U.S./Ethiopian/South African Connections

An Instructor’s Manual Mary Ann Watson Layton Seth Curl

U.S./Ethiopian/ South African

Connections

An Instructor’s Guide to Accompany A U.S./Ethiopian/South African Trilogy of Films: Dimensions of Culture: U.S./Ethiopia/South Africa

The Meaningful Life: The Role of Helping Behaviors The Pursuit of Happiness

Mary Ann Watson Layton Seth Curl

“Every man must decide whether he will walk in the light of creative altruism or in the darkness of destructive selfishness.”

Martin Luther King

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Table of Contents

Preface 5 Acknowledgments 6 The Professional Team 7 Positive Psychology 9 The Meaningful Life 11 Culture and Cultural Dimensions 13 Prosocial Development 15 PRIME: South Africa Mental Health Program 17 Empathy Self-Test 19 The Self-Report Altruism Scale 20 Children’s Assessment Devices – Altruism and Helping 21 Focus Questions for Interviewees – U.S. and Ethiopia 22 Focus Questions for Interviewees – University of Cape Town, S.A. 23 Map of Africa 25 Map of Ethiopia 26 Demographic Indicators 27 Socio-Economic Indicators 28 Brief history of modern Ethiopia 29 Brief history of ancient Ethiopia (Axumite Empire) 30 Prehistoric – Ardi, Lucy, and “Lucy’s Daughter” 32 Map of South Africa 35 Demographic Indicators 36 Socio-Economic Indicators 37 Brief history of South Africa 38 Brief history of the University of Cape Town 39 The Cunningham Foundation 41 Project Mercy 42 4 Quarters for Kids 44 Hope Bracelet and Hope Heart Beads Project 45 History of Sister Cities – Axum 47 Pen Pal Project 48 City in a Suitcase 49 Clean Water Project 50 Ethiopia Reads/Ethiopia Library Project 51 Metropolitan State College of Denver and the University of Axum 55 Textbooks for the University of Axum 58

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Gesseso School Project 59 The “Connectors” – Ethiopian Tour Guides 61 Student Participants – University of Cape Town 62 The Videos 63 Classroom Discussion Questions 65 References 67 Resources 70

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Preface This brief instructor’s manual is designed to assist you in using a trilogy of films on U.S./Ethiopian/South African connections. In this manual we have included information on the topics of positive psychology, the meaningful life, children and prosocial behavior, mental health issues, and dimensions of culture that can be incorporated into curricula in the subject areas of social psychology, community psychology, positive psychology, and other areas of the social sciences. Two brief assessment devices measuring “helping” and “altruism” are included. We have added brief background information and photographs of each of the nine programs with their respective leaders that are featured in the accompanying films as well as on-site photographs of the incorporation of these programs in several Ethiopian communities. To provide a more comprehensive understanding of these global initiatives, we have provided country-of-focus information – maps, history of the country-of-focus, and demographic and socio-economic indicators. We began conceptualizing these films following the commitment of our college, Metropolitan State University of Denver, to a faculty exchange with the University of Aksum in Ethiopia. Several of our college administrators had visited Ethiopia to arrange for these exchanges and were impressed with the need of the Ethiopian communities as well as the favorable climate for global initiatives for our faculty and students. Since we had previously produced several other award-winning video series with instructor’s guides that had accompanied college psychology and anthropology textbooks, we were enthusiastic about adding a visual component to these new college initiatives. As this process unfolded, there was an opportunity to include video material from a second African country – South Africa - and, in particular, students and faculty from the University of Cape Town. We anticipated that a comparison of students from our university with those from the University of Aksum and the University of Cape Town would provide a richness of material rare for college and university students. Our hope is that this project may inspire others of various ages and ethnicities to develop cross-cultural initiatives that inspire themselves and others to “a greater good.” These initiatives can lead to a greater understanding, increased happiness, and the meaningful life. Nine Denver-based cooperative programs with their leaders become the educators in this series. We appreciate their willingness to invite us into their lives as they teach us about their beliefs, experiences, and concerns. The ongoing principle guiding this project is to provide college and university students with dynamic slices of real human experience, particularly with persons who have been seen as “different” or “foreign.” We have discovered that one of the most powerful ways of changing existing prejudices is to meet real people through the medium of video. We can best understand the ways of other human beings, not by making assumptions, but by observing and listening and resisting the temptation to reach conclusions before gathering information. We invite you along with us on this video journey into the lives of these individuals who share their passions for “the meaningful life.” Mary Ann Watson Layton Seth Curl

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Acknowledgments

The essential ingredient in this film is the spirited involvement of the many project founders and leaders that have been filmed for this video process. We wish to thank the organizations that have been so central to the completion of this project – the Denver-Axum Sister Cities with their “Pen Pal,” “Clean Water,” and “City in a Suitcase” programs; The Cunningham Foundation with Project Mercy, the Hope Bracelet Project, and 4 Quarters for Kids; Ethiopia Reads; the University of Cape Town with their mental health initiative PRIME; our institution, Metropolitan State University, Denver, with its collaboration projects with the Universities of Axum and Cape Town and, in particular, the Gesseso school building project.

Drs. Watson and Curl with students in the Sister Cities’ Pen Pal project at the Hawelti Elementary School in Axum, Ethiopia

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The Professional Team Mary Ann Watson, Ph.D., Producer, Interviewer, Essayist, Narrator – Mary Ann Watson is a senior faculty member at Metropolitan State University of Denver with teaching experience at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. Her doctoral work at the University of Pittsburgh and post-doctoral study at The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine laid the foundation for her work as a teacher and clinician, specializing in sexology, thanatology, and cultural diversity. She has been involved peripherally, then centrally, in the production of 16 award-winning video series with instructor’s guides that have accompanied textbooks in psychology, anthropology, sociology, and political science. She has received two Fulbright-Hays teaching fellowships for faculty to study in Kenya and Egypt. She is the author/editor of several texts, workbooks, and numerous articles in professional journals. Layton Seth Curl, Ph.D., Producer, Interviewer, Essayist, Narrator – Layton Seth Curl is a faculty member at Metropolitan State University of Denver with teaching experience in the United States and Japan. He completed his doctoral work at the University of Mississippi, focusing on cross-cultural research in acculturation, prejudice, and sexuality in the gay and lesbian community. His most recent research deals with the acceptance of gay and straight public displays of affection. He is a contributing author on The International Sexuality Description Project 2 (ISDP-2), a survey study that includes measures of the Big Five, socio-sexuality, sex-role ideology, HIV/AIDS risk factors, and sexual aggression with data from approximately 50 countries. Scott Houck, Videographer and Film Director – Scott Houck of the MSU Denver Web and Instructional Technology is an award-winning media specialist with extensive experience in filming and creative development of films for college/university classroom use. Alexis Karris Bachik, Ph.D., Positive Psychology Interviewee, Essayist - Assistant Professor of Psychology, Metropolitan State University of Denver, with teaching and research experience in Positive Psychology. Bridget Murphy-Kelsey, Ph.D., Developmental Psychology Interviewee, Essayist - Associate Professor of Psychology, Metropolitan State University of Denver, with teaching and research experience in Developmental Psychology and, in particular, children’s altruism and helping behaviors.

(Left to right) Mary Ann Watson, Scott Houck, Layton Seth Curl

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Positive Psychology M. Alexis Karris Bachik, Ph.D.

Positive Psychology is a new field of research that focuses on “the good life” or “the life worth living” (Seligman, 2004). The movement was initiated by Martin Seligman in 1998, the then-President of the American Psychological Association. His goal was to “… catalyze a change in psychology from a preoccupation only with repairing the worst things in life to also building the best qualities in life” (Seligman, 2002, p.3).

The ideas and theories explored in Positive Psychology have ancient philosophical and religious roots, as well as heavy ties to the mid-20th century Humanistic Psychology movement. Specifically, Abraham Maslow, the famous American humanistic psychologist, was paramount to the development of Positive Psychology. Maslow is well known for his model of psychological and physical needs, named the “Hierarchy of Needs,” as well as his advocacy for individual “peak experiences” and realizing one’s potential or “self-actualization.” Additionally, in his book, Motivation and Personality (1954), Maslow wrote a chapter titled “Towards a Positive Psychology,” where he calls for attention to human potentialities. He wrote:

The science of psychology has been far more successful on the negative than on the positive side; it has revealed to us much about man’s shortcomings, his illnesses, his sins, but little about his potentialities, his virtues, his achievable aspirations, or his psychological height. It is as if psychology had voluntarily restricted itself to only half its rightful jurisdiction, and that the darker, meaner half (Maslow, 1954, p. 354).

Positive Psychology has been successful at bringing scientific rigor to the ideas and theories of humanistic psychologists, and ancient religious and philosophical leaders. We now have scholarly journals, graduate programs, college courses, high-quality research studies and grants, national and international conferences, and thousands of research articles, solely on Positive Psychology. Topics frequently explored include: positive emotions, enabling institutions, strengths of character, values, interests and talents, positive health, mindfulness, positive experiences (e.g., flow), spirituality, positive interpersonal relationships, and happiness.

Among the more intriguing research questions asked by positive psychologists: What is happiness? Who is happy? And how do we attain happiness? Most scholars agree that happiness is a subjective account of how happy one feels when asked about one’s life. Current standards are to assess happiness by directly asking individuals to report on their happiness and/or to complete a validated questionnaire on happiness or satisfaction with life. Though the definitions of happiness vary, a mainstream view is that there are three types of happiness: “the good life” (e.g., positive emotions, pleasure, gratification), “the engaged life” (e.g., activities that put one in a state of absorption or flow), and “the meaningful life” (e.g. Aristotle’s eudemonia; using one’s strengths towards a higher purpose; investing in

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something bigger than one’s self) (Seligman, 2002). Research indicates that the meaningful life is the most important and robust type of happiness (Seligman, 2002).

Who is happy? Most of the research literature indicates that the happiest people, without exception, report having strong, positive, social relationships. Relationships fulfill our deep-seated need to belong, are the bedrock of our celebrations and life tribulations (Myers, 2000), and prevent against stress such as bereavement, rape, and illness (Abbey & Andrews, 1985; Perlman & Rook, 1987). In fact, people have an enhanced enjoyment of most activities (e.g., exercising, resting, commuting, and working) when sharing those activities with others as opposed to being alone (Kahneman, Krueger, Schkade, Schwartz, & Stone, 2004).

How do we attain happiness? Though 40%-50% of happiness is heritable or fixed (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996; Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005), a mere 10% percent is determined by our life circumstances (e.g. where we live, our environmental circumstances, major life events or accidents we've experienced, our ethnicity, marital status, income, physical health, etc.), and a whopping 40% percent is determined by our volitional activity (e.g. behavioral and cognitive tasks such as practicing gratitude, mindfulness, striving towards important goals, exercise, practicing kindness and optimism, etc.) (Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005). In summary, happiness has little to do with our life circumstances, and a lot to do with what we make of them.

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The Meaningful Life Mary Ann Watson, Ph.D.

“Practice random acts of kindness” – a sticker recently observed on the bumpers of several cars. Who benefits from the practice of random acts of kindness - the recipient of the kind acts or the giver of the kind acts?

The phrase, “the meaningful life,” emanates from the work of Martin Seligman as a

part of the study of happiness. In his book, Authentic Happiness (2002), Seligman subdivides the concept of happiness into three distinct characteristics: positive emotion and pleasure (the pleasant life); gratifications or activities that we like doing (the engaged life); and service to something much larger than the self (the meaningful life). For the purpose of this essay, I will focus on the third – the meaningful life. This fulfills one of the aims of positive psychology – to move psychology from egocentric to philanthropic.

The belief that the giver receives value from their behavior is one of the basic tenets

of the science of positive psychology and, in particular, the meaningful life. One interesting class experiment comparing the feelings generated by the completion of one enjoyable activity and one philanthropic activity demonstrated that the effects of philanthropic activities were more long-lasting than that of the enjoyable activity (Seligman, 2003). “Findings on mood and helping others without exception reveal that happy people are more likely to demonstrate that trait [altruism]” (Seligman, 2002, p. 43). Pleasure from activities that may constitute the “pleasant life” tend to be short-lived. Activities contributing to the meaningful life seem to have value for a longer period.

In the field of psychology, there are several others of our forefathers who charted the

course for creating the psychology of a meaningful life. Erik Erickson’s theory of ego psychology (Erickson, 1963) developed a longitudinal view of human development. The seventh stage of his theory is “generativity vs. stagnation.” He describes generativity as the concern in establishing the next generation and in contributing to socially valued work. Abraham Maslow’s “self-actualization” (Maslow, 1943) and Carl Rogers’ humanistic psychology (Rogers, 1961) also support the development in humans of the meaningful life. In a more recent book, Born to be Good (Keltner, 2009), the case is built that humans have survived because of our nurturing, altruistic, and compassionate traits.

Most of the social psychology literature on the subject of altruism tends to indicate

that persons are most likely to be altruistic to forward the health or well-being of their family members or immediate community. More recently, there has emerged the concept of “global compassion” (Ekman, 2008). In an interview with the Dalai Lama, Ekman says, “The first step is to be able to educate people to see the downside of a completely individualistic rather than a global concern. It is narrow-minded to think only of one’s own nation, one’s own country, one’s own tract. Thinking more globally, thinking about others, provides an outlook within which the individual may no longer get caught up in the petty issues and problems that often become the stumbling blocks.”

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This manual features many persons who illustrate a “global compassion.” These

persons are centrally involved in ongoing philanthropic projects between Denver, Colorado, and Ethiopia. Each of these persons completed the two brief adult psychological tests in this manual: “The Self-Report Altruism Scale” (Rushton, et al., 1981) and the “Empathy Self-Test” (Davis, 1980). The average score of these individuals on the empathy test was significantly higher than the reported test mean. According to the test author, higher scores reflect greater empathic concerns. The altruism scale scores were also significantly higher and placed these persons in the top 15% on the trait of altruism... Some quotes from video interviews of these altruists demonstrate the “meaningful life.”

4 Quarters for Kids: Hannah Merten: “This is my life. This is what I think about. This is what I care about.

There is nothing more important to me.” Neal Barsch: “It’s a difference that’s beyond. It has really changed my life. It’s given

me a different perspective.” Ethiopia Reads Jane Kurtz: “There is a modeling of joy. You don not hear people complaining. You

see people being so much more full of stories and community and songs. They have time to do the important things in life.”

Denver/Axum Sister Cities – City in a Suitcase Gloria Curtis: “I would love to go back. It was hard for us [my husband and me] to

leave Ethiopia. My husband and I are so grateful for the opportunities we’ve had.” Denver/Axum Sister Cities - Pure Water Project David Hubly: “Why help? Because there are people in need. I’m a civil engineer. My

profession has been good to me. It is a way to give back.” MSU Denver and Axum University cooperative projects Dr. Stephen Jordan: We have so much to learn about teaching styles – that may help

us be an institution of opportunity.” The Cunningham Foundation, Project Mercy Tammy Cunningham: “The airline lost my luggage. Someway it didn’t matter. I was

changed forever. I fell in love with the people and the children.”

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Culture & Cultural Dimensions Layton Seth Curl, Ph.D.

Culture may be defined as the shared values, beliefs, language, norms, customs, and behaviors that are transmitted in a society from one generation to the next. We often don't realize how much of our behavior and cognitions are due to our culture. Consider how you greet someone when meeting for the first time. Do you shake hands, bow, or kiss them on the cheek? Perhaps your culture has a different greeting. In any case, it's likely that whichever greeting you prefer is also the one you perceive as normal. However, every culture and the behaviors and norms associated with it are normal. As we encounter members from other cultures their behavior may seem odd, but remember that our behavior likely appears just as odd to them. Culture is learned implicitly at an early age and rarely questioned. While we may be more comfortable around members of our culture, keep in mind that we do not choose our culture. Simple cultural differences are often perceived as amusing, whereas larger cultural differences can cause confusion or even serious conflict. What is the source of culture? Culture is often a response to environmental and historical realities. The “deaf goodbye” is a good example. Deaf individuals often linger for an extended period when saying goodbye. This is commonly punctuated with the sharing of personal stories and finally completed by setting a date for the next meeting. While confusing to hearing people, this can easily be understood when one considers the previous lack of technology that made communication difficult for deaf people. Before the TTY (an aid for deaf and speech-impaired persons), two-way pagers, and texting, it was often difficult for deaf individuals to communicate when not physically together. This resulted in an extended goodbye that concluded with the setting of a future meeting. Today, even though technology permits much easier communication among deaf people, the “deaf goodbye” remains. Think of a few cultural differences that have puzzled you, and then consider what environmental or situational factors may have led to them. Why do some cultures use chopsticks, when others use a fork and knife? Why do some cultures focus on family values, while others focus on individual choice and expression? These and other questions can be answered by examining a people's history and environment. In order to understand and compare cultures it is helpful to have dimensions along which to describe, explain, and measure them. Hofstede (1984) developed five dimensions on which cultures can be ranked. Each of these dimensions may be viewed as a bi-polar scale on which a culture can be measured. Keep in mind that when we talk about cultures, we are making general statements about a society or population as a whole. Individual members of the population may or may not fit the culture. Not every member of a culture shares all of its values equally. Our experiences in and outside the culture impact our own cultural development, along with a host of other factors. Culture is a fascinating subject. Consider your personal cultural values as you consider the dimensions below.

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Individualism and Collectivism - This dimension ranges from highly individualistic, in which a culture values independent choice and personal responsibility, to the opposite of highly collectivistic, in which interdependence, shared responsibility, cohesive groups, and a deep loyalty to one’s family and societal groups is valued. Masculinity and Femininity- This scale taps into the distribution of gender roles. Masculine societies often have rigid roles, with little room for movement of the sexes into opposite spheres. Men and women have divergent duties and the society values assertiveness and competitiveness. In feminine cultures, gender roles are more fluid. Occupations are not restricted to only one sex and values demonstrating nurturance are more important. Uncertainty Avoidance - This scale measures the level of ambiguity or change that is tolerated by members of a culture. In cultures with a high uncertainty avoidance change is viewed as a positive. Changing jobs frequently or taking risks is encouraged. In cultures with a low uncertainty avoidance, value is placed on stability and change, and uncertainty is viewed as a negative. Power Distance - This dimension examines the degree of separation between superiors and subordinates. In cultures with a large power distance, subordinates expect inequality, clear orders/direction from superiors, and a respect for social order with unequal classes. In a society with a small power distance, subordinates expect to be consulted. The social distance between one's superior is viewed as small, and equality is valued as the norm. Long-Term to Short-Term Orientation (Confucian Dynamism) - This dimension taps into the value a culture places on time and planning. Long-term oriented cultures are concerned with thrift, planning, and perseverance; short-term cultures are less concerned with planning and more concerned with individual face saving and fulfilling immediate obligations. This dimension was found in relation to cultures with a Confucian heritage, but it is applicable to cultures without this heritage as well.

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Prosocial Development Bridget C. Murphy-Kelsey, Ph.D.

Altruism involves the expression of intrinsically motivated concern for others’ welfare; in contrast, prosocial behavior is intended to benefit another regardless of the motivation (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006). Acts that spontaneously occur out of an unselfish concern for others are relatively rare early in development (Eisenberg et al., 2006). Nonetheless, there is evidence of prosocial concern throughout development.

Young infants react to others’ distress by becoming distressed themselves; older

infants seek an adult to help the distressed; toddlers even try to offer comfort of some sort (e.g., stroke another toddler’s head) (Radke-Yarrow & Zahn-Waxler, 1984). However, it is important to note that early prosocial behavior is often selfishly motivated (Hoffman, 2000) and it is not uncommon for young children to ignore others’ distress or react in ways that cause more distress (Zahn-Waxler, Radke-Yarrow, Wagner, & Chapman, 1992). In general, prosocial behavior (e.g., helping, sharing, donating, comforting, volunteering) becomes more common from early childhood to adolescence (see Eisenberg et al., 2006, for review). Age-related increases in prosocial behavior can be attributed to many factors, including the development of emotional understanding as well as emotional regulation, prosocial moral reasoning that increasingly reflects responsiveness to others and internalized motives, advancements in social perspective taking, and an integration of prosocial concepts into self-understanding (see Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998, for review).

Although prosocial behavior is evident at a young age and increases across

development, it also is important to note that there are individual differences in the tendency to be helpful and concerned about others. Individual differences in prosocial tendencies are believed to be due, in part, to genetic differences. Specifically, temperamental qualities, which have a genetic basis, have been shown to predict prosocial tendencies. For example, children who are temperamentally fearful, behaviorally inhibited, or prone to negative emotions that they have trouble regulating are more likely to become overwhelmed with their own emotions such that they are relatively unlikely to act prosocially when the need arises (Eisenbeg et al., 2006; Young, Fox, & Zahn-Waxler, 1999). Socialization practices also contribute to individual differences in prosocial tendencies. Parents of children who are high on prosocial aspects tend to rely on nonpunitive disciplinary practices, frequently engage in rational discussions with their children, consistently model concern for others, provide opportunities to help others, and encourage a prosocial self-concept (see Eisenberg et al., 2006, for review). Despite the age-related changes in prosocial tendencies, there is a fair amount of consistency in individual differences in prosocial tendencies, such that early prosocial tendencies predict prosocial tendencies across childhood, adolescence, and even adulthood (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998).

For many parents, a primary goal is for children to develop a genuine concern for

others’ welfare and a willingness to act on this concern so that they experience “the meaningful life.” The roots of “the meaningful life”are complex, yet are apparent very early

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in development. It is important to provide support and encouragement of prosocial acts to optimize individual development as well as for the betterment of society.

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PRIME: South Africa Mental Health Program*

In low and middle income countries, 75% of people do not get the mental health services that they need. Responding to this call to action, the Centre for Public Mental Health at the University of Cape Town, South Africa, established PRIME, a Research Program Consortium funded by the UK government’s Department for International Development (DFID). PRIME is a consortium of research institutions and Ministries of Health in five countries in Asia and Africa: Ethiopia, India, Nepal, South Africa, and Uganda. This project’s aim is to develop world-class research evidence on the implementation and scaling up of treatment programs for priority mental disorders in primary and maternal health care contexts in low resource settings. PRIME is a six-year program which was launched in May 2011.

PRIME is motivated by the “treatment gap” in low and middle-income countries where more than 13% of the global burden of disease is due to mental illness. Although the vast majority of people affected by mental illness live in low and middle-income countries, most mental health care resources are located in high-income countries. The lack of resources for effective treatment has contributed to a large “treatment gap” where up to four out of every five people with mental illness go without mental health care. PRIME is focusing on four mental disorders which contribute to the greatest overall burden of disease. These disorders are alcohol abuse, depression (including maternal depression), psychosis (notably schizophrenia), and epilepsy (covered by Ethiopia and Uganda only). These priority mental disorders are based on the mental health Gap Action Program Intervention Guide that PRIME uses to adapt and test its interventions. Descriptors of these four disorders are listed below: Alcohol abuse:

*Appears to be under the influence of alcohol (e.g. smell of alcohol, looks intoxicated, hangover);

*Presenting with an injury; *Somatic symptoms associated with alcohol use (e.g. insomnia, fatigue, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, indigestion, diarrhea, headaches);

*Difficulties in carrying out usual work, school, domestic, or social activities. Depression: *Low energy; fatigue; sleep or appetite problems; *Persistent sad or anxious mood; irritability; *Low interest or pleasure in activities that used to be interesting or enjoyable;

*Multiple symptoms with no clear physical cause (e.g. aches and pains, palpitations, numbness);

*Difficulties in carrying out usual work, school, domestic, or social activities; *Maternal depression occurring during pregnancy or in the first year after birth.

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Psychosis:

*Abnormal or disorganized behavior (e.g. incoherent or irrelevant speech, unusual appearance, self-neglect, unkempt appearance);

*Delusions (a false firmly held belief or suspicion); *Hallucinations (hearing voices or seeing things that are not there);

*Neglecting usual responsibilities related to work, school, domestic, or social activities.

Epilepsy: *Convulsive movement or fits/seizures;

*During the convulsion: (1) loss of consciousness or impaired consciousness; (2) stiffness, rigidity; or (3) tongue biting, injury, incontinence of urine or feces; *After the convulsion: fatigue, drowsiness, sleepiness, confusion, abnormal behavior, headache, muscle aches, or weakness on one side of the body.

These guidelines are a practical tool that are intended to empower health care practitioners to deliver mental health services at the primary health care level. PRIME will work closely with the Ministries of Health, health care providers, academic institutions, and civil society organizations to set up “demonstration sites” in each of the five countries. By generating research evidence aimed at integrating mental health care into primary and maternal health systems, PRIME aims to make a direct contribution to reducing the “treatment gap” not only in the five PRIME countries, but also in other low resource settings. The goal of PRIME is to generate world-class research evidence on the implementation and scaling up of treatment programs for priority mental disorders in primary and maternal health care contexts in low resource settings. PRIME expects to have an impact in the following areas: *Increase findings that will influence policy and practice in the study counties; *Improve mental health, social, and economic outcomes;

*Support sustainable research capacity to develop, undertake, and disseminate the research to implement mental health services; *Increase partnerships for future collaborations between the international partners and, in each country, between academic partners, Ministries of Health, and NGO’s.

*PRIME website: www.prime.uct.ac.za/Home/Background/Priority mental disorders

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Adult Assessment Devices – Altruism and Helping

Empathy Self-Test M. H. Davis (1980)*

For each item, indicate the degree to which the statement is self-descriptive using the following scale: 0 1 2 3 4 Does not Describes me describe me well very well ___ 1. Before criticizing somebody, I try to imagine how I would feel if I were in their place. ___ 2. If I’m sure I’m right about something, I don’t waste much time listening to other people’s arguments. ___ 3. I try to understand my friends better by imagining how things look from their perspective. ___ 4. I believe there are two sides to every question and try to look at them both. ___ 5. I sometimes find it difficult to see things from the “other guy’s” point of view. ___ 6. I try to look at everybody’s side of a disagreement before I make a decision. ___ 7. When I’m upset with someone, I usually try to put myself in his or her shoes for a while. ___ 8. When I see someone being taken advantage of, I feel kind of protective toward him or her. ___ 9. When I see someone being treated unfairly, I sometimes don’t feel very much pity for him or her. ___10. I often have tender, concerned feelings for people less fortunate than I am. ___11. I would describe myself as a pretty soft-hearted person. ___12. Sometimes I don’t feel very sorry for other people when they are having problems. ___13. Other people’s misfortunes do not usually disturb me a great deal. ___14. I am often quite touched by things that I see happen. Items 1 through 7 assess one’s ability to step outside the self and assume another’s perspective. In scoring your responses, first reverse the numbers before statements 2 and 5 (i.e. 0=4, 1=3, 2=2, 3=1, 4=0). Then add the numbers in front of all seven items to obtain a total score. Average scores are 17 or 18; higher scores indicate a greater capacity for perspective taking. Items 8 through 14 assess one’s capacity to experience feelings of warmth, compassion, and concern for another. Reverse the numbers before statements 9, 12, and 13 (i.e. 0=4, 1=3, 2=2, 3=1, 4=0). Then add the numbers for all seven items to obtain a total score. Average scores are approximately 20; higher scores reflect greater empathic concern. *Reprinted with permission from Mark Davis, Ph.D.

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The Self-Report Altruism Scale

J. P. Rushton, R.D. Chrisjohn, G. C. Fekken (1981)*

Tick the category on the right that conforms to the frequency with which you have carried out the following acts. Never Once More

than once

Often Very often

1. I have helped push a stranger’s car out of the snow. 2. I have given directions to a stranger. 3. I have made change for a stranger. 4. I have given money to a charity. 5. I have given money to a stranger who needed it (or

asked me for it.)

6. I have donated goods or clothes to a charity. 7. I have done volunteer work for a charity. 8. I have donated blood. 9. I have helped carry a stranger’s belongings (books,

parcels, etc).

10. I have delayed an elevator and held the door open for a stranger.

11. I have allowed someone to go ahead of me in a lineup (at a Xerox machine, in the supermarket).

12. I have given a stranger a lift in my car. 13. I have pointed out a clerk’s error (in a bank, at the

supermarket) in undercharging me for an item.

14. I have let a neighbor whom I didn’t know too well borrow an item of some value to me (e.g. a dish, tools, etc.).

15. I have bought ‘charity’ Christmas cards deliberately because I knew it was a good cause.

16. I have helped a classmate who I did not know that well with a homework assignment when my knowledge was greater than his or hers.

17. I have before being asked, voluntarily looked after a neighbor’s pets or children without being paid for it.

18. I have offered to help a handicapped or elderly stranger across a street.

19. I have offered my seat on a bus or train to a stranger who was standing.

20. I have helped an acquaintance to move households.

*Reprinted by permission of Professor J. Phillippe Rushton, Ph.D., D.Sc.

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Children’s Assessment Devices – Altruism and Helping

Assessment devices for children differ from those for adults. The following is one method used with seven-year-olds (Feshbach & Roe, 1968): A series of slide sequences depicting seven-year-olds in one of four different affective situations was developed. Each sequence consisted of three slides. There were two sequences for each of the affects of happiness, sadness, fear, and anger. The following two themes were used for each of the four affects: (1) Happiness: birthday party sequence and winning a television contest; (2) Sadness: a lost dog and a social rejection; (3) Fear: child lost and confronting a frightening dog; (4) Anger: the toy snatcher and a false accusation. Accompanying each slide sequence was a short narration, describing the events reflected in the slides.

Children were told that they were going to observe pictures and hear stories about children their own age. Immediately following each sequence, the child was simply asked to state how he/she felt. “How do you feel?” and “Tell me how you feel.” The specific question used was “How does this child feel?” Each child’s direct verbal report was recorded verbatim and constituted the primary index of empathy. In addition the sequences were presented again with instructions to indicate the feelings of the child in each of the slide-story sequences. Each child’s response was rated on a 0-2 scale, with an 8 being the highest empathy score for the four sequences. One significant finding was that the empathy scores of boys observing boys was greater than those of boys observing girls; empathy scores of girls observing girls are greater than the scores of girls observing boys. In a second study of fourth and fifth grade children and altruism (Midlarsky & Bryan, 1972), 128 children observed a model who behaved either charitably or selfishly after winning chips in a game. The model would verbally express pleasure at giving their chips to the “Money for the Needy” jar or the “My Money” jar. In accordance with predictions, children were most likely to be generous if they observed an unselfish model who expressed positive affect while giving his donations. Also as predicted, charitable comments by the model concerning the donation’s significant impact on the recipient were positively related to the amount donated. A personality measure was administered prior to the “altruism game,” and there was a positive correlation between the trait of “social responsibility” and the generosity of the child.

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Focus Questions for Interviewees – U.S. and Ethiopia

1. Why do you help? A. Social exchange

a. To gain knowledge and understanding b. Social pressure/social desirability c. Wish to enhance self-esteem d. Personal growth

B. Genuine altruism – intentionally acting for the other’s side as an end in itself rather than as a means to public recognition or internal well-being

2. When will you help?

A. Bystanders (others watching?) B. Similarity

3. Who will you help?

A. Similar people (personality traits, age, ethnicity) B. Religious faith similarities

4. How can we increase helping?

A. Increase responsibility B. Guilt and concern for others C. Socializing altruism D. Starting in pre-school and childhood

5. Correlates of helping

A. “Happiness” increases B. Depression and meaninglessness decrease C. Through community activity that has real results people have learned

empowerment, not learned helplessness

6. What are your personal goals?

7. What makes you happy?

8. What are your worries?

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Focus Questions for Interviewees – University of Cape Town

Hofstede Cultural Dimensions

1. Power Distance (High to Low)

a. How much respect do students show to faculty or professors? b. Do faculty respect and listen to student input about a class? c. Is it common for employees to have a say in how an office or company

operates? d. When is acceptable for people to be treated unequally?

2. Uncertainty Avoidance (High to Low) a. Do you prefer predictable situations or ones in which the unexpected may

happen? b. Do you find ambiguous situations, those in which you don’t know the rules,

exciting, challenging, or frightening? 3. Masculinity vs. Femininity

a. Do you believe that there should be distinct separation between male and female roles/work?

b. Do you believe that South African culture values competition, achievement, and success over caring for others and quality of life?

4. Long vs. Short-term Orientation a. How far ahead have you planned for your future? b. Do you see prospects for a bright future? c. What fears do you have about your prospects?

5. Individualism vs. Collectivism a. On a day-to-day basis, do you focus on your individual goals, or family or

community goals? b. While you are students, do you have a sense of obligation to your family?

Give examples.

Questions related to the university/community/politics 1. How would you describe South African culture? 2. Since the end of apartheid in 1991, have there been noticeable changes at the

University of Cape Town in student interactions? 3. White students constitute 35% of the University population; non-white students

constitute 65%. How much interaction occurs among students of different ethnic backgrounds? Of different tribal backgrounds?

4. The University of Cape Town is the highest ranked African university in the “World University” rankings. How would you like to see this University evolve? Would you like to see changes in admission standards? Give examples.

5. What are your biggest hopes for the future of South Africa? What three changes would you like to see in the next decade?

6. What are your biggest hopes for your children? What changes would you like to see to make their lives better than your own?

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Map of Africa

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Map of Ethiopia

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Demographic Indicators* Country name: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Location: Eastern Africa, west of Somalia Land boundaries: Border countries: Djibouti, Eritrea, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan Capital: Addis Ababa Area – Comparative: Slightly less than twice the size of Texas Net migration rate: 0 migrants per 1000 pop. (Repatriation of Ethiopian refugees residing

in Sudan is expected to continue for several years. Some Sudanese, Somali, and Eritrean refugees who fled to Ethiopia from the fighting or famine in their own countries continue to return to their own homes)

Terrain: High plateau with central mountain range divided by Great Rift Valley Climate: Tropical monsoon with wide topographic-induced variations Maritime claims: None: landlocked Natural resources: Small reserves of gold, platinum, copper, potash, natural gas, hydro- power Natural hazards: Geologically active Great Rift Valley susceptible to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions; frequent droughts Environment – Current issues: Deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, desertification, water

shortages in some areas from water-intensive farming and poor management

Government type: Federal republic Independence: Oldest independent country in Africa and one of the oldest in the world Constitution: Ratified December, 1994 Flag description: Three equal horizontal bands of green, yellow, and red with a yellow pentagram and single yellow rays emanating from the angles between the points on a light blue disk *CIA. The World Factbook: Ethiopia, 2012

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Socio-Economic Indicators* Population: 76 million (Estimates take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS) Age structure: 0-14: 43.4%; 15-64: 53.8%; 65+: 2.7% Median age: 18 years; Male, 17.8 years; Female, 18.1 years Population growth rate: 2.27% Ethnic Groups: Oromo 32.1%, Amara 30.1%, Tigraway 6.2%, Somalie 5.9%,

Guragie, 4.3%. Sidama 3.5%, Welaita 2.4%, other 15.4% Religions: Christian, 60.8%, Muslim 32.8%, traditional 4.6%%, other

1.8% Languages: Amarigna, Oromigna, Tigrigna, Somaligna, Guaragigna, other

local languages, English (major foreign language taught in schools)

Life Expectancy at Birth: 49.23; males: 48.06 years; females, 50.44 years Major infectious diseases: Food or waterborne diseases such as diarrhea, hepatitis A and E and typhoid fever; malaria, meningitis, rabies Total Fertility Rate: 5.1 children born/woman HIV/AIDS - Adult Prevalence Rate: 4.4% Literacy Rate: 42.7% School Life Expectancy: Male: 9 years; Female: 8 years Gross Domestic Product Per Capita: $700 Population below poverty line: 38.7% Gross Domestic Product Growth Rate: 9.8% Labor force by occupation: Agriculture, 80%; Industry, 8%; Services, 12% Economy – Overview: Ethiopia’s poverty-stricken economy is based on agriculture, accounting for almost half of the GDP, 60% of exports, and 80% of total employment. The agricultural sector suffers from frequent drought and poor cultivation practices. Coffee is critical to the Ethiopian economy. Under Ethiopia’s constitution, the state owns all land and provides long-term leases to the tenants; the system continues to hamper growth in the industrial sector as entrepreneurs are unable to use land as collateral for loans. Drought struck again late in 2002, leading to a 3.3% decline in GDP in 2003. Normal weather patterns helped agricultural and GDP growth recover during 2004-2008. *CIA. The World Factbook: Ethiopia, 2012

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Brief History of Modern Ethiopia The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) is unique in that it is the only African country that maintained its freedom from colonial rule with the exception of a short-lived Italian occupation from 1936-1941. It is the oldest independent country in Africa and one of the oldest in the world – at least 2000 years. In 1974 a military junta, the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile Selassie (who had ruled since 1930) and established a socialist state. Torn by bloody coups, uprisings, wide-scale drought, and massive refugee problems, the regime was finally toppled in 1991 by a coalition of rebel forces, the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front. A constitution was adopted in 1994 and Ethiopia’s first multiparty elections were held in 1995. A two and a half year border war with Eritrea that ended with a peace treaty on December of 2000 has strengthened the ruling coalition, but has hurt the nation’s economy. Ethiopia’s economy is based on agriculture that suffers from frequent periods of drought. Coffee is critical to the Ethiopian economy and, according to current estimates, contributes 10% of Ethiopia’s GDP (Gross Domestic Product).

Axum, Ethiopia

Axum, Ethiopia, located in northern Ethiopia, is Denver, Colorado’s “Sister City.” The known history of Axum dates back to the days of the Queen of Sheba. Many artifacts, including carved monolithic obelisks, attest to the highly advanced civilization that flourished in the city over 2000 years ago. The Axumite (Aksumite) Empire (100 B.C.E. to 1100 C.E.) was one of the powerful empires of the day. About 350 C.E. the empire adopted Christianity as the state religion and Saint Mary of Zion was the first church to be built. This church is reputed to house the Ark of the Covenant. History was made on November 12, 1995, when the Lieutenant Governor of Colorado and the Mayor of Denver visited Axum. The people of Axum gave the visitors a royal welcome and named a major street in Axum after Denver. In Denver, a park has been named after the “Sister City” of Axum. Metropolitan State University of Denver has recently established a partnership with Axum University for student and faculty exchanges as well as for various collaborative projects between the two universities.

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Brief History of Ancient Ethiopia (Axumite Empire)

The Axumite (Aksumite) Empire was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, growing from the period of the 4th Century B.C.E. to achieve prominence by the 1st Century C.E. The Kingdom used the name “Ethiopia” as early as the 4th Century. It is the alleged resting place of the Ark of the Covenant and the purported home of the Queen of Sheba. Axum was also the first major empire to convert to Christianity. The Empire of Axum at its height extended across most of modern-day Eritrea, northern Ethiopia, Yemen, southern Saudi Arabia, northern Djibouti, and northern Sudan. The capitol city of the empire was Axum, now in northern Ethiopia. Because of its location, Axum was deeply involved in the trade network between India and the Mediterranean that linked India and the Roman Empire. The Empire of Axum contained the ports for the export of African goods such as ivory, incense, gold, and exotic animals. During the 2nd and 3rd Centuries, the Kingdom of Axum continued to expand their control of the Red Sea basin. A caravan route to Egypt was established that surpassed its other previously established routes to Egypt and the Roman Empire.

The Axumites had cemeteries with elaborate gravestones called stelae, or obelisks, that are still evident throughout the area. By the late 3rd Century, the Axumites had begun to mint their own currency and were seen as one of the four great powers of this time, along with Persia, Rome, and China. Many of the peoples of this area converted to Christianity in 325-328 C.E. under the rule of King Ezana and this was the first state ever to use the image of the cross on its coins.

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The central square of Axum, Ethiopia, with the many stellae

Close-up view of one stele

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Prehistoric – Ardi, Lucy, and “Lucy’s daughter”*

Prehistoric times for the area we now call Ethiopia (prior to 2000 B.C.E.) would include not thousands, but millions of years. “Lucy,” the name given to the nearly 40% complete skeleton of an Australopithecus afarensis specimen is estimated to have lived 3.2 million years ago. The Amharic name for this specimen is “Dinkenesh” meaning “You are beautiful” or “You are wonderful.” This skeleton was discovered in 1974 in the Awash Valley of Ethiopia’s Afar Depression. Most recently, in 1994, archaeologists first found “Ardi,” a female who lived 4.4 million years ago. Her skeleton has been described as one of the most important discoveries of the past century. The discovery of these skeletons is significant as they show evidence of small skull capacity akin to that of apes, and of bipedal upright walk akin to that of humans, providing evidence that bipedalism preceded increase in brain size in human evolution.

The professional team responsible for this wonderful find (the International Afar Research Expedition [IARE]) was comprised of four American and seven French anthropologists, archaeologists, and paleontologists. In the autumn of 1973 the team surveyed Hadar, Ethiopia, for fossils and artifacts related to the origin of humans. In November of 1973, near the end of the first field season, Donald Johanson, an American anthropologist, noticed a fossil of the upper end of a shinbone and the lower end of a thighbone. When he fitted them together the angle of the knee joint clearly showed that this fossil was an upright walking hominid. Over three million years old, the fossil was much older than any others knows at the time. The site of this discovery, near the Awash River, turned out to be a significant area. During the second field season, in 1974, this area was more closely searched. It was nearby the original fossil find that the skeletal remains of “Lucy” were found. Over a three-week period, several hundred pieces or fragments of bone were found, with no duplication, confirming their original speculation that they were from the one skeleton. The name “Lucy” was applied to these remains after the Beatles song “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds” that was repeatedly played on a tape recorder in the team’s campsite.

“Lucy” and “Ardi” are preserved at the National Museum of Ethiopia in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. In 2000, in the Dikika region of Ethiopia, another fossilized skeleton was discovered. This skeleton, from the same species as “Lucy,” represents the oldest and most complete fossil child in the evolutionary history of humans. Scientists used CT scans to discover unerupted teeth still in the jaw that put this child’s age at approximately three years. The shape of the skeleton’s thighs and shins suggest that she walked upright. While the media have dubbed this new find “Lucy’s baby,” the Dikika girl lived approximately 150,000 years prior to “Lucy.” *www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy, www.science.ie/EN/index.cfm/section/news

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“Ardi” at the Addis Ababa Museum

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Map of South Africa

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Demographic Indicators* Country name: Republic of South Africa Location: Southern tip of continent of Africa, bordering the South Atlantic and

Indian Oceans Land boundaries: Border countries: Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia,

Swaziland, Zimbabwe Capitol: South Africa has three capital cities: Cape Town is the legislative

capitol; Pretoria is the administrative capital; Bloemfontein is the judicial capital

Area – Comparative: Slightly less than twice the size of Texas Net Migration Rate: 4.98 migrants per 1000 population Terrain: Vast interior plateau rimmed by rugged hills and narrow coastal plain Climate: Mostly semiarid; subtropical along the east coast; sunny days, cool

nights Maritime Claims: Territorial sea; continental shelf to edge of the continental margin Natural Resources: Gold, chromium, antimony, coal, iron ore, manganese, nickel,

phosphates, tin, uranium, gem diamonds, platinum, copper, vanadium, salt, natural gas

Environment- Current issues: Lack of important arterial rivers or lakes requires extensive water

conservation and control measures; growth in water usage outpacing supply; pollution of rivers from agricultural runoff and urban discharge; air pollution resulting in acid rain; soil erosion; desertification

Government Type: South Arica has a bicameral parliament: the National Council of Provinces and the National Assembly

Constitution: Starting in 1910 with unification, South Africa had its own parliament which passed laws specific for South Africa, building on those previously passed for the individual member colonies; a new constitution was certified in 1996, and signed by the new President, Nelson Mandela

Flag description: The current flag of the Republic of South Africa was adopted in April of 1994, at the beginning of the 1994 general election, chosen to represent the new democracy. The flag has horizontal bands of red and blue separated by a central green band which splits into a horizontal “Y” shape. The only symbolism in the flag is the V or Y shape, which can be interpreted as representing the hope of unity of diverse elements within South African society.”

*CIA. The World Factbook: South Africa, 2012

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Socio-Economic Indicators*

Population: 48 million (Estimates take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS

Age structure: 0-14 years: 29.2%; 15-64 years: 65.5%; 65 and older: 5.3% Median age: 24.2 years; male: 23.8 years; female: 24.6 years Population Growth Rate: .828% Net Migration Rate: 4.98 migrants per 1000 population (There is an increasing flow of Zimbabweans into South African and Botswana in search of better economic opportunities Ethnic Groups: Black African, 79%; White, 9.6%; Colored, 8.9%;

Indian/Asian 2.5% Religions: Zion Christian, 11.1%; Pentecostal/Charismatic, 8.2%;

Catholic, 7.1%; Methodist, 6.8%; Dutch Reformed, 6.7%; Anglican, 3.8%; Muslim, 1.5%; other Christian, 36%; None, 15.1% Languages: IsiZula, 23.8%; IsiXhosa, 17.6%; Afrikaans, 13.3%; Sepedi,

9.4%; English, 8.2%; Setswana, 8.2%; Sesotho, 7.9%; Xitsonga, 4.4%; Other, 7.2%

Life Expectancy at Birth: 48.89 years; males: 49.63 years; females: 48.15 years Major Infectious Diseases: Food or waterborne diseases; bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever Total Fertility Rate: 2.43 children per woman HIV/AIDS – Adult Prevalence Rate 21.5% Literacy Rate: 86.4% School Life Expectancy; 13 years; male 87%; female 85.7% Gross Domestic Product Per Capita: $9,700. Population Below Poverty Line: 50% Gross Domestic Product Growth Rate: 5.1% Labor Force by Occupation: Agriculture, 9%; Industry, 26%; Services, 65% Economy – Overview: South Africa is a middle-income, emerging market with an abundant supply of natural resources; well-developed financial, legal, communications, energy, and transport sectors; a stock exchange that is 17th largest in the world. However, unemployment remains high and outdated infrastructure has constrained growth. Daunting economic problems remain from the apartheid era – especially poverty, lack of economic empowerment among the disadvantaged groups, and a shortage of public transportation. Economic policy is conservative but pragmatic. CIA. The World Factbook: South Africa, 2012

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Brief History of South Africa* South African history has been dominated by the communication and conflict of several diverse ethnic groups. The aboriginal Khoisan people have lived in the region for millennia. Most South Africans trace their history to immigration since that earliest time. Indigenous Africans in South Africa are descendants of immigrants from further north in Africa who first entered what are now the confines of the country roughly one thousand years ago. White South Africans are descendants of later European settlers, mainly from the Netherlands and Great Britain. The Coloreds are descended at least in part from all of these groups, as well as from slaves from the then East Indies, and there are many South Africans of Indian and Chinese origin, descendants of laborers who arrived in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Great Britain took over the southern part of South Africa in 1795, seeking to use Cape Town in particular as a stop on the route to Australia and India. The discovery of diamonds in 1867 and gold in 1884 in the interior encouraged economic growth and immigration, intensifying the subjugation of the indigenous people. In 1948, the National Party was elected to power, and intensified the implementation of racial segregation that had begun under Dutch and British colonial rule. South Africa was under an official system of racial segregation and white minority rule from 1948, known as Apartheid, until its first egalitarian elections in 1994, when the ruling African National Congress came to dominate the politics of the country. Apartheid ended under the Presidency of F.W.de Klerk in 1990. The first democratic elections post-apartheid were held in 1994 and Nelson Mandela became President, serving in that capacity from 1994-1999. Thabo Mbeke held the Presidency from 1999-2008, when he resigned, and Kgalema Motlanthe completed Mbeke’s second term in office. From 2009 to the present, the President of South Africa is Jacob Zuma.

*CIA World Factbook: South Africa, 2012 *Wikipedia: History of South Africa

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Brief History of the University of Cape Town*

The University of Cape Town (UCT) is a public research university located in Cape Town in the Western Cape province of South Africa. UCT was founded in 1829 as South African College, and is the oldest university in South Africa and the second oldest university in Africa. The roots of UCT lie in the establishment of the South African College in 1829 as a school for boys. In 1918 South African College was elevated to full university status with the power to award degrees, and was renamed the University of Cape Town. The academic departments of UCT are divided into six faculties: Commerce, Engineering, Health Sciences, Humanities, Law, and Science. Each faculty is led by a Dean. According to many international ratings organizations, the University of Cape Town is the highest academically ranked African university. As of 2009, 23,500 students were enrolled, of which 28.5% were postgraduate students. The ratio between male and female students is almost exactly 50:50. White students make up 35% of the student population; non-white students constitute 65% of the student body. International students account for 19% of total student enrollment, representing over 100 counties.

*Wikipedia, 2012

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The Cunningham Foundation The Cunningham Foundation, established in 2003 by Noel and Tammy Cunningham, followed a visit to Yetebon, Ethiopia, in 2001. Noel and Tammy are a prominent business couple in Denver. Recently they were recognized by the Denver Sister Cities with the 2008 Friendship Award for their humanitarian work in Ethiopia. The Foundation’s primary mission is to help the “courageous people of the impoverished areas of Ethiopia to help themselves.” The Cunningham Foundation assists the Ethiopian people by partnering with them in organizing and initiating sustainable development projects. During the past few years, the Foundation has raised and contributed nearly $800,000 towards development projects in Ethiopia, and has inspired scores of Coloradans of all ages to become involved in these activities to contribute to the betterment of the human condition. The Foundation’s projects have provided unique opportunities to students for broadening their education, worldview, and service learning by actively participating in on-site development activities. Sadly, Noel Cunningham died in December of 2011. His wife, Tammy, continues the philanthropic work of the Cunningham Foundation.

Noel and Tammy Cunningham, founders of The Cunningham Foundation

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Project Mercy

Project Mercy, Inc., is a U.S.-based not-for-profit relief and development agency that promotes education, health care, and other holistic community development projects to create economically independent communities with high ethical and social values. By providing self-help programs, Project Mercy seeks to reduce the need for crisis-driven, emergency plans. Project Mercy strives to make the Yetebon people self-sufficient. The vision of Project Mercy is to create a community that empowers this generation and the generations to come.

The Yetebon community is located in the Gurage Zone in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPR) of Ethiopia. It is about 87 miles southwest of Addis Ababa. Yetebon is situated in the highlands at an altitude of 8000 feet. The total population of the surrounding area is approximately 70,000 people. The majority of people are Muslim – roughly 95 percent. Farming is the primary occupation of the people, producing most maize, wheat, sorghum, and enset. The two cash crops are pepper and chat.

The families in the community are very poor. In fact, most households earn less than $50 per year and live with conditions that put them in danger of contracting diseases. Most do not have access to clean drinking water since they obtain it from unprotected rivers, wells, and springs. Few households have latrines. Additionally, many households share their living quarters with domestic animals, causing the spread of many diseases. The goals of Project Mercy in Yetebon are four-fold. These goals focus upon improving nutrition, developing skills, providing healthcare, and enhancing education. Through drip irrigation and improved agriculture techniques, the people of Yetebon have a more nutritious, reliable food supply. A related new initiative is dairy cattle breeding. In an effort to combat malnutrition, Project Mercy seeks to increase milk production through dairy cattle crossbreeding. The skills enhancement program aids men and women to learn valuable trades such as masonry, carpentry, jewelry-making, cotton spinning, and embroidery. (For a further description of the jewelry-making initiative, see page 45 and the “Hope Bracelet” project.) The Glenn C. Olsen Primary General Hospital is a state-of-the-art facility located in the Project Mercy compound. It has been open and in full operation since 2004, providing outpatient and inpatient care. The primary causes for outpatient visits are ulcer disease, respiratory tuberculosis, and parasite infections. The inpatient services include surgery, pediatric care, obstetrics and gynecology, dentistry, HIV/AIDS, and maternal and child health care. The Medhane-Alem School, located in the Project Mercy compound, began in 1996 with 300 kindergarten students. Now, in the 2007-2008 year, there are nearly 1,500 students in the K-12th grades, with over 1,500 children seeking admission. The curriculum of this school not only includes academic subjects but also courses in sanitation, hygiene, and nutrition. A second school is presently in the planning stages.

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Project Mercy

New dormitory for the HIV/AIDS orphans

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4 Quarters for Kids

The Cunningham Foundation’s 4 Quarters for Kids program empowers high school students across Colorado to raise money for 1500 students at Project Mercy. Two thousand children will try to enroll this year at Project Mercy, with only room for 200 students. It costs only 4 quarters for a student to receive nutrition, education, and clothing for a day. This project was designed to inspire and to engage its students to be involved and to reach out to students like themselves in the developing world that don’t have the opportunity they have. The dream of this project is to provide education, breakfast, and lunch for 1500 students so that the students of Colorado can take this message to the other 49 states. Some fundraising ideas for this project are: carwashes, concerts, Battles of the Bands, Dash for Cash (students dash through their schools for 1-2 minutes to collect as many quarters as possible), Give up soda for a day, selling HOPE Heart Beads to replace corsages at Homecoming or Prom.

Neal Barsch and Hannah Merten Co-chairs, 4 Quarters for Kids, Cherry Creek High School

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Hope Bracelet Project

Tammy Cunningham with bracelets from Project Hope

With the help of bead-makers from the United States, women and students in Yetebon have learned the beautiful art of bracelet-making. Recently they have learned to make their own glass beads. The bracelets they design are sold in the United States. There is a limited supply of the Hope Bracelets as only 1000-1500 are produced per year. Each bracelet is marked with a bead that denotes the year it was made. The revenue from the bracelets has been used to build a dormitory for the 50+ children (orphaned or destitute) living on Project Mercy’s compound in Yetebon.

The U.S. partners in this endeavor include Tammy Cunningham, humanitarian friend of the project, contributing time, monies, and ideas for creation and distribution of the jewelry; Cindy Brown, bead-maker; Devon Billings, jewelry designer. Some of the students at Project Mercy have the opportunity to learn the art of glass bead-making which will enable them to make a living. These Heart Beads are sold in the United States for $25. American high school students have started wearing Heart Beads to school dances – a souvenir for the rest of their lives to replace their dying corsages.

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Sister Cities

President Eisenhower founded a program named “People to People” at the end of WWII after he had witnessed first-hand the devastation of war and intolerance of other cultures. His belief was that if citizens of the United States better understood different cultures, they would be more accepting of others’ beliefs and behaviors. His intention was to involve citizens and community organizations in international endeavors that would increase understanding and interpersonal relationships, possibly lessening the chance of future world conflicts. Denver’s commitment to citizen diplomacy predates Eisenhower’s “People to People” program with the first Sister City of Brest, France, being established in 1948. A Denver teacher visited the war-ravaged city of Brest after WWII and, when she returned to Denver, campaigned with her students to raise funds for a children’s medical clinic. Denver Sister Cities International became a nonprofit corporation in 1963 under the organizational name of “People to People Denver” and, in 1983, the name officially changed to Denver Sister Cities International. Denver, Colorado, has ten “sister cities” spread throughout the globe. Each of these ten was established by one or more Denver citizens who had a special passion for a particular city or region of the world. The following are the Denver “sister cities” with their year of establishment: Axum, Ethiopia (1995); Brest, France(1948); Chennai, India (1984); Cuernavaca, Mexico (1983); Karmiel, Israel (1977); Kunming, China (1985); Nairobi, Kenya (1975); Potenza, Italy (1983); Takayama, Japan(1960); Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia (2001).

Sister Cities’ Axum Park

in Denver, Colorado

Painting of the walls of a small building in Denver’s Axum Park

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Pen Pal Project Denver Sister Cities International currently connects Denver area youth of all ages with youth in our sister cities. At present, there is a pairing of two elementary classrooms for the Ethiopia Sister Cities – one an Axum, Ethiopia, elementary classroom paired with the children in the Governor’s Ranch Elementary School in Governor’s Ranch, Colorado. This classroom in the outskirts of Denver has been selected for the “Pen Pal Project” because of the presence of three Ethiopian children that were adopted by a couple in this area. These Ethiopian-American children are leading their classmates in sending notes and drawings to their age-mates in Axum, Ethiopia.

Children in Governor’s Ranch Elementary School preparing for their Pen Pal Project

with Hawelti School in Axum, Ethiopia

Rebecca Mitchell, director of the Sister Cities’ Pen Pal Project, with the Governor’s Ranch fourth grade teacher, Mrs. Amy Nelson

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City in a Suitcase Denver Sister Cities International is pleased to announce the renewal of the unique program, “City in a Suitcase.” This program presents the spirit of our Sister City of Axum, Ethiopia, to area elementary students, transporting Denver area youth around the globe with the sounds, sights, and tastes of cities like Axum, Ethiopia, and other of the Denver Sister Cities. A representative from the Axum Sister Cities board is available for presentations and will arrive in classrooms, often dressed in ‘traditional’ dress, with a suitcase containing items from Ethiopia, including music, cultural items, photos, videos, DVD’s, and food. The Axum Committee has compiled a wonderful collection of items from Axum that its members will take to schools throughout Denver. The purpose of “City in a Suitcase” is to provide an educational tool that will give children a hands-on experience with the music, food, landscape, and traditions of the Ethiopian culture.

Gloria Curtis demonstrates her Ethiopia “City in a Suitcase” program

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Clean Water Projects Axum has a serious sanitation problem that adversely affects the health of its residents. The city has a population of about 40,000 and is growing rapidly. Municipal water supply and sanitation are lagging behind and are unable to accommodate the rapid growth. With the assistance of Denver Water, the Water and Sanitation Consultancy Group, and other donor agencies, Axum is currently trying to tackle its municipal water supply problem. Unfortunately, improvements in sanitation have proven to be technically and financially challenging for the city. A 2003 feasibility study conducted by a team of experts from Denver found that virtually all privately owned hand dug water wells and deep boreholes within the city tested unsafe due to contamination from pit latrines that are often located near the wells. A sanitation study done in 1995 found that only 2% of the households in the city have flush toilets, 42% have traditional pit latrines, and the remaining 56% use open fields. The Axum Sister Cities Committee is working to help Axum improve its water sanitation issues. Local water and sanitation experts continue to provide advice to the municipality of Axum to follow up on their several visits and consultations over the past several years. The following are the water projects currently underway: 1. Septic truck project: The Axum Committee is working with the Ethiopian community to raise money for a septic truck for Axum and the surrounding community; 2. Proctor and Gamble PUR project: Teklay Gebremedhin, Ethiopian representative for this project, is distributing PUR packets each week to students at the Hawelti Elementary School, and conducting training on the use of these water purification products; 3. Leak detection equipment and pumps: Ethiopian Airlines is transporting donated leak detection equipment and pumps from Washington, D.C, to Addis Ababa. David Hubly of the Denver Sister Cities Axum Committee will transport this equipment to Washington, D.C.

Sister Cities’ Clean Water Project Leaders – (left to right) David Hubly, Tsegaye Hailu,

and Patrick Tucci

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Ethiopia Reads/Ethiopia Library Project*

Ethiopia Reads works to improve literacy in Ethiopia. Their mission is to create a reading culture in Ethiopia by connecting children with books. Three of the main components of this mission are the following:

1. To provide quality reading materials, as far as possible in local languages, in accessible locations with encouraging and supportive adult supervision;

2. To publish attractive books in local languages; 3. To promote literacy and the importance of reading.

Through publishing, training, and library development, Ethiopia Reads provides access to materials and environments that bolster reading and heighten educational opportunities to children in Ethiopia, where less than 50% of the population is estimated to be illiterate. Ethiopian Books for Children and Educational Foundation is the original name of the non-profit organization founded by Yohannes Gebregeorgis in 1998. The major specific programs in this initiative are as follows:

1. Shola Children’s Library – opened in 2003, Shola Children’s Library was the first free library for children in Ethiopia and it served boys and girls aged 3-18 six days per week;

2. Publishing Program – Ethiopia Reads produces high-quality, culturally authentic dual-language books for children, using original texts and illustrations as well as traditional folk tales that derive from Ethiopia’s rich cultural heritage;

3. Children’s Library Development – Since 2006 Ethiopia Reads has partnered with public and government schools to open free libraries for school children in Addis Ababa and Awassa. The goal is to establish as many libraries as possible per year throughout the country. One creative form of libraries is the establishment of the Donkey Mobile Libraries. These are small traveling libraries for children, literally pulled by donkies. These donkey libraries travel to children in rural villages.

Ethiopia Reads is based in Denver, Colorado, and has established more than three dozen libraries in schools throughout Ethiopia. The newest, a library in Mekele, Ethiopia, is the most ambitious project yet. The Ethiopia support base includes teachers and librarians from throughout the world, Ethiopian-Americans, families who have adopted children from Ethiopia, faith-based communities, Girl Scout troops, writers, artists, and others who believe that all children have a right to read.

*www.ethiopiareads.org/contact_us

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Children reading at the Shola Library in Addis Ababa First library for children established by Ethiopia Reads

Donkey Mobile Library

One of the several Donkey Mobile Libraries in Ethiopia established by Ethiopia Reads for remote areas of the country

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Mr. Yohannes Gebregeorgis, founder of Ethiopia Reads in front of his photo at the Ethiopia Reads office in Denver,

Colorado

Ms. Jane Kurtz, President of Ethiopia Reads

A writer and translator of children’s books for Ethiopia Reads

Ms. Tsilat Petros, enthusiastic administrator of Ethiopia Reads office

in Denver, Colorado

Masresha Kibret H. Michael Director of Ethiopia Reads in Addis

Ababa

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Metropolitan State University of Denver

The President of Metropolitan State University of Denver, Dr. Stephen Jordan

Metropolitan State University of Denver has signed a cooperation agreement with the University of Axum to provide faculty and student exchanges as well as to donate much needed textbooks for the library at the University of Axum. The University of Axum was founded in 2006 with 700 students. The planned total enrollment of the University of Axum is projected at 9300 students.

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Dr. Akbarali Thobhani, Executive Director of the Office of International Studies at Metropolitan State University of Denver

Responsible for crafting the cooperation agreement between the University of Axum and Metropolitan State University of Denver

The collaboration agreement between Metropolitan State University of Denver and the University of Axum calls for an exchange of scholars and students and for establishing links for research purposes. These visible fields for research, according to the president of Aksum University, are environment, tourism, urban planning, sanitation, history, and archeology.

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New classroom buildings and dormitories at the University of Axum

Axum University, located in the historic city of Axum, is one of the newest institutions of higher education in Ethiopia. It is an undergraduate university with an enrollment of about 5,000 students from all over the country. It has plans to expand to an enrollment of 9,300 students.

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Textbook Drive at MSU Denver for the University of Aksum

A textbook drive at Metropolitan State University of Denver netted nine tons of textbooks. Thai Intarakamhang and Alina Noga, work-study students, help with the

books. They were delivered to the University of Axum by the U.S. Department of Defense, Funded Transportation Program.

Empty shelves in the University of Axum library

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Gesseso School Project

Metropolitan State University of Denver committed to build a four-room school in the site of this two-room school that had served 100 students from grades one through eight. The persons from this town of Adowa, Ethiopia, pledged to build this proposed school with monies raised by our students and faculty.

These two classrooms built of branches each housed 50 students. This battlefield of 1896 is the site of the new MSU Denver/Gesseso elementary school.

This four-room school was dedicated in summer 2012.

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The “Connectors” – Ethiopian Tour Guides The tour guides are indispensable supports for various travel groups in Ethiopia. Most have college degrees with an emphasis in tourism. They have extensive knowledge of history, culture, and the day-to-day happenings in the country.

Nahome Bekele, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Dawit Tesfay, Axum, Ethiopia

Mahlet W. Tsadik, Addis Ababa

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University of Cape Town Participants

Amit Maken, University of Cape Town liaison with PRIME and student video participants

Neerali Gajjar Nokubonga Gumede Devaarne Muller

Mandisi Giadile Erin Goliath Kamil Prawlall

Pieter van Vuuren Alice Inggs

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The Videos: A Cross-Cultural Trilogy Dimensions of Culture: U.S., Ethiopia, South Africa The Meaningful Life: The Role of Helping Behaviors

The Pursuit of Happiness

The three short films that accompany this instructor’s manual – U.S./Ethiopian/South African Connections - compare the U.S, Ethiopia, and South Africa on several cultural dimensions.

The first film of the trilogy – Dimensions of Culture: U.S., Ethiopia, South Africa – examines Hofstede’s five dimensions of culture (Hofstede, 2010) as these dimensions are exemplified by U.S., Ethiopian, and South African college students and other adults. These five dimensions are:

1. Small vs. large power distance: This dimension measures perceptions of the people of the country as to the power distribution within the country. Does the average person perceive that he/she has any power?

2. Individualism vs. collectivism: This dimension describes the manner in which members of the culture define themselves individually or as parts of a group. This dimension has been found to move toward an individualist culture with increasing national wealth.

3. Masculinity vs. femininity: This dimension measures the values placed on traditionally masculine values – competitiveness, assertiveness, ambition, accumulation of wealth and possessions vs. feminine values – relationships and quality of life.

4. Weak vs. strong uncertainly avoidance: This dimension measures how much members of a society are anxious about the unknown.

5. Long vs. short-term orientation: This dimension looks at the focus of a culture on the future vs. the past and present.

Examples from this film will demonstrate significant cultural differences between the values of U.S., Ethiopian, and South African students and adults. As might be guessed, the U.S. tends to be considerably higher than Ethiopia on individualism and masculinity. Ethiopians are higher on collectivism and power distance. South Africans are more similar to Ethiopians on some dimensions; more similar to the U.S. on others. The second film – The Meaningful Life: The Role of Helping Behaviors – portrays U.S. and Ethiopian individuals and groups that provide services to others. The Cunningham Foundation, Denver-Axum Sister Cities, Ethiopia Reads, and MSU Denver Office of International Studies are all Denver-based organizations that have ties to Ethiopia. The leaders of these groups all describe their commitment to their organizations and their love of their work. Each exudes enthusiasm for their cause and demonstrates a belief in helping others to help themselves – not a hand-out but a working with and learning from the recipients of their services.

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The U.S. Declaration of Independence promises us life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The third of these films – The Pursuit of Happiness – compares Ethiopian and U.S. college students on their sources of happiness. In general, U.S. students emphasize acquisition of material goods; Ethiopian students stress relationships, collaboration with other students, and accessibility to education as being their main sources of happiness. These three films provide an introductory look at cultural similarities and differences as reflected by the video interviews that comprise this series. Each interviewee provides a lens into the cultural perspectives of that individual. Many more questions will be generated than answered. Hopefully, however, the ensuring discussions will be fruitful and invigorating.

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Classroom Discussion Questions

The following questions might trigger discussion with the college classroom concerning the materials presented in this trilogy of films – Dimensions of Culture: U.S, Ethiopia, South Africa; The Meaningful Life: The Role of Helping Behaviors; The Pursuit of Happiness

1. Does true altruism exist? Under what circumstances? 2. Are there cultural differences in altruistic behavior? Age differences in altruistic

behavior? 3. Is there evidence to support the following: “The seeds of a prosocial disposition

can be found in early childhood”? 4. What makes you happy? 5. What are your hopes for your children? 6. What do you believe most persons in the U.S. think is important in life? What do

you think is most important for Ethiopians? For South Africans? 7. Do you perceive that life is getting better in the U.S.? In Ethiopia? South Africa? 8. Do U.S. citizens have much power to change the government? Ethiopian citizens?

South African citizens? 9. Do the U.S., Ethiopian, and South African interviewees seem to differ in

masculine and feminine values? 10. Where does your culture lie on Hofstede's “Five Cultural Dimensions”? 11. Do you find yourself in agreement or at odds with your cultural values? If you are

not in agreement with your cultures’ values, what has caused the divergence? 12. List three cultural values or norms that you have observed within another culture

(other than your own). What are plausible historical or environmental reasons for these differences? Finally, research these cultural values to see if your explanation is correct.

13. The above cultural dimensions do not comprehensively address every aspect of culture. Describe another cultural dimension that examines culture from an aspect not explored in Hofstede's “Five Cultural Dimensions.”