are transferred from organisms of other kingdoms (e.g.

bacteria, animal) into plants

Close Transfer: where genes are transferred from one species of plant to another

Tweaking: where genes already present in the plant's genome are manipulated to

change the level or pattern of expression.

Transgenic plants have been the subject of much controversy, although they now cover

large areas in certain parts of the world. Estimates for 1999 indicate that 39.9 million

hectares of land were planted with transgenic crops. Of these, 18% were in developing

countries, almost all in Argentina (6.7 million hectares) and China (0.3), while the US and

Canada accounted for 32.7 million hectares (82%).

71% were modified for tolerance to a specific herbicide (which could be sprayed on

the field, killing weeds while leaving the crop undamaged

22% were modified to include a toxin-producing gene from a soil bacterium, Bacillus

thuringiensis, which poisons insects feeding on the plant

7% were planted with crops having both herbicide tolerance and insect resistance.

Most of the transgenic crops planted so far have thus incorporated only a very limited

number of genes. However, some transgenic crops of greater potential interest for

developing countries have been developed in the research laboratories but have not yet

been released commercially, such as transgenic rice of high iron content developed by

transferring the ferritin gene from soybean to rice, or transgenic rice producing provitamin

A.

1.7.3 Micropropagation

This is the in-vitro multiplication and/or regeneration of plant material under aseptic and

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controlled environmental conditions on specially prepared media that contain plant

nutrition and growth regulators. The most commonly used materials are excised embryos,

shoot-tips or pieces of stems, roots, leafs etc.

It is the basis of a large commercial plant propagation industry involving hundreds of labs

around the world. The technique can be used to multiply, in large numbers, clones of a

particular variety. Apart from its rapid propagation advantages, micropropagation can also

be used to generate disease-free planting material, especially if combined with the use of

disease-detection diagnostic kits. Micropropagation techniques have been developed and

are applied for a wide range of crops, including woody and fruit plants.

1.7.4 Factors for Consideration in crop sector biotechnology

The factors determining or influencing the appropriateness of the different

biotechnologies

environmental impact;

impact on human health;

status with respect to intellectual property rights;

status with respect to biosafety regulations and controls;

degree of access to the biotechnologies;

level of capacity-building or resources required to use them;

impact on food production and food security;

The relative costs (financial, social, political or otherwise) of the biotechnologies

versus the relative benefits (productivity, food security or otherwise);

Whether they are more (or less) appropriate than existing conventional methods in

the crop sector for food production and agriculture, given the realities of life in

developing countries;

Whether some of the biotechnologies are more (or less) appropriate than others;

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Whether some biotechnologies are more (or less) suited to certain regions in the

developing world than others.

1.8 Biosafety

Biosafety deals with prevention of large-scale loss of bio-integrity, focusing both on ecology

and human health. It is related to several fields:

In ecology: referring to imported life forms from beyond ecoregion borders

In agriculture: reducing the risk of alien viral or transgenic genes, or prions such as

BSE/"MadCow", reducing the risk of food bacterial contamination.

In medicine: referring to organs or tissues from biological origin, or genetic therapy

products, virus etc.

In chemistry : e.g. nitrates in water etc.

The international biosafety protocal deals primarily with the agricultural definition but

many advocacy groups seek to expand it to includepost-genetic threats e.g. new molecules,

artificial life forms, and even robots which may compete directly in the natural food chain.

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an

international agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living

modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse

effects on biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health. It was

adopted on 29 January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003. As of august,

2010, there were 160 parties

In Kenya, The Biosafety Act 2009, lays down legal and institutional frameworks for

governing modern biotechnology in the country. It ensures that Kenya maximizes the

benefits of modern biotechnology while safeguarding against any potential risks.

Biosafety Regulations

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The Minister responsible for Science and Technology  may, in consultation with the

National Biosafety Authority, make regulations for the better carrying into effect the

provisions of the Act, and in particular for prescribing:

anything required by this Act to be prescribed;

procedures for conducting contained use activities involving genetically modified

organisms;

procedures for release of genetically modified organisms into the environment;

procedures for importation and exportation of genetically modified organisms;

procedures for genetically modified organisms in transit;

procedure for handling, packaging, identification and transportation labelling of

genetically modified organisms;

forms to be used for applications for approvals;

schedules of fees to cover administrative costs of processing applications and

notices;

Public Awareness and Participation

The Act promotes and facilitates public awareness, education and participation concerning

the safe transfer, handling, and use of GMO’s in relation to the conservation and sustainable

use of biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health. Approach of

promoting transparency, education and awareness are seen through publication of final

decisions on all intentional introductions into the environment, as well as any compliance

matters involving cases of material non-compliance. It allows for direct public participation

in decision-making on any regulation proposed under the authority of this Act, any

application for placing a GMO on the market, and any petition to exempt GMO’s or activities

from authorization requirements.

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The Kenya National Biosafety Authority implements the Cartagena protocol on Biosafety in

order to address safety for the environment and human health in relation to modern

biotechnology. It is under the Ministry of Higher Education Science & Technology and has

the following duties & responsibilities:

The National Biosafety Clearing House (BCH).

Data sharing with the Biosafety Clearing House in Montreal Canada.

Is the National Focal Point of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.

Collaborate with relevant Government Departments and Universities' faculties, to

develop strategies in the fields of Biotechnology & Biochemistry.

Identifying Research areas that could lead to formulation of policies to foster science

education and popularization of science and evolving project proposals in line with

modern Biotechnology.

Liasing with the other government ministries, relevant government organizations,

relevant stakeholders and relevant International Organizations.

Co-ordinating Biotechnology & Biosafety issues in the country to all the relevant

stakeholders.

Wycliffe@worldcomafrica.com

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