1

USES AND IMPACT OF TRADITIONAL

COMMUNICATION AS EFFECTIVE TOOL FOR GRASS-

ROOTS MOBILIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH-

EAST NIGERIA

BY

ILO VINMARTIN OBIORA PG/M.Sc/08/53467

INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

ENUGU CAMPUS [

NOVEMBER, 2011.

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TITLE PAGE

USES AND IMPACT OF TRADITIONAL COMMUNICATION AS EFFECTIVE TOOL FOR GRASS-

ROOTS MOBILIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH-EAST NIGERIA

BY

ILO VINMARTIN OBIORA PG/M.Sc/08/53467

BEING PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF SCIENCE (M.Sc) DEGREE IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

ENUGU CAMPUS [

SUPERVISOR: PROF. IKECHUKWU E. NWOSU, Ph.D

OCTOBER, 2011.

3

CERTIFICATION

I, ILO VINMARTIN OBIORA, a postgraduate student in the Institute for

Development Studies with registration number PG/M.Sc/08/53467 has satisfactorily

completed the requirements for the course and research work for the award of Master

of Science (M.Sc.) Degree in Development Studies.

To the best of my knowledge, this work is original and has not been submitted in part,

or in full in this or any other University or Polytechnic for award of Degree or

Diploma.

………………………………..…….

ILO VINMARTIN OBIORA

………………………………….. Date

4

APPROVAL PAGE

This project was submitted by ILO VINMARTIN OBIORA, a postgraduate student

of Institute for Development Studies with registration number PG/M.Sc/08/53467 and

has been approved and accepted by the Institute for Development Studies, University

of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, Enugu.

…………………………………. …………………………………. PROF IKECHUKWU E. NWOSU (Supervisor) Date ………………………………….. …………………………………. PROF. OSITA OGBU Date Drector ………………………… …………………………… PROF. AUGUSTINE IKELEGBE Date (External Examiner)

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DEDICATION

This project work is entirely dedicated to God Almighty whom in His Infinite Mercy

gave me the strength and good health, throughout the duration of my Masters

Programme at the University of Nigeria Enugu Campus.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My profound gratitude goes to my project supervisor, Prof I. E. Nwosu, for his

meaningful contribution and vivid supervision of the manuscripts, comments and

constructive criticisms which were very helpful.

Special thanks to my darling wife for being so supportive in my academic pursuit. I

will not also hesitate to appreciate my beloved kids, for their understanding, patience,

endurance and co-operation throughout the period of my Masters programme, both

during the course - work and project report. Equally, I will not forget to acknowledge

the support extended to me by all the lecturers of the Institute for Development

Studies, especially Mr. B. D. Umoh who is currently the Deputy Director of the

Institute. All my colleagues, especially my good friends, Stanley ILBA Uzoh, and .

Collins C. Njoku and all my family members are equally appreciated for their

academic, spiritual, and moral support in whatever little way throughout the

programme.

Finally, my profound gratitude goes to Almighty God who is the Alpha and Omega,

giver of Wisdom and Knowledge, for His provision, guidance and protection

throughout my Masters Programme at University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, UNEC.

ILO VINMARTIN OBIORA PG/M.Sc/08/53467

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ABSTRACT

The study examines the uses and impact of traditional communication as effective tool for grassroots mobilization and development in South-East Nigeria. The study is predicated on the research problem that the Western modem mass media which have dominated the landscape of South East Nigeria have not been very effective in mobilizing the grassroots who are mostly rural, poor and illiterate for development. Adopting the survey research method using primary and secondary data sources a sample size of 200 dream from Enugu, Ebonyi and Anambra states, were selected for the study. Simple percentages, tables, frequencies and charts were used to analyze the data, while the Z-test statistics was used in testing the hypotheses, with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. The findings include traditional communication is useful and effective for grassroots mobilization and development; traditional communication or media tools exist for grassroots mobilization and development; traditional communication media can be strategically used to reach the rural populace; there are significant hindrances to effective utilization of traditional communication media; and there are policies and projects that boost the use and impact of tradition communication. The recommendations are effective needs assessment, effective use of traditional communication media to reach the grassroots given their low literacy level, for adequate awareness, sensitization and mobilization for development, proper funding of traditional communication to preserve cultural values and heritage, greater involvement of traditional institutions and persons for effective grassroots mobilization and development and integrated use of traditional and modern (tradomodern) communication for optimal grassroots mobilization and development.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page - - - - - - - i

Certification - - - - - - - - - ii

Approval Page - - - - - - - - iii

Dedication - - - - - - - - - iv

Acknowledgements - - - - - - - - v

Abstract - - - - - - - - - vi

List of Tables - - - - - - - - - x

List of Figures - - - - - - - - xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study - - - - - - 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem - - - - - - 3

1.3 Objectives of the Study - - - - - - 4

1.4 Research Questions - - - - - - - 4

1.5 Research Hypotheses - - - - - - - 5

1.6 Significance of the Study - - - - - - 5

1.7 Scope of the Study - - - - - - - 6

1.8 Limitation of the Study - - - - - - 7

1.9 Area of the Study - - - - - - - 7

References - - - - - - - - 9

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Conceptual Overview of Communication - - - - 11

2.2 Traditional Communication - - - - - - - 13

2.3 Taxonomy of Traditional Media System- - - - - 15

2.4 Problem within the Tradition System- - - - - 22

2.5 Functions of Traditional Communication - - - - 24

2.6 The Interactive Power of Local and Traditional Communication

Methods - - - - - - - - 26

2.7 From Traditional Communication to Modern Communication

Methods - - - - - - -- - - 33

2.8 Political Changes and the Media- - - - - - 39

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2.9 The Development of Television - - - - - 42

2.10 Possible Implications of Modern Mass for Traditional

Communication in a Nigeria Rural Setting- - - - - 45

2.11 Community Communication Patterns in Nigeria - - - 47

2.12 Grassroots Mobilization - - - - - - 58

2.13 Development - - - - - - - - 63

2.14 Theoretical Framework - - - - - - - 66

References - - - - - - - - 70

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design - - - - - - - 74

3.2 Research Method - - - - - - - 74

3.2.1 Primary Sources of Data - - - - - 74

3.2.2 Secondary Sources of Data - - - - - - 74

3.3 Sources of Data - - - - - - - 74

3.3 Population of the Study - - - - - - 75

3.4 Sample Size - - - - - - - - 75

3.5 Sampling - - - - - - - - 76

3.6 Validity of the Research Instrument - - - - - 76

3.7 Instrument Administration - - - - - - 76

3.8 Data Analysis - - - - - - - - 77

3.9 Test of Hypothesis - - - - - - - 77

3.10 Problems Encountered in the Field- - - - - - 77

References - - - - - - - - 78

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Presentation of Data - - - - - - - 79

4.1.1 Return Rate of Questionnaire - - - - - - 79

4.1.2 Sex - - - - - - - - - 80

4.1.3 Age - - - - - - - - - 82

4.1.4 Martial Status- - - - - - - - - 82

4.1.5 Education Qualification - - - - - - 82

4.1.6 Occupation - - - - - - - - 83

4.1.7 Knowledge of Traditional Media - - - - - 84

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4.1.8 Awareness of Traditional Media used in South East Nigeria 85

4.1.9 Available Traditional Media in South East Nigeria 86

4.1.10 Use of Traditional Media use in South East Nigeria 87

4.1.11 Effectiveness of Traditional Media in Grassroots Mobilization 88

4.1.12 Use of Traditional Media for Grassroots Mobilisation 89

4.1.13 Application of Traditional Media 90

4.1.14 Extent of Traditional Media Usage in Grassroots Development 91

4.1.15 Achieved Major Grassroots Projects 92

4.1.16 Positioning of Traditional Media Communication 94

4.2 Test of Hypotheses 103

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Use of Traditional Communication in Grassroots Mobilization 108

5.2 Traditional Media Tools and Grassroots Development 108

5.3 Strategic Role of Traditional Medial in Reaching Rural Populace 109

5.4 Hindrance to Effective Utilization of Traditional Media 110

5.5 Policies/Projects that Boost use of Trado-Media 110

References 112

CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Summary 113

6.2 Conclusion 113

6.3 Recommendations 114

6.4 Suggestions for Further Research 115

Bibliography 116

Appendix 121

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: Return Rate of Questionnaire 79

Table 4.2: Distribution by Sex 80

Table 4.3: Age Category of Respondents 81

Table 4.4: Distribution by Marital Status 82

Table 4.5: Distribution of Educational Qualification 83

Table 4.6: Distribution by Occupation 84

Table 4.7: Knowledge of Traditional Media 85

Table 4.8: Awareness of Traditional Media used in South East

Nigeria 86

Table 4.9: Available Traditional Media in South East Nigeria 87

Table 4.10: Use of Traditional Media for Grassroots Mobilisation 88

Table 4.11: Effectiveness of Traditional Media in Grassroots

Mobilization 89

Table 4.12: Use of Traditional Media for Grassroots Mobilisation 90

Table 4.13: Application of Traditional Media 91

Table 4.14 Extent of Traditional Media Usage in Grassroots

Development 91

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1 Return Rate of Questionnaire 80

Figure 4.2: Bar Chart Showing Sex Distribution of Respondents 80

Figure 4.3: Chart Showing Age Category of Respondents 81

Figure 4.4: Chart Showing Marital Status Distribution of

Respondents 82

Figure 4.5: Chart Classification of Respondents by Educational

Qualification 83

Figure 4.6: Chart Classification of respondents by Educational

Qualification 84

Figure 4.7: Knowledge of Traditional Media 85

Figure 4.8: Awareness of Traditional Media used in South East

Nigeria 86

Figure 4.9: Traditional Media use in South East Nigeria 87

Figure 4.10: Use of Traditional Media for Grassroots Mobilisation 88

Figure 4.11 Use of Traditional Media for Grassroots Mobilisation 89

Figure 4.12: Use of Traditional Media for Grassroots Development 89

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

In the words of Anidi (2007:197) communication is the process of expression within

and between a person, persons, group or groups. Chude (2007:144) opines that

communication takes place when information passes from a sender to a receiver and

the receiver acts or responds as a result of the information received. Man is a

communicating animal or being. He is therefore almost always engaged in one form

of communication or the other, in a near state of perpetuity and even in his sleep

(Nwosu, 2007:2). Thus, communication is central and critical to all human activities,

including social and grassroots mobilization and development. It is for this reason that

Okunna (2002:293). Submits that communication and development are so closely

interconnected that there can be no development without communication. This

dialectical relationship between communication and development has given rise to a

specialized field of communication known as development communication (Nwodu,

2007; Nwosu, 2007).

Development can be broadly conceptualized as the sustained elevation of an entire

society and system toward a better or more humane life (Todaro and Smith,2009;20).

Okunna (2002:295) rightly sbserves that effective development commincation

revolves around the concept of mobilization. Social mobilization entails identifying

with, wining the commitment of and pooling together a mass of people to pursue well

conceived goals and behavior patterns likely to enhance their wellbeing and/or

jettison a particular goal or behaviour pattern considered to be inimical to them

(Nwodu, 2007:42). Socal or grassroots mobilization is persuasive in nature. It falls

within the ambit of persuasive communication, which serves the primary purpose of

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softening the ground for effective take off of individual and national development. At

best, social mobilization serves as a forerunner or precondition for social change

(Nwodu, 2007:42).

Thus, when people are adequately informed about opportunities that abound within

and outside their locality, there is need to further persuade them to take practical steps

towards harnessing such opportunities to better their lot. The notion of grassroots

mobilization therefore operates on the premise that those living at the periphery where

poverty, hunger, disease and sundry socio-economic vices are more pronounced need

to be sensitized, energized and motivated to participate in development programmes

and projects with a view to improving the quality of their lives (Nwodu, 2007:42).

Social or grassroots mobilization is a communication action. Thus, the message code

needs to be properly conceived and delivered in order to bring about the desired social

change for human, community, rural, urban, state, and national development. The

grassroots are the ordinary people (Longman, 2007:707). The grassroots are in both

the rural and urban areas, but more in the rural areas of South-East Nigeria afflicted

by the vicious cycle of poverty and what Chambers (1983;112) calls the deprivation

trap of poverty, physical weakness, vulnerability, powerlessness, and isolation. Since

the grassroots are also afflicted by the scourge of illiteracy and ignorance, it stands to

reason that the traditional communication media which people are familiar with and

understand should be used in communicating and mobilizing them for development

purposes.

Traditional media are communication channels which reflect a people’s culture. They

were not introduced to the people like the mass media, but are part of the people

(Nwabueze, 2007;63: Nwodu and Nwanmuo, 2006;130). Traditional media which

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have also been identified as folkmedia or Oramedia (Ugboajah, 1985) include the

town crier, church, village square, market place, Igwe-in-council, dance or music,

divination, native language, proverbs, folklores, etc.

Traditional media make it possible for messages to be packaged and transferred in

locally popular artistic forms. This can be rivaled by any other means of

communication with regard to reaching the ruralities. Example exist where song,

drama, dance groups and the like are used to promote campaigns against social evils

such as child and women trafficking, alcoholism, burden some dowries,

discrimination against women, archaic taboos e.t.c. or for encouraging advances in

farming, health, nutrition and family welfare, agricultural reforms, national

integration and similar goals.

From the foregoing, one can therefore, see that traditional communication is

indisputably a veritable tool for grassroots mobilization and development.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The mass media, like everything Western, have dominated the political, socio-cultural

and development space of South East Nigeria. But they have not been effective in

communicating and mobilizing the grassroots who are mostly rural, poor and illiterate

for development. Consequently, there is a pervasive sense and feeling of alienation

and marginalization by the grassroots which portends grave danger to South East

Nigeria. This is because the logic of national security is even development of both

urban and rural areas, moreso as the rural areas are the food basket and resource base

of the nation and “poverty anywhere is a danger to prosperity everywhere, and

prosperity anywhere must be shared everywhere”.

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Thus, the traditional media which are rooted in the people’s culture are considered

vey effective or more effective in grassroots mobilization for participatory

development, especially with the global paradigm shift to bottom-up approach to

development and glocalisation (which is contextualizing global events to local

situations).

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The following are the objectives of this study:

1. To find out if traditional communication can be used as an effective tool for

grassroots mobilization and development;

2. To identify trado-media tools for grassroots mobilization and development;

3. To determine if traditional media can be strategically used to reach the rural

populace;

4. To ascertain the possible hindrances to effective utilization of traditional

media; and

5. To determine the policies/projects that can be implemented to boost the use of

trado-media in the South East Nigeria.

1.4 Research Questions

The following are the research question for this study:

1. Can traditional communication be used as an effective tool for grassroots

mobilization and development?

2. What are the trado-media tools for grassroots development in South East?

3. How can traditional media be used strategically to reach the rural populace in

the South East Nigeria?

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4. Are there any hindrances to effective utilization of traditional media

communication?

5. Are there policies or projects that can be implemented to boost the use of

traditional communication media in achieving grassroots mobilization and

development in the South East?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The following are the hypotheses (stated in their null) for this study

H01: Traditional Communication Media cannot be used for effective grassroots

mobilization and development.

H02: There are no particular traditional communication media tools for grassroots

development.

H03: Traditional communication media cannot be strategically used to reach the

rural populace.

H04: There are no significant hindrances to effective utilization of traditional

communication media.

H05: There are no particular policies/project to boost the use of traditional

communication media

1.6 Significance of the Study

The significance of the study cannot be overemphasized. It is so significant in the

following ways:

This will enable the agencies concerned with grass root mobilization and development

to known how powerful traditional communication can be as an effective public

relations tools that can be used for winning and sustaining the trust, confidence,

support and co-operation for any grass root policy, plan or project.

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This study will bring to the importance of traditional form of communication as

veritable tool that can be used to successfully execute their project and programmes at

the grass root level. This knowledge will equally help them (development

partners/agencies) to appreciate the importance people attach to their culture and

language, especially, the dialect peculiar to a particular area. This will further help

them to select the right channel, right people and make adequate budget that will

enable whatever programme /project targeted at the rural populace to record

immeasurable/unquantifiable success.

The study will enable the rural dwellers to compare and contrast between modern and

traditional communication which is better and more effective in brining development

to their areas. Whichever form of communication that has more advantage will inform

the rural dwellers; preference and usage. However, the power and imperativeness of

traditional communication would still be established for appreciation by the rural

dweller

This study will serve as reference materials for further studies by the researchers and

scholar. Incase, there are areas or issues that are perceived not to be treated in detail or

comprehensively, the study will help to elicit curiosity, capable of inciting research

interest in this area.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on three states of South-East Nigeria, namely, Enugu, Anmbra and

Ebonyi.

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1.8 Limitation of the Study

This study is constrained by the poor and difficult road infrastructure of the South-

East region. Also, the field work was carried out during the rainy season which

impeded progress. Furthermore, there was the challenge of communication, as some

of the respondents could not speak or understand English, necessitating the

engagement of local interpreters.

1.9 Study Area

THE South East geopolitical zone, comprising Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and

Imo states, is one of the most homogenous and cohesive geopolitical zones in Nigeria.

The zone covers the bulk of the Igbo-speaking ethnic territory or Igboland, the

remainder of which extends westwards into Delta State and southwards into Rivers

State. The zone also includes a few non-Igbo speaking communities on the northern

and eastern borders. In pre-colonial times, Igbo land maintained a strong organic

unity, with strong genetic and cultural linkages among the communities and deep

interpenetration of their societies and economies through migration and trade. Under

colonial rule and from independence until 1976 the area was administered as part of

the Eastern Region, with the creation of a 12 state structure in 1967.

It became a state of its own as the East Central state, but could not attain full

operational status until the end of the civil war in 1970. Progressive state creation

restructured the area into two, then four, then five states. Through all this, the area and

its people have retained a recognizable identity and character within the Nigeria

nation state.

By territorial size, the South East zone is by far the smallest in Nigeria, accounting for

mere 3.2% of the national space. However, the 2006 census data credited it with

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11.7% of the population; given it a population density nearly four times the national

average. High population pressure is indeed one of the basic facts of life in the zone.

Analysis of migration data shows that the South East is a zone of strong net

emigration, with some 15% of persons born in the zone resident outside the zone and

only 5% of the residents of the zone coming from outside the zone. The zone

contributes significantly to the population of all major cities, industrial and market

centres in Nigeria. The number of those migrating abroad is rising, such that the Igbo

in Diaspora are becoming a major factor in the politics and economy of the South East

zone and Nigeria (AIAE, 2007, NPC, 2006).

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REFERENCES

African Institute for Applied Economics, AIAE (2007), Memorandum for the Establishment of South East Nigeria Economic Commission, SENEC, Enugu: AIAE.

Anidi, O. (2007), “Utilization of Projected Media in Effective Classroom

Communication: A Sustainable Human Development perspective” in Nwosu, I. E., Fab-Ukozor, N. T. and Nwodu, L. C. (eds) Communication for Sustainable Human Development, Enugu: African Council for Communication Education, ACCE.

Chambers, R. (1983), Rural Development: Putting the Last First, Harlow: Longman

Group, UK Limited. Chude, C. (2007), “Communication, Culture and Sustainable Human development” in

Nwosu I. E., Fab-Ukozor, N. T. and Nwodu, L. C. (eds) Communication for Sustainable Human Development, Enugu: African Council for Communication Education, ACCE.

Longman (2007), Dictionary of Contemporary English, Harlow: Pearson Education

Limited. National Population Commission, NPC (2006), 2006 Census Figure, Abuja: NPC. Nwabueze, C. (2006), “Synergizing the Traditional and Modern mass Media for

Sustainable Development Communication in Africa” in Nwosu, I. E. and Nsude, N (eds) Trado-Modern Communication Systems, Enugu: Immaculate Publications Limited.

Nwabueze, C. D. (2007), “Role of the Traditional Media in Grassroots Mobilization

and Poverty Reduction for sustainable Human Development” in Nwosu I. E., Fab-Ukozor, N. T. and Nwodu, L. C. (eds) Communication for Sustainable Human Development, Enugu: African Council for Communication Education, ACCE.

Nwodu, L. C. (2007), “Managing Development Communication Campaign for

Sustainable Human Development” in Nwosu I. E., Fab-Ukozor, N. T. and Nwodu, L. C. (eds) Communication for Sustainable Human Development, Enugu: African Council for Communication Education, ACCE.

Nwosu, I. E, (2007), “Principles Methods Models and Theories of Sustainable Human

Development: An Afro-Centric Overview and Introduction of the Synergistic Communication for Development Strategy” in Nwosu I. E., Fab-Ukozor, N. T. and Nwodu, L. C. (eds) Communication for Sustainable Human Development, Enugu: African Council for Communication Education, ACCE.

Okunna, C. S. (2002), Teaching Mass Communication: A Multi-Dimensional

Approach, Enugu: New Generation Books.

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Todaro, M. P. and Smith, S. C. (2009), Economic Development, Tenth Edition, Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.

Ugboajah, F. (1985), “Oramedia in Africa” in Ugboajah, F. (ed) Mass Communication

Culture and Society in West Africa, Lagos: Hassel Publishers. Vanfemark, J.F. and Leth, P.C (1977): Interpersonal Communication; London:

Cummings Publishing Company. Wilson, D. (1987): “Traditional Systems of Communication in Modern African

Development: An Analytical View point”, African medical Review; Vol. 1, No. 2.

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

It is imperative in any research study, to review relevant and related materials of other

authors, as this will help to enrich and strengthen the substance or content of the

study. Among the key issues that will be reviewed here, include: Communication in

general; Traditional Communication; and Public relations.

2.1 Conceptual Overview of Communication

The concept, “communication” is central to all forms of human interactions-cum-

endeavours. It is a two-way interactive process, between the sender and receiver

which involves the sharing of ideas and experiences (Nwodu, 2007;38). According to

Oso (2002:198), communication is an important resource of any social organization.

This is true given that communication, irrespective of the level or setting carries with

it meaningful messages that could lead to healthy exchange of ideas, knowledge,

feedings, experience and other factual information (Nwodu, 2007:38).

Communication relates to exchange of facts, opinions or emotions by two or more

persons and in organization, it could be words, letters, symbols or messages, in a way

that one organization member shares meaning and understanding with another

(Akpala, 1990). Koontz and O’ Donell (1968) agree that communication is a transfer

of information from one person to another but only if the information is

understandable by the receiver.

Communication maintains and animates life. It is also the motor and expression of

social activity and civilization, it leads people and peoples from instinct to inspiration,

through unregulated process and system of enquiry, command and control (Umueri

and Galadima, 2008; 40). Communication creates a common pool of ideas,

24

strengthens the feeling of togetherness through exchange of messages and translates

thought into action. It integrates knowledge, organization and power and runs as a

thread linking the earliest memory of man to his noblest aspiration through constant

striving for a better life (Umueri and Galadima, 2008;40).

The importance of communication in organization is expressed in the saying that a

manager can make good decisions, think out well conceived plan, establish a sound

organization structure and even be well liked by his associates because he appreciates

the social system of the organization, but if he cannot communicate or give orders

properly, as some call it, all these will fail the organization’s achievement of its

objectives (Massie and Douglas, 1972).

Communication is an activity that one as a manager will have to do a lot of indeed,

one study found that 81% of a manager’s time in a typical work day is spent on

communicating (Kiricki and Williams, 2003).

The fact that managers do a lot of communicating does not mean they do it well or

that they are necessarily good at it- that is, that they ate efficient or effective. You can

transmit your message accurately in the least time. You are an Effective

communicator when your intended message is accurately understood by the other

person. Thus, you may well be efficient in sending a group of people a reprimand by

e-mail. But it may not be effective if it makes them angry so that they can’t absorb its

meaning.

From the above analogy, the can see why it is important to have an understanding of

the communication process.

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2.2 Traditional Communication

There is often a certain degree of semantic and conceptual confusion and

misapprehension surrounding what constitutes traditional communication, arising

from the use of 'traditional' as a qualifier in discussing communication systems

generally. The general notion or implication, also arising from this confusion and

misapprehension, is often that of outdated or perhaps primitive systems of

communication which still have surviving relies in most Third World countries. This

same view often envisages traditional systems as being mutually antagonistic to what

is generally known as modern systems of communication. But the truth is that

although the systems may be old and different, in their principles, from the new

systems introduced from abroad, they remain what essentially sustain the information

needs of the rural which represent over 70% of the national populations of most Third

World states.

The underlying fallacies behind such thinking are based on certain assumptions

regarding what is traditional and what is modern. The basic assumption here as

Gusfield (1973:333) has pointed out is that of seeing 'existing institutions' and values,

the content of traditional 'as impediments to changes' and obstacles to modernization'.

Other related and rather fanciful theories include the view that old traditions are

usually displaced by new changes, and that traditional and modern forms of a culture

are always in conflict Although scholars on both sides of the opinion divide often

sound as if tradition and modernity were mutually exclusive in content, there is very

little to bear them out as practical support for such extreme views. It is important to

note that in social contexts, conflicts often arise not necessarily because one form is

old and the other new, but because human beings usually resist change of any sort.

26

The truth is that there will always be social conflicts irrespective of the chronological

age of the concepts involved. It is therefore the view of this paper that what

constitutes traditional communication is not necessarily a matter of 'age', civilization

or 'technology', conflicting with change, but rather a system which can be viewed

within a communication continuum of the type suggested by Ray Browne and

reported by Michael Rael (1977). Browne refers to this continuum as the Cultural

Lens' where culture is viewed from a focal perspective which delineates four

spectrums: folk, elite, popular and mass. Browne's categorization is faulty and

restrictive from the point of view of a sense of distance created by the 'lens'. It is

perhaps more rewarding to view this traditional/modern communication dichotomy

from the point of view of a series of concentric circles with the folk (or traditional)

communication occupying the innermost circle and mass communication the

outermost circle. With this the limiting sense of distance is replaced by a sense of

convergence and sharing of characteristics which is the point of view shared by this

paper. Thus it is useful to see the- system as traditional from the standpoint of an on-

going, long-standing and 'modernized' (modified) practice. There is also a need to see

traditional media systems as those which have defied all efforts by western media to

cannibalize them and perhaps supplant them. These traditional systems are also

trusted and the majority of the people seem to believe in what comes out of them and

usually use them and supplement them with whatever additional information may

filter through opinion leaders about events elsewhere.

The word system is used here to refer to an assemblage or combination of media and

channels to form a complex whole: a coordinated body of methods of communication

used within a society. Here the constituent parts have certain attributes which relate

them to one another. Thus the traditional system of communication is a continuous

27

process of information dissemination, entertainment and education used in societies

which have not been seriously dislocated by western culture or any other external

influence as is the case in many parts of the world. The system even operates in urban

centres which have accepted to manipulate western media system for the purpose of

enhancing the socio-economic development of these areas. Thus some methods of

communication which hitherto belonged to the traditional system no longer operate

because social and economic activities have made it possible to create the contexts of

them. For example, communication with fire as a means of attracting attention or

notifying a neighbouring community of an event does not seem to have a place today

in any of our societies except perhaps among the mountain tribes and among hunters

and adventurers in some places. Finally, the traditional system of communication also

refers to the mode of control (ownership) and model. It is important to note here that

under the traditional system, ownership of the means (media/channels) of

communication lies with the society. The village/clan head only acts as a trustee and

head of the gate keeping process.

2.3 Taxonomy of Traditional Media Systems

Studies and research into traditional media systems are relatively recent. Earlier

mentions of these systems were limited in scope and superficial. The most important

early study of traditional communication systems was L.W. Pyes (1963) Models of

Traditional, Transitional and Modern Communication System'. Subsequent references

to this all-important but neglected aspect of communication were also by Euro-

American scholars like Hachten (1971). Ainslie (1966), Head (1974, Wilcox (1975),

and Doob (1966), who though not deeply interested in the subject except for its

anthropological value, nevertheless acknowledged the existence and use of traditional

systems in most of the Third World. Nonetheless, serious academic efforts, though

28

noticeable in undergraduate project reports in some Nigerian Universities, did not

come into the fore until the early seventies when Ugboajah (1972) began to call

attention to this neglected but powerful communication systems that the western

media barons have refused to recognize. It was not until 1981 when Wilson working

in the Cross River area of Nigeria approached this virgin land through a systematic

study, classification, analysis and understanding of the various media processes and

content within the traditional context. The Theatre Workshop experimentation

recommended by experts in Botswana in 1979 and recent studies by Nwunell (1981)

have also contributed to our knowledge of the traditional media system. It is

becoming clearer to scholars on both sides of the socioeconomic divide (The First and

Third Worlds) that a clear understanding of the structures, patterns, processes and

uses of such media could enhance the multiple application of such channels for

human and national growth.

The town crier, a popular misnomer for the traditional emissary newsman, is perhaps

the most ubiquitous and electric in terms of role in the traditional society and so-

called modem society which will become to-morrow's 'primitive' or 'traditional'

society. The persons who function under this umbrella term perform various other

mutually dependent and self-defining roles.

They are news reporters, correspondents, news agents, messengers (emissaries),

spokesmen (or women), envoys (ambassadors), contact men, couriers, postmen,

broadcasters, heralds and also perform other related roles. There are numerous

traditional forms of communication in Nigeria's old Calabar province. These are the

various forms which the fabled town crier employs in his different communication

roles. They can be broadly divided into eleven classes, namely:

29

(i) Idiophones

(ii) Membranophones

(iii) Aerophone

(iv) Symbolography

(v) Signals

(vi) Signs

(vii) Objectifies

(viii) Colour Schemes

(ix) Music

(x) Extra-mundane communication

(xi) Symbolic displays

(i) Idiophones: These are self-sounding instruments or technical wares which produce

sound without the addition or use of an intermediary medium. The sound or

message emanates from the materials from which the instruments are made and

they could be shaken, scratched, struck, pricked (pulled) or pressed with the feet. In

this group we have the gong, woodlock, wooden drum, bell and rattle,

(ii) Membranophones: These are media on which sound is produced through the

vibration of membranes. They include all varieties of skin or leather drum. These

drums are beaten or struck with well-carved sticks. Among the various Nigerian

groups, skin drums of various sizes and shapes abound. Perhaps the most popular,

because it is the most exposed and intricate in its craftsmanship, is the Yoruba

talking drum, locally called 'dundun'

(iii) Aerophones: These are media which produce sound as a result of the vibration of

a column of air. They comprise media of the flute family, whistle reed pipes, horns

and trumpets,

30

(iv) Symbolography: This simply means symbolic writing or representation.

Communication takes place when an encorder uses graphic representations to

convey a message which is understood within the context of a known social event

and an accompanying verbal message. It is a descriptive representational device

forconveying meaning. There are three main kinds of symbolography used among

the Cross River people (the Efik-Ibibio-Igbo) namely:

(a) The fresh unfolding frond of the palm tree usually with a greenish yellow colour.

It is tied and shaped in different ways to convey different meanings. (Apendix B:3)

a decorated stick make from the outer part of the dry branch of the raffia palm tree.

It is called Nsadang among the people of old Calabar the third is a kind of cryptic

writing used among the Cross River people and in the border areas of Western

Cameroun. The following 'uli' (Igbo) writings are examples which are used in wall

painting as well as on cloth:

=: woman =; man =s love =quarrel

(v) Signals: These are the physical embodiments of a message. Many ancient signals

are still being used for modern communication today. For example, in Nigeria,

there is hardly a broadcasting station which does not utilize drum signals to draw

the attention of its listeners to the fact that they are about to begin transmission

for the day, deliver their main news broadcast or announce time, close down or

prepare for the broadcast of the local or national leader. Some of the signals

include fire, gunshots, canon shots, drum (wooden or skin).

(vi) Signs: Marks which are meaningful, or objects or symbols used to represent

something are signs. It is a construct by which organisms affect the behaviour or

state of another in a communication context. Sign language (i.e. a system of

human communication by gestures) has been developed for the deaf. While signs

31

are more likely to be symbolic in certain contexts, symbols are not signs. Signs

are associated with specific denotative meanings while symbols usually carry

along with them connotative meanings as well. Ross (1962:164-165) says

symbols... require an interpreter who knows something of the system by virtue of

which the symbol has meaning. Natural signs require an interpreter who knows a

theory, or general law, in terms of which the sign is an index of the existence of

something else. (vii) Objectifies: Media presented in concrete forms which may

have significance for a specific society only or may be universal through their

traditional association with specific contextual meanings. These include: kola

nut, the young unopened bud of the palm frond, charcoal, White Pigeon or fowl,

white egg, feather, cowries, mimosa, flowers, sculptures, pictures, drawing, the

flag etc.

(viii) Colour schemes: This is the general conception and use of combination of

colours in a design to convey some meanings. Colour uses the advantages of

pictorial communication by combining the speed of its impact and freedom from

linguistic boundaries to achieve instant and effective communication. Among the

prominent colours used to communicate different meanings among the Cross

River people are: red, white black, green, yellow, brown and turquoise.

Combinations of these colours produce certain significant meanings for the

society. Since colours play an important role in modern advertising, greater

attention will continue to be given to them in the fields of science, industries,

advertising, public relations and social communication.

(ix) Music: Itinerant musical entertainment groups sing satirical songs, praise songs,

and generally criticize wrong doings of individuals in society. Names of those

being satirized or praised may be mentioned or descriptions of their physical or

32

personality attributes, where they live, or what they do may form part of such

songs. Grapevine stories concerning events that are being planned for the society

may be featured as a way of alerting the generality of the people. Such groups as

itembe, kokoma, ekpo, ekong and age grade choral groups perform these

functions. They are potent sources of information and the latest gossip. This is as

Jacobson (1969:334) points out 'an unconsummated symbol which evokes

connotation and various articulation, yet is not really defined'.

(x) Extra-mundane communication: This is the mode of communication between the

living and the dead, the supernatural or supreme being. This is usually done

through incantation, spiritual chants, ritual, prayers, sacrifice, invocation, seance,

trance, hysterics or liberation. This is a multi-dimensional communication

transaction which has become more pervasive in all societies most especially in

Africa. Cultural ritual performance evokes intensity of emotion which may lead

to a temporary spiritual transmigration of the participants as in religious or

spiritual ceremonies. Such a performance conveys the elements of a cultural

celebration, dedication and consecration as is often witnessed in marriage and

funeral rites. Modem forms of extramundane communication are found in

obituary and in memorial notices published in newspapers, magazines or on radio

and television.

(xi) Symbolic displays: These would be cultural-specific or may have universal

significance and some of their characteristics are shared even with primates e.g.

smiling, sticking out the tongue, expression of anger, disgust, happiness, and fear,

the way we walk, or sit, gestures we use, voice qualities and other facial

expressions. In addition many traditional institutions, clubs or societies are also

used for the purpose of disseminating information, passing on gossips, rumours

33

and at times highly confidential information. These institutions operate in both

urban and rural areas. But most prominently some of them are found in urban and

rural areas especially the following: cooperative societies, esusu (Osusu),

clan/town/village/family unions, ethnic unions, voluntary organisations, drinking

clubs, old students associations, market women's associations, traders

associations, religious groups, men only, and women only clubs, secret societies,

cults, sports clubs, recreational clubs, age traders, choral groups, self-help group,

occupational groups and many others which may fall within any one or more of

the groups listed and whose objectives may not be for communication purposes

but whose activities are directly linked with communication.

Perhaps it is important to note here that such international organisations as the

Rosicrucian (Amorc) order, Rotary, Lions, Inner-Wheel, Lodges, Religious

denominations, Pyrates or the National Association of Seadogs, and the Palm Wine

Drinkers Clubs scattered all over educational institutions throughout Nigeria are such

powerful social, religious and political organisations that some of them even run

newspapers, magazines, or newsletters which circulate widely among members and

nonmembers. This in addition to the communication transaction that takes place when

the members of the organizations meet. Some of them have other means by which

members communicate among themselves either for good or for bad. It is however

possible for one man to be a member of almost all the clubs around him, some of

whose activities he may not necessarily participate in.

The most important aspect of these organizations is that they are engaged in a lot of

communication activities. It is however clear from the examples given that opinion

leadership plays a vital role in the communication transaction that takes place within

34

each organization. In some cases members get advanced information on policy

matters before the Government officially makes its stand known.

The merits and demerits of these societies can only be seriously considered within the

impersonal context of national security and development and perhaps then can the

personal interests of groups be seen to make sense if their activities in no way threaten

the existence of the larger society.

2.4 Problems within the Traditional System

At the present time numerous problems afflict the traditional media system, thereby

retarding its growth and development and its consequent adoption as a universal

scheme. Chief among these problems is the lack of a standard technical vocabularly in

the description, analysis and conceptualization of the media/channels and processes of

the traditional communication system.

Related to the above is the absence of an appropriate language which can be

universally applied in this description. Since most African countries have one foreign

language or another as a medium of general expression along with hundreds of other

(indigenous) languages, it is difficult to categorise the system using acceptable

linguistic codes. Three options are open to the researcher/scholar namely: (i) retaining

and using indigenous names along with descriptive labels in one of the international

languages especially the one spoken in the researcher's country, (ii) using only

descriptive labels in the former colonial language spoken in the country of the

researcher, and (iii) inventing or coining alternative words, perhaps based on known

models of related media/channels and then validating these coinages at international

conferences and through promulgation.

35

Another problem which afflicts the traditional system is the diversity in the traditional

political system, and the conflict between it and the adopted system which usually

requires the use of western media structures, policies and facilities. Political

instability which results from the lack of a long tradition of legitimization of the new

political processes has also been the bane of traditional communication. The central

authority usually undermines the traditional system thereby bringing about a babel of

voices. In Iran, for example, even though the reign of the former shah had a legitimate

basis, the House of Palavi had certain antitraditional Islamic practices which

eventually led to the people's revolt and the subsequent overthrow of the Shah. With

the people in control, and with over 5,000 mosques in Teheran alone, the Ayatollahs

(high islamic clergymen) used these channels for religious, social and political

communication.

The Ayatollahs are legitimised through the Islamic process (Islam being a state

religion) in spite of the existence of Bahai and Christian faithful, and thus the people

have been able to exercise control over the activities of the army which is a secular

institution. Yet in the political context messages can be deliberately distorted to

reflect the interests of the gatekeepers as so often happens with western media

practice (Mowlana, 1983). The social-economic level of the society dictates the nature

of communication that obtains in that society. African societies are at various levels of

socio-economic development. The media/channels used in each society depend on

what the citizens can create and have chosen as the standard for their own society.

The level of socio-economic activity in a society, no doubt, influences the

communication activity of the society but this does not support the 'limited reach and

effectiveness' thesis which is often bandied to discredit these potent sources and

36

channels of communication in rural societies. Scientific and technological problems

also affect traditional communication. The present level of development of media and

channels of communication in society is limited because some of the technical

hardware are not easily preserved even though they can be replicated. Here is one area

where traditional scientists and technologists have not shown enough creativity and

inventiveness to create a dynamic culture. In some cases no two disparate societies are

known to use exactly the same hardware for the dissemination of information on

related issues. Replicability of message is slower since the system has not been fully

developed. As for now the audience is not as heterogeneous, amorphous and widely

dispersed as the audience of western media when viewed from western social

perspectives. But there is the potential that it can be made so if certain structures and

hardware within the system are altered and made more dynamic.

2.5 Functions of Traditional Communication

The traditional communication system is a complex one whose functions transcend

the ordinary oracular postulations of western theorists. Since the system functions as

part of the larger sociopolitical organization, reporting on and criticizing organs

within the system, issuing directives from the legitimate, or in some cases titular,

head, and providing education in the areas of the norms and mores of the society,

stimulating the emotions and generally providing the light to innovations and helping

their diffusion, its functions are more diverse and far-reaching than is often admitted.

The real problem lies in the ability of scholars to detach themselves from western

theories, and in turn detach traditional media system in a certain sense from the

general current of activities within the society and see it as a unique system which

needs a greater study and understanding.

37

Nevertheless some key functions and characteristics of the system are easily

discernible. First, it mobilizes the people at the grassroots level towards community

development and national consciousness. No serious mass-oriented programme over

succeeds without the active involvement of the practitioners within the traditional

system. Much of the failure that attends government mass-oriented programmes are

traceable to the fact that policy makers at the national level fail to utilize this powerful

and credible system. Secondly, it is a source of cultural, political, health and other

educational and enlightenment programmes for the masses leading them towards self-

actualization and national development. As has been pointed out above no real

success visits such programmes without the system being involved. Policy makers

make some vague pronouncements on this score but they never really see to the

execution of their decision.

Thirdly, it is a source of entertainment through arts and cultural festivals, musicals

and dramatic performances by choral and masquerade groups and other music and

drama-oriented groups. For example, the Ekpo masquerade group which provides

entertainment musically and in the area of dance drama also thrills even in its re-

enactment of spiritual ceremonies. The shrines and oracles are places where the

educational function is also performed along with entertainment.

Fourthly, it is used for intra-cultural, intercultural and other communication purposes

leading to group and national unity. The yam festivals in various parts of southern

Nigeria, the Oshun Festival in Oshogbo and the Argungu Fishing Festival in Sokoto

are all examples of large traditional communication set-ups which bring about

intercultural and even mass communication.

38

Fifthly, it gives expression to cultural and other activities of the different parts of a

nation. Through festivals, for example, wide aspects of a cultural system are exposed

to other cultures and greater understanding and appreciation of differences takes

place. Through this, cross-cultural fertilization takes place and the society and

mankind in general becomes better off.

From the above evidence, we can say that the traditional system is not competitive in

the scene that individuals or organizations do not scramble for custom through

whatever means, ethical or unethical. This is not to say that the different performing

groups do not have their tiffs but these are often on matters more fundamental than

the search for profit. The traditional newsman appointed by society operates on a part-

time basis as he has other professional trades by which he earns a living. He could be

a farmer, or a fisherman or a carpenter. But he is a trained professional who has been

schooled in the principles and practices of the system. A current newsman naturally

hands over to his son at the age when he can no longer make the rounds or when the

role is withdrawn for whatever breach of social norms that may lead to such an action.

When the traditional communicator advertises, it is not done to make profit.

Traditional advertising is service-oriented not geared towards profit making.

2.6 The Interactive Power of Local and Traditional Communication Methods

Local and Traditional Communication Systems refer to all organized processes of

production and exchange of information managed by rural communities. Their tools,

like traditional theatre, masks and puppets performances, tales, proverbs, riddles and

songs, should be seen as cultural and endogenous response to different community

needs for information, education, social protest and entertainment. These systems are

often used to solve the contradiction between the need for change (development) of a

39

rural community and the need to preserve its cultural values. After all, these values

ensure that the changes are acceptable by all social groups of the community. On the

other hand, all communication processes based on media which are not created and

managed by the rural community themselves, like radio, video and television, are not

perceived as traditional and are considered external to the rural community.

Traditional means of communication are very rarely taken into consideration by

extension agents and technical staff of development organizations. They often ignore

the communication process of a particular ethnic group or rural community: how the

group produces and gets information; what media and tools are utilized; and what role

do the "traditional communicators" play. They oversee the communication network

and the exchange channels of technical and non-technical information within and

outside the community.

Interactive power

If there is interest in local communication systems, the stress is always on their

manipulative and top-down utilisation. Unfortunately, the interactive and participatory

quality of many traditional communication tools and media is rarely mentioned. Many

development communication specialists and extension workers think that the simple

use of local and traditional media automatically guarantee people's participation and

the creation of a good communication channel with rural people. The problem is not

"which one" of the many communication tools available should be utilized, but rather

"how" the media selected should be used. In fact, a critical analysis of the history of

cross-cultural contacts shows that African communication systems have been used in

the past by Christian missionaries, Muslim mullahs, colonial rulers and development

workers to get messages across and to influence and change rural people's behaviour.

40

During the last 20-30 years live drama, puppet theatre and other popular and

traditional media have been used in a top-down way, supporting educational

campaigns aiming to convince sedentary farmers and nomadic livestock people to

adopt new techniques and "modern" values, to change "traditional" ways of life. In

this case, traditional media are used much more as an extension tool than as an

interactive communication channel. A different approach is followed by the

traditional story-teller (griot) in Mali. He spontaneously adapts his own oral style to

the listeners' reactions: the way to tell a story changes each time. A dialogue takes

place between the griot and the public, which makes it an interactive communication

tool with an important role for the public.

Traditional and popular Theatre

Very often villagers are made to watch a performance written by somebody from

outside the village and/or played by professional actors (Epskamp 1989). In most

cases this is a result of an old-fashion approach, were even a "popular" or "traditional"

play becomes theatre for the people, rather than a theatre played with and by people.

Theatre is still seen as an extension tool, and not as a communication channel. For

example, some extension workers in Botswana failed to involve people as actors in

their play and as a result they "... failed to exploit the problem-solving potential of

popular theatre even though they succeeded in raising issues in a lively way.

In summary, the process remained a top-down activity controlled by extension

workers with only token participation from the villagers. While the field workers were

responsive to inputs from villagers to problem identification, the way in which the

problems were addressed continued to reflect their role as brokers of technical

services and information. Popular theatre had not transformed neither their field work

41

nor their attitudes and thinking ... (Kidd 1982)". This kind of approach, in itself, is not

always useless, but it is very limited. For instance, "extension theatre" can give good

results in facilitating a first contact between a development project and the rural

community. This happened in an FAO food conservation project in the Tabora region,

Western Tanzania. Field extension officers were trained in the use of drama to

improve the farmer knowledge of new storage practices. The evaluation of the impact

of the dramatised presentations in several villages led to the establishment of a solid

trust between rural community and the extension officers, but less to an improvement

of farmer skills and knowledge in storage techniques (Golob and Eisendrath 1990).

People's participation

In contrast, by participating in dramatization, villagers themselves showed their own

perspectives of their problems. A development programme in Nigeria was established

to encourage farmers, especially women, to re-adopt and to improve an old

indigenous agro forestry method based on the bush fallow system and alley farming.

In each village the problem identification stage was followed by a discussion and

supported by role-playing of how problems might be solved. An analysis of the

underlying causes of the problems developed. This process helped to write a script for

a local theatre village group. It contains the farmers' (men and women) concerns as

well as those of the technicians, and the possible solutions given by both. Involving

farmers in defining the contents of the drama and in representing it, make them the

"experts" in the innovation process, relegating the technician to the role of catalyst or

facilitator (Cashman 1991). The above process becomes more evident if we look at

Malinke traditional theatre (kote ba) in Mali where music, dance and speech are

joined in one medium. The separation between actors and public is often so subtle,

42

that spectators are encouraged by the tradition to stop the play, make comments and

ask questions during the performance.

Forum Theatre

The participatory approach of African traditional theatre has been utilized as "forum

theatre" by UNICEF since 1989 for its educational programme among the Mossi

communities of Burkina Faso. It has been played in 15 districts of the country in order

to support the children vaccination campaigns. If the end of the play does not match

with the public's expectations, the performance is followed by a discussion between

actors and public. Then the actors are invited to play again all the drama or part of it,

according to the needs and the solutions expressed by the audience (Morrison 1993).

The "forum theatre" experience in Burkina Faso pointed out another interactive

quality of the local communication systems: immediate feedback from the audience

and their appraisal of a communication message diffused by a traditional media. This

is rarely possible with mass media like the radio: "... your radio is a machine which

speaks, but accepts no reply ..." says a Yoruba farmer (Fiofiori 1975).

Puppet Theatre

Local and traditional puppet theatre in Mali is not only used as an entertaining and

educational medium, but also a channel to promote social and political action inside

and among rural communities. Indeed, it is also used to voice a criticism towards

governmental decisions. In the last few years all across Africa, it has been in strong

demand by women and younger generations, who wish to fully participate in the

decision-making process at community level. In Mali today, a puppet theatre is

managed in each village by the association (ton) of young people (so far mainly men).

They consider puppets to be the best channel through which to exercise an alternative

43

power role regarding decisions taken by the community's elders, and yet remain

within the tradition. In the rural areas of Mali, puppet drama is becoming a good

support to the dynamics of "development".

A Tool for Conflict Solving

In 1989, a field research on local and traditional communication systems took place in

Mali, aiming to improve the quality of pedagogical multimedia packages produced for

farmers. The results showed that traditional puppet theatre had been used by the

Malinke community of the Bougouni region to solve internal age-determined and

generation conflicts. The needs and aspiration to change by the younger generations -

who normally spend part of the year working in capital cities like Bamako or Abidjan

- are represented during day-time performances by puppets (tiefe do), which are new

characters which they themselves created. At night time, the performance of

"nocturnal puppets" (sufe do) provide the elders' point of view and answer to

questions and problems raised by younger people (Chiovoloni 1991). This mechanism

allows younger generations to communicate their needs and raise their problems in

the presence of the whole community through an existing and culturally accepted

channel.

At the same time, it is an "alarm bell" for the village's elders. It helps them to assess

the depth and spread of the demand for change; to decide on a course of action for the

welfare of the overall community and, of course, to maintain their own authority.

Generally speaking, if compared with popular theatre, a puppet becomes a buffer

between performer and audience. The puppeteer tends to be less censured than an

actor. He "can act out private situations or struggles between people without

offending the audience - for example family planning or human rights. Puppets can

44

often criticise society in a way that people cannot always safely do" (Gordon 1986).

Puppets could be utilised to treat delicate matters of life and social conflict issues that

otherwise would not be treated openly by people.

Close Collaboration Needed

Since 1993, an FAO communication programme has collaborated with OAPF, a para-

statal forestry institution in Mali. In the framework of a multimedia approach, OAPF

used puppet drama to improve the participation of Bambara villagers in developing a

better beekeeping technology and discussing sustainable development. The FAO

programme has sought to evaluate the impact of OAPF's communication strategy.

According to a preliminary evaluation, six months after the last puppet performance,

very few persons remembered the story played. The Bambara farmers were involved

by the drama group only in a rapid pre- testing of puppet characters, choreography

and oral style. The script as well as the main hemes to be presented had been decided

upon solely by OAPF. The plays were produced without involving the local ton and

without consulting the leaders of local communication channels: the storytellers,

blacksmiths, etc. It appears that the long-term impact of puppet theatre is most

effective when the script is produced together with the villagers. The best use of local

and traditional media calls for a close collaboration between technicians and

development communication experts, local leaders and agents of traditional

communication and the new "rural communicators", like school teachers and

government village animators. The collaboration is necessary in defining the contents

of the message, the communication style and media to be used.

45

2.7 From Traditional Communication to Modern Communication Methods

Attempts at evolving an integral nation from the multi-farious ethnic groups in

Nigeria led to an emphasis on the modern mass media. The traditional media which

were the pre-colonial channels of communication were limited in the conduct of

national commerce, religion, education, politics and government. There are no less

than 178 languages having various physical and metaphysical channels: oral

literature, market-places, festivals, gong-men, age-grades, cult societies, charms,

witchcraft etc.

The struggle for national independence and the subsequent formation of a national

government in 1960 stimulated the establishment of newspapers, radio and television

stations. As state governments were formed, more media of mass communication

were established. The broadcast media were significantly used and abused by political

parties to win supporters nationally. At the local levels, political parties used

indigenous communication systems, along with radio announcement, to summon

people for campaign rallies. Nonetheless, the potentials of the traditional media have

not been fully explored. Research should be designed to show what roles the

traditional media can play in modern politics, and in grass-root development

generally.

Before the introduction of printed material, radio, film and television, mass

communication in Nigeria was done through the indigenous systems of

communication. Western commerce, religion, education, politics and the form of

government, imported from Britain from the 19th century, found the indigenous

communications systems inadequate for several reasons: (1) the systems use local

languages, (2) they are interactive in the form of several chains of faceto-face

46

activities from the source or sources to the receivers, (3) they are exclusively

integrated into local cultures; (4) they do not depend on Western technology and (5)

they are dissimilar from the Western model of mass communication.

The languages of communication especially posed formidable obstacles to the British,

for, as Harrison and Trabasso (1976, p.109) put it, the truth of the matter is that Africa

is one of, if not the most linguistically diverse continents in the world. Linguists

estimate that 850 to 1,000 languages are spoken here. Initially confronted by this

diversity, the European explorer was faced with a dilemma.

There was a need for a system of communications. How best could this be

accomplished with a minimum of time and effort? It would have been preposterous

and an act of denigration for the European to learn the indigenous languages.

Furthermore, there were too many to master. On the opposite side of the situation, the

African obviously could not be expected to learn the European language. The

dissolution of the dilemma was to promulgate a pidgin language(s).

The indigenous communication systems served the pre-colonial socio-political

structures of Nigeria at the level of ethnic groups. The towns and villages then had

traditional rulers (or community leaders), supported by a body of chiefs who

represented various interests in society. The rulers and the chiefs governed their

ethnic communities and communicated with them through various channels. Some

common forms of indigenous media are oral literature, market-places, festivals and

gong-men (or town criers 1). Indigenous communication is not only vertical, from the

rulers to the subjects, it is also horizontal. Individuals communicate with society

through physical and metaphysical means. A farm owner, for example, may mount a

47

charm conspicously on his farm in order to stress private ownership and to scare off

human intruders.

The fear of herbalists and witches influence social behaviour considerably.

Rainmakers communicate their power to distrupt events through various

psychological means. The distant bull-roar of the Oro cult (Yoruba, Western Nigeria)

in the night warns women to stay-off the streets at the approach of the cult men.

Special drum beats communicate various messages. The gbedu rhythm, for instance,

signifies a royal occasion: coronation, funeral, the traditional dance of a king

Ugboajah (1980, p.49) describes the general nature of indigenous communication

networks thus:

Village sectors in Africa communicate mostly via the market-place of ideas

contributed by traditional religion, observances, divination, mythology, witchcraft,

cult societies, age-grades, the chiefs courts, the elder's square, secret and title

societies, the village market square, the village gong-man indeed the total experiences

of the villager in his environment.

Unlike the mass media, access to the indigenous media is culturally determined and

not economic. Only the gong-man model approaches the mass media in disseminating

information generally. In most other cases, information received in dependent upon

social status. There is a hierarchy of the right to speak and the right to receive

information. Indigenous communication vividly demonstrates the maxim that

"information is power" and that is why certain messages, although neither economic

nor political, are restricted within select groups such as secret societies and age-

grades. Nwuleni (1981, pp.1-79) documents this in his study of the indigenous media

in two Nigerian villages, pointing out that the media are limited to only purposive

48

communication. That is, certain messages are disseminated to certain people to

achieve certain purposes.

The various indigenous media are used for specific types of messages. Oral literature

serves to socialize new generations into the history, culture, moralsand ethics of

society .The literature also serves as a means of entertainment with the use of

folklores. Market-places provide price index and news from other villages. These are

also where advertising of goods (food crops, crafts, metal wares, herbal drugs, etc.)

and services (medical treatment, dressmaking, beauty treatment, musical

entertainment, etc.) are undertaken. Festivals serve the triple purpose of supplicating

local deities for improved political and socio-economic conditions (e.g. fair weather,

health, human fertility, agricultural productivity and victory over enemies),

socializing the young ones into local cultures and entertaining in a dramatic form.

Gong-men disseminate general information about events and the social welfare of

their communities. With the use of conventional journalistic terms, Ugboajah (1980,

p.49) explains the work of a gongman as follows:

Chief Osukute of Akure in Western Nigeria is the senior newsman of the Omode-

Owas. The 'chief editor' of the palace news, Chief Osukute is also a liaison officer of

the palace and the feedback channel for the views of the people to their king. He

sends his 'reporters' on 'news beats' to herald dates of traditional ceremonies, warnings

of epidemics, dates for cultivation and harvesting and social observances. The post of

the village announcer or the 'gbohun-gbohun' in Yorubaland is in most cases a

hereditary position. An Ijebu village announcer trains his children in the

communications jobs that await them. Thus, the young village announcer must be

briefed in his early years about the magnitude of his job about the Oba's area of

49

influence, about the time, place and utility of the news and about technicalities in the

usage of the gong.

The interactive nature of indigenous media suggests effective communication, but

their localized nature limits their range. There are 178 languages (Ugboajah 1977,

p.185), each with several dialects. Since the indigenous media are language and

culture bound, they are confined within tribal groupings. This had fragmented

Nigerian society into several ethnic groups, a situation antithetical to the evolution of

a common national culture and identity. Awolowo (1947, pp. 47-49) describes

Nigerian society thus:

Nigeria is not a nation. It is a mere geographic expression. There are no •Nigerians' in

the same sense as there are 'English', 'Welsh' or 'French'. The word 'Nigerian' is

merely a distinctive appellation to distinguish those who live within the boundaries of

Nigeria from those who do not. There are various national or ethnic groups in the

country. Ten such main groups were recorded during the 1931 census as follows: (1)

Hausa, (2) Ibo, (3) Yoruba, (4) Fulani, (5) Kanuri, (6) Ibibio, (7) Munshi or Tiv, (8)

Edo, (9) Nupe and (10) Ijaw. According to Nigeria Handbook, eleventh edition, 'there

are also a great number of other small tribes too numerous to enumerate separately,

whose combined total population amounts to 4,683,044.'

It is a mistake to designate them as tribes and clans. There is as much difference

between them as there is between Germans, English, Russians and Turks, for instance.

The fact that they have a common overlord does not destroy this fundamental

difference. The languages differ. The readiest means of communication between them

now is English. Their cultural background and social outlooks differ widely; and their

indigenous political institutions have little in common. Their present stages of

50

development vary. Politically, the best organized groups are the Hausa, including the

Fulanis, who form the ruling class in the north, and the Yorubas. They had a highly

developed system of government long before the white man came. The political

institutions of the others, however, were primitive and are still amorphous.

The constitution of the Yorubas is analogous to what is known as constitutional

monarchy. The dictatorial powers which some Yoruba chiefs are wielding today are

the making of the British Government, who, at the beginning, misconceived the true

nature of Yoruba monarchy. The Fulani conquerors were autocrats pure and simple.

They were just consolidating their conquest over the Hausas and a small portion of

Yorubaland when the British came in the 'scramble' to strengthen their hands. The

Ibos, on the other hand, are essentially individualistic.

The unit of government is the family; and the biggest autonomous aggregation for all

purposes of government is the clan, with all the heads of families combining to form a

governing body. The Ibos or Ibibios cannot tolerate anyone assuming the authority of

a chieftain among them. For this reason, the experiment of the 'Warrant Chiefs' in the

Eastern Region failed.

Modern national government in Nigeria began with British colonialism in 1914. By

the 1930s, radio was introduced to link Britain with her colonies. Newspapers were

used to counter colonialism and pave the way for independence. Films brought

newsreels of British activities into cinema theatres and as well provided

entertainment. The political and social changes (e.g. urbanization) which took place

before and after independence involved the mass media much more than the

indigenous systems of communication. The advantages of the mass media rest on the

51

use of national language, English, the use of local languages and access to a large

widely dispersed audience.

2.8 Political Changes and the Media

Nigeria attained independence with a parliamentary constitution which provided for a

federal system of government consisting of one central administration based in the

capital, Lagos, and three regional administrations in the northern, eastern and western

parts of the country. The regional divisions reflected the three major ethnic groups

(Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba). The attempt to forge a united, democratic political entity

out of the ethnic groups led to social conflicts, inter-tribal distrust and hostilities. As

such, within seven years of independence, there were visible signs of tension. There

were disruptions in parliament, a situation of unrest in society and two military coup

detats. These culminated in a civil war (1967-1970) because the oil-rich eastern

region of the country attempted to secede (Obasanjo 1980).

Following the civil war, a period of reconstruction, reconciliation and reunification

was proclaimed. The country then was divided into twelve regional administrations,

called states, in order to satisfy the desires of minority ethnic groups and to ease the

tension of distrust. A military regime established in 1967 continued to administer the

country. The execution of the post-civil war programme of "rebuilding", however, led

to some new problems. The mass media courageously featured allegations of public

corruption, mismanagement of resources and generally misplaced priorities. But the

military government repressed the media. Some journalists and broadcasters were

maltreated. The media men were intimidated (Onagoruwa 1978). A few social

reformers attempted to voice their opinions with pamphlets and advocacy journalism.

They were silenced (Aboaba 1979). Gradually, the military regime appeared to have

52

changed its focus from that of rebuilding the nation in preparation for a speedy return

to a democratic form of government to entrenching itself in power.

The Head of the Military Government categorically announced on television that the

earlier set date for a return to civilian government was unrealistic. He did not indicate

an alternative date. In 1975, with a classical use oftheradio, a group of military

officers, in a bloodless coup, toppled the government. The new regime proceeded to

tackle the ills of society, particularly in the "sick" civil service and government

parastatals. The regime made innovative use of broadcasting to mobilize distinguished

personnel at short notice for its administration and to make strategic changes with

pronouncements and decrees which took immediate effect. The regime promises three

things: to return the nation to a democratic form of government within four years; to

evolve a new constitution, based upon historical experience; and to lay the foundation

for a stable government. In order that government might reach the "grass roots" (rural

areas) and to further preserve minority rights, the country was again divided into 19

states. The local government areas were split into small units with-independent

sources of funding as so to insulate them from states' domination.

In 1979, the military regime handed over power, as promised, to a civilian

administration which had a new constitution that emphasized American-type

presidential democracy. While the various political changes were taking place, the

mass media institutions were employed in explaining the changes far and wide, and in

bringing into general awareness the various governments' policies. The media

institutions were also charged with the responsibility of providing a public service in

order to contribute to national development.

53

During the first three years of experimenting a presidential-type constitution, agitation

for the creation of more states attained such a height that the government had to

establish a committee to study and report on the issue. The Committee on Creation of

New States in Nigeria recommended the establishment of 21 more states to bring the

number of states to 40. This recommendation was accepted unanimously by the

House of Representatives. The next stages before the bill became law were the

passage of the bill in the Senate and in the Assemblies of two-thirds of the 19 states

followed by a national referendum.

If the trend in regional divisions from the original three at independence, to twelve,

then to nineteen and now to proposed forty is anything to go by, it suggests a gradual

drift back to pre-colonial ethnic groups. This is a matter of interest to political

scientists. What is of sociological concern is that the trend in creating more states may

indicate a desire for as many political units as the Americans whose political system

has been adopted and whom Nigerians "tend to copy wittingly or unwittingly, in

almost everything" (Okoli 1982, p.3269). If this second view is the more accurate

posture, then the concern for cultural imperialism is well placed.

But another military takeover on December 31, 1983, marked the failure of the

experiment in presidential democracy. The new military regime suspended the 1979

Constitution and prescribed all political parties, political activities and state creation

movements (West Africa 1984, p.53). Some portions of the 1979 Constitution

(especially in regard to the media) were, however, retained in a new set of decrees

issued by the military regime. Generally, the change in administration has effected a

change in the loyalties and ideological orientations of the media.

54

2.9 The Development of Television

A pioneer of television engineering in Nigeria and former General Manager of the

first television station, Teju Oyeleye (1972, p.l), traces the development of human

communication thus:

Human communication has passed through four distinct phases of development. The

spoken word differentiated the early man from the lower animals. The second phase

of development took place at about 3000 B.C. when man was able to convey his

thoughts in writing thereby achieving permanent records. The printing press invented

in the fifteenth century brought the multiplying effect which technology confers.

Many copies of the same text can be prepared within a very short time. The discovery

of electro-magnetic waves in the 19th century brought with it such applications as

radio and television broadcasting. Thus, the distance factor shrank as a

communication problem.

Television broadcasting in Nigeria was born out of the conflicts of ownership, control

and access. Following a parliamentary crisis in 1953, arising from a call for national

self-government to be awarded in 1956, the Governor of the Central Government, Sir

John Macpherson, made a chiding radio broadcast against a Regional Premier, Chief

Obafemi Awolowo. Much as the Premier attempted to reply to the Governor, he was

denied the right of rebuttal through radio by the Chief Secretary to the Central

Government (Egbon 1978). This further precipitated the crisis and it led to a

Constitutional Conference later in the year, July, 1953.

An aftermath of the conference was the removal of broadcasting from the Central

Government exclusive list to become a concurrent item. As such, the Nigerian

Constitution of 1954 provided that regional governments could establish broadcasting

55

services. The Western Nigeria Government was the first to take advantage of the new

Constitution by establishing, in partnership with a British firm, the Overseas

Rediffusion Ltd., the WNBS-WNTV for the operation of radio and television

broadcasting. Thus, the first television station in Africa was officially commissioned

on the 1st October, 1959. It started broadcasting in Ibadan with a 500 watts

transmitter which had an effective radiated power of 15 KW. In 1972, the station

upgraded its transmitter to 10 KW with an effective radiated power of 60 KW which

widely propagated the station's slogan "First in Africa" (Ikime 1979). One year after

the establishment of the WNTV, the ENTV, belonging to the Eastern Nigeria

Government, was established in Enugu and the station chose the slogan "Second to

None". The government of the Northern Nigeria followed the trend with the

establishment of a third station, RKTV, in Kaduna between 1960 and 1961.

The political change from a colony to an independent nation made the Federal

Government at the centre much stronger than it was before independence, and so the

centre attracted the nation's top politicians. With that, came the realization of the need

for a television station owned and controlled by the Federal Government. In 1962, the

fourth station, NBC-TV was established in the federal capital, Lagos.

By 1969, a military regime had taken over the administration and Nigeria had broken

up into 12 states. These new states which did not have television stations proceeded to

make plans for them. Between 1973 and 1974, the fifth (in Benin) and the sixth (in

Jos) stations were established by the Mid-West and Benue-Plateau states respectively.

When another military government emerged in July 1975, Nigeria was further divided

into nineteen states: (1) Anambra State, (2Bauchi State, (3) Bendel State, (4) Benue

State, (5) Borno State, (6) Cross River State, (7) Gongola State, (8) Imo State, (9)

56

Kaduna State, (10) Kano State, (11) Kwara State, (12) Lagos State, (13) Niger State,

(14) Ogun State, (15) Ondo State, (16) Oyo State, (17) Plateau State, (18) River State,

and (19) Sokoto State. By Decree No. 24 on April 1976, the Nigerian Television

Authority (NTA) was established with the powers: (1) to take over all the existing

television stations; (2) to plan for, establish and operate new stations in the state

capitals without television.

The concept then was that only a single organization, the NTA, should operate

television broadcasting in Nigeria and on behalf of the Federal Government. The

charter of NTA required it "to ensure an independent and impartial service which will

operate in the national interest; to give adequate expression to culture, characteristics

and affairs of the different parts of Nigeria." In the period (1976/77) between the

creation of new states and the promulgation of Decree No. 24, four television stations

were established at Port Harcourt (Rivers State), Sokoto (Sokoto State), Kano (Kano

State) and Owerri (Imo State).

With the establishment of NTA, all the television stations in Nigeria assumed the

name "NTV" with the addition of only the name of the state capitals in which the

stations are situated. The new stations opened by the NTA are:

1. NTV - Abeokuta (Ogun State), established in 1978/79;

2. NTV - Akure (Ondo State), established in 1978/79;

3. NTV - Bauchi (Bauchi State), established in 1978/79;

4. NTV - Calabar (Cross River State), established in 1978/79;

5. NTV - Ilorin (Kwara State), established in 1978/79;

6. NTV - Maiduguri (Borno State), established in 1978/79;

7. NTV - Makurdi (Benue State), established in 1978/79;

57

8. NTV - Minna (Niger State), established in 1978/79;

9. NTV - Teju-Oso (Lagos State), established in 1980/81;

10. NTV - Yola (Gongola State), established in 1978/79.

In 1979, Nigeria began to operate a new constitution which permitted states to

establish and operate all the broadcasting media. Thus, states began to reestablish

television stations to compete with the existing national television network, NTA. By

1983, states had established eleven stations. Table 1 shows a list of the state stations,

their locations and the political parties in the states (Oduko, 1985).

The mass media are undoubtedly the major instrument of political competition. The

political parties used and abused broadcasting to win supporters nationally. At the

local levels, political parties used indigenous communication systems, along with

radio announcement, to summon people for campaign rallies. Nonetheless, the

potentials of the traditional media have not been fully explored. This is an area worth

investigating. It is useful to know what aspects of indigenous channels are amenable

to modern politics and rural development.

2.10 Possible Implications of Modern mass Media for Traditional

Communication in a Nigeria Rural Setting

Every human society has developed its indigenous and traditional modes and channels

of communication which characterize its existence, organization and development

These communication modes and channels form the basis upon which the

communities, especially the rural community, progress. Policy makers, planners and

administrators, desirous to effect functional economic and social changes, must first

identify such community communication modes and channels and utilize them to

provide the people with maximum information about such changes.

58

Communication, the transmission of information from a point called origin or source

to another called destination or receiver (or audience), is the blood stream of every

society. A society may be explained as a group of people who have lived together

long enough to evolve common culture, norms and values. Culture distinguishes one

society from another. Culture gives form and meaning to a people's existence. Culture

is defined by Onigu and Ogionwo (1981) as 'the complex whole of man's acquisitions

of knowledge, morals, beliefs, arts, custom, technology, etc, which are shared and

transmitted from generation to generation.' In this definition, culture includes those

things which man has invented and produced and which we can see, feel, or hear, as

well as those aspects of man's behaviour which we cannot see, namely, knowledge,

beliefs or morals, language, philosophy, attitudes, etc. Communication which is an

act, a process of interaction, is carried out primarily through the use of signs (or

symbols). Such signs or symbols must arouse the same meaning in the other person

(individual or group or people) as it does in one's self.

Communication is an aspect of culture, the non-material culture. Indigenous and

traditional communication modes and channels, therefore, have a sort of cultural

relativity. Such modes and channels are identified, assessed and understood in the

context of the particular culture and its value system. The communication process is

initiated when the source or sender utters symbolic sounds which refer to his

experiences, rooted in his environment. If the receiver or audience has had similar

experiences, and has been conditioned to associate the given sounds with those

experiences and attach a common meaning, we then say that communication has been

possible. The communication would be effective if the desired response follows.

59

2.11 Community Communication Patterns in Nigeria

In Nigeria, the indigenous and traditional community communication modes and

channels tend to have variations from one cultural region or ethic group to another.

The modes and channels reflect the social structure of each community. Such social

structure is similarly determined by the totality of the historical and economic

experiences of the people. Some of these modes include message relay-running,

festivals, drama, music/songs, dance styles and steps, bush or wood fire, smoke ashes,

(colour of) clothing, tales and proverbs, gun shots, animals, birds and insects, grass

knots, fresh leaves knots, hair looks, tribal marks, body language, talking drums, 55

weather, pottery and wood carvings, legends and myths, and so on. All these are the

creations of human interactions, consensus and conflicts. They are made norms, given

values and mystified by the indigenous and traditional channels of interpersonal and

group communication, mostly based on age, kinship, gender, inheritance and marital

status and with authority patterns embedded in the social structure and organization of

the society. Face-to-face, interpersonal and group communication channels function

both vertically and horizontally and are natural, real and inevitable in a community's

planned and unplanned advancement. They have also proved very useful in the tasks

of solving problems. This has been documented in field work experiences in the

dissemination of atb'tudinal changedirected information, especially of new farm

practices in the rural areas. Williams and Williams (1969), Alao (197S), Bogunjoko

(1980), Orewere (1984), and Emenyeonu (1987) corroborate this perspective,

although Bosompra's (1987) conclusion varies on the question of source credibility.

From his studies in Ghana, Bosompra found that radio, as a source of health

information, had more credibility than conversation, typified in the town crier, the

60

market, and folk theatre. Tiemtore (1990), writing on local radio broadcasting in

Burkina Faso, made the following observations:

After a decade, the limits of group listening structures had become obvious. The

failure of ARCN1, as well as the rural radio stations of Benin and Burkina Faso attests

to these limits. In particular, the rural public was alienated by the way radio had been

used for development In addition, while rural radio provided the rural community

with necessary knowledge, these radio stations overlooked the fact that learning

primarily consists of self-expression and self-education. Radio focussed on rural

issues and the problems of the rural community, but amazingly rural populations had

no say at all. A system had to be invented in which information would take into

account the views of the majority of the rural population: information had to be

decentralized and the rural community had to actually participate in managing organs

of information. The solution presented was the horizontal communication concept

Using this concept, local rural radio must inevitably schedule a new phase in rural

development, working closely with the indigenously and traditionally existing vertical

and horizontal channels of community communication such as traditional councils,

development unions, women's organizations and youth clubs.

Traditional and indigenous community communication in Nigeria has a unique

network which may not be easily understood. And it is difficult to understand this

unique network through externally imposed philosophies and concepts. One has to

live in the village, observe, study and understand the network. This network can be

effectively used for rural development People communicate in the rural setting

because they want to share meanings: they want others to know what they want to do,

what they are thinking, and how they feel. They want to tell others what has

61

happened, or what they hope will happen. They want others to listen to what they

have to say. They want to get things done through others. This communication

network is well laid-out, very stable, and is linked to the surrounding villages. Unlike

the mass media, it is not interfered with and often calls for collective approaches to

village development and welfare. The group/community interest overrides that of the

individual, and participatory development is the watchword.

The indigenous and traditional community communication network in Nigeria

identifies rural development as a series of coordinated actions to be carried out by the

people. It does not use sophisticated structures and technologies to which the people

do not have access. It does not underestimate or disrespect rural values and

technologies. It does not loose the opportunity for feedback from the experience

gained, neither does it keep on making the same mistakes. The organizational

structure among subcultures is basically similar in the southern states of Nigeria.

Among the Isoko people in the Bendel State of Nigeria, for instance, the indigenous

communication structures are based on age, kinship and gender. For example, each

clan3 has a traditional council with the King, or Odion-Ologbo, as the paramount

ruler, a development union with the president/chairman as head; and the women's

organization (Ewhaeyana) with the Odion-Eyana as head. There is also the youth

organization with elected officials. The traditional council, also similar to that of the

neighbouring Urhobos, is made up of Edions (chiefs) from each of the quarters of the

clan. There is also the Oletu- Ologbo (chief priest) who has his Eletus-in-Council

representing each quarter, the senior Elebe (head of messengers/town crier) and the

Osogba (head of traditional administration) with Esogbas-in-Council, each

representing a quarter. Figure 1 shows the structure of the Traditional Council whose

62

membership may be based on age and not necessarily inheritance or ascription (except

for the king):

The development union has a president, a vice-president, secretary-general, treasurer,

financial secretary, publicity secretary, assistant secretary-general, speaker, provost,

and auditors. The Queen Leader, a member of the Ewhaeyana (Women's

Organization) and the chief mobilize* of all women purely for development purposes,

is also a representative member of this union. The youth organization and farmers'

cooperative councils have a similar organizational structure with that of the

development union and also a representative of the women's organization. The youth

organization most of the time functions as the militant arm of the development union.

Membership of the development union and the youth organization encompasses all

men, women, boys and girls in the clan, depending on their ages.

The Ewhaeyana (Women's organization) with the Odion-Eyana as head has the chief

priestess, the Queen Leader (an administrative title) and a woman from each of the

streets as members. Membership is based on age and functions to assist the traditional

council whose main responsibilities include protecting the land boundaries and

territorial integrity of the clan, protecting the history and culture of the people, sealing

internal (inter-family and inter-marriage) and external disputes (with other towns and

villages) holding the land in trust for government, functioning as the link between

government and the community, initiating and ratifying bye-laws on bride price,

marriage ceremonies, burial rites, fines and chieftaincy titles, monitoring the

economy, lakes and fish ponds, etc, and summoning meetings as the need may arise.

The development union, on the other hand, is responsible for the day-to-day running

of clan affairs, maintains law and order (assisting the traditional council), embarks on

63

and supervises self-help and development projects, environmental sanitation,

commerce and industry, and so on. The development union reports to the traditional

council. The community communication network in Isoko Local Government Area is

thus characterized by the inter-dependent, functional and mutually benefitting

relationships between the traditional council, the development union, the women's

organization and the youth organization. The network typifies both individual and

group communication methods in the distribution of information, power and social

control. Cooperative farmers' councils, youth clubs, civil defence, cultural and social

groups, are overseen by the development union.

From this illustration, we can see that the channels of community communication in

Isokoland and also other neighbouring ethnic groups, no matter how rudimentary, had

to serve the functions of spreading news as well as information, educating the general

public on the demands and tenets of culture and hard work, selling goods by

advertising for their owners, entertaining people in their natural habitat, and providing

opportunities for leadership on issues of the moment The structural aspects stress

political and economic power and control in the social and cultural context The

relationship between the communicator and the audience is personal. There are

internal allocations of authority and in each situation, a structure which ensures

continuity and cooperation. There is a regular, reliable and steady speed of diffusion

of information. The response, or feedback, is calculated and relevant, a product of

discussed, debated and digested reasoning, especially at meetings, conferences,

sessions and small group or family unit discussion levels. This implies that the

selection and interpretation of messages by the community for programmes of

development is done to suit the local situation and not in a vacuum or aimless mass

mobilization.

64

With the advent of science and technology came industrialization and there has been a

"massification" of the communication audience and methods. This followed from the

application of a technology geared to mass production and wide dissemination. Radio,

television, cinema, newspapers, and books are some of the mass media that have been

heralded by science and technology. To qualify as a mass medium, Uyo (1987), citing

Blake and Haroldsen, points out that the technical instrument must not only offer the

possibility of communication via a mechanical device, making for impersonal

relationship between the communicator and his audience, but it must also actually be

used to communicate from a single source to a large (mass) number of persons. The

mass media could (and do) establish simultaneity of contact with large numbers of

people at a distance from the source and widely separated from each other. McQuail

(1969) lists among his characteristics of mass communication, the nature of the

audience, a collectivity (supposedly) unique to modern (urban, industrial) society:

It is an aggregate of individuals united by a common focus of interest, engaging in an

identical form of behaviour, and open to activation towards common ends; yet the

individuals involved are unknown to each other, have only a restricted amount of

interaction, do not orient their actions to each other and are only loosely organized or

lacking in organization. The composition of die audience is continually shifting, it has

no leadership or feelings of identity.

The audience in the indigenous channels of community communication is known to

each other, freely interact, orient their actions to each other, and have organic

solidarity. What then happens when you expose such an audience to modern society

mass media? Scientific and technological developments initially concerned with the

improvement of traditional craft techniques and, subsequently, embracing the

65

application of abstract knowledge to practical problems, have a promise to lead

society along the path of a bright and prosperous future. The level of scientific and

technological development is an indicator of the general progress of social

development. Machines are used to communicate, to travel, to produce commodities,

to provide services and even to entertain. Industrial and technological progress help to

foster local prosperity, provide reliable, clean water supplies, urban sanitation, electric

lighting, rapid transport and the many positive advances in medicine and health care.

But a price is indeed being paid. Science and technology are affecting all citizens in a

significant way. Apart from the human toll in alcoholism, premature deaths from

traffic accidents, accidental poisoning from proliferation of medication and chemical

products, and increasing hazards to the ecology and to human health from fumes,

pollutants, and oil spillages, and the tots habit of calmness, science and technology

visibly function in the distribution of power and exercise of social control especially

through the modem mass media. It does this both in material and ideological fashion.

At the material level, technology sustains and promotes the interest of the dominant

social groups in the society within which it is utilized. At the same time, it acts in a

symbolic manner to support and propagate the legitimating ideology of the society,

the interpretation that is placed on the world and on the individual position in it. These

are possible because mass communicated messages via imported media reach the

audience as independent individuals and not as members of a community with

interwoven, interdependent relationships, unlike the indigenous community

communication structures. Also, the modern mass media involve the use of capital

equipment such as machines and other hardware which are foreign, technically

complex, and too expensive for the non- electrified rural areas. Besides, they are

expected to be managed by experts, and the production of goods and services under

66

this technology is geared to satisfying the international goods and services market to

be effective, mass communication systems require complex formal organizations

which need high skills for their operation.

Their technology and messages are urban directed. Because of the heavy capital

outlay, international methods of finance are used to finance modem mass media

projects, a system which is out of the reach of the rural poor, People's Bank of Nigeria

notwithstanding. Inevitably, therefore, the modem mass media and information

systems tend to stabilize a status-quo which is based on a structural dependency of

peripheries on centres. Because of the focus on the individual, and not as a member in

a social network, the mass media may not be said to, by themselves, be responsible

for the occurrence of mass phenomena, nor can we safely argue that they are

sufficient tools for the cause and effect of mass mobilization programmes. Rather,

through the existing structure of society and the prevailing expectations, motivations

and social institutions, indigenous and traditional community communication

channels and the content and symbols which they disseminate may do the trick.

Communication, we do agree, plays an important role in the development process but

communication channels shape or mis-shape the ingredients (content and meaning) in

this process. The mass media have often been regarded as the possible panacea for

many of the development problems of the Third World. They have often been

accepted as major sources of knowledge, its dissemination and utilization, and as

representing potential direct channels of influence and information transfer from

researchers and experts of various sorts to a great majority of consumers. Could these

assumptions, developed and tested in the scientifically and technologically advanced

countries, be equally applicable in the developing countries? Have the modem mass

67

media brought any promise to the rural Nigerian setting? What has been the

performance of the modem mass media in Isoko Local Government Area when

compared with the role of indigenous and traditional communication channels?

First, the mass media, especially battery-operated radio sets, mobile cinema and, in

the few electrified areas, television sets, have had some effects, both on adults and on

children and adolescents. To the extent that concern focuses on how individuals

respond to media content, the fundamental effects of mass communication are

cognitive. Roberts (1971) observes that regardless of whether influence is direct or

indirect, immediate or delayed, short-term or long-term, regardless of whether

ultimate concern is with emotions, attitudes, or behaviour, any effect of media content

on individuals originates with whether and how people interpret and incorporate

information transmitted by the media into their existing conceptualizations of the

world.

Thus, the basic link between media content and human social behaviour is forged in

the interaction between information transmitted by the media on the one hand, and

human information processing on the other. This implies that differences in responses

to mass communication may derive from variations in exposure to media or types of

media content Differences in response may also derive from variations in how similar

messages are interpreted by different people or by similar people under differing

conditions (Roberts and Bachen, 1981). These differences are minimal in traditional

communication channels.

Second, transfer of technology does create problems since each technology was

developed within a social and cultural background of the country in which it was

created. Generally, in technological transfer there is need for adaptation, either of the

68

imported technology itself, or by the person using it. Such adaptation has not been

possible in Osoko Local Government area, partly because the Local Government area

is only a constituent part of a state that has 20 local government areas, beaming out

modern media messages from the capital, and partly because there is a high level of

illiteracy among the exposed rural population. The English language is the

predominant transmission language, both via television and radio, and even the

cinema.

Because of these, traditional channels of community communication will continue to

play an important role for some time in the transmission of knowledge and

information, cultivation of beliefs, campaigns and development, antisocial behaviour,

and sex role socialization. Limitations notwithstanding, the modem media seem to

have some influence in agenda setting, political socialization, responses to

advertising, increased consciousness of nationhood, and knowledge of other parts and

cultures of the country. Third, the presence of modern media acts as a catalyst in the

willingness and ability of the rural population to learn to read and write at a functional

level in the media language. Basic formal education becomes mandatory, and a drive

that has never been in the priority objectives of traditional community communication

channels.

Since education is the transmission of knowledge in order to foster intellectual

development, formation of character and the acquisition of skills and capacities in all

stages of life among all categories of a population, the mass media, therefore,

contribute in raising the levels of development of the rural people. An enlightened

rural community continually reviews and evaluates the objectives and goals of

traditional community channels of communication in line with the objectives and

69

goals of government and other neighbouring communities. Innovations, adjustments

and adaptations within traditional institutions, therefore, in the positive sense, become

acceptable, and affect decision-making.

Fourth, the modern media, in establishing direct contact with individuals, by-pass the

traditional community communication channels in issues such as religion, politics,

education, commerce and the economy. Inroads are, therefore, gradually being made

into the autonomy of the existing institutional orders, though not unresisted. There is a

strong resistance, and later a gradual move towards accommodation, towards making

use of the new, often accompanied by gradual and unannounced adjustments of

practice, hi this process some institutional orders become weakened while others are

strengthened. The mass media could also be instrumental in developing new kinds of

community communication networks or in abolishing the existing ones.

Fifth, the modern mass media amplify the voices of the political leaders, persons

occupying powerful positions in other sectors of national life, and of prominent

intellectuals. Because the media impersonally communicate with their audience, the

traditional community communication channels become mediators in the flow of mass

communication content. Community structures could (and do) limit and determine

whatever effects should occur from mass communication. Therefore, in the structure

of relationships between society, communications and audience, the mass media tend

to play a reinforcing or conserving role, conforming to prevailing community

interests, values and norms. Effective communication in rural areas still attaches more

importance to the source rather than the content of the information received because

of the villagers' confidence in their leaders.

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Researches have shown that development communication (traditional and modem) is

a total process that involves understanding the audience and its needs, communication

planning based on selected strategies, message control, message production,

dissemination, reception and feedback.

2.12: Grassroots Mobilization

Nwodu (2005:27 – 28) enumerates myriad or problems militating against sustainable

development of developing nations of Africa, Asia and Latin America. The problems

range from economic, political, social-cum-educational, cultural, health, ecological to

infrastructural problems. Efforts by government and development agencies to tackle

these problems will require the cooperation and support of all civil societies,

especially the cooperation and support of the masses or grassroots whose lives are to

be transformed positively by development deliverables.

This is where mass mobilization especially at the grassroots level comes in. Mass

mobilization is therefore a critical factor in the development process which poverty

alleviation is part (Nwodu, 2007:42). Since communication and development are

dialectically related, grassroots mobilization for development can according to Nwodu

(2005:78) bring about positive attitude and behavior change by: identifying and

understanding certain culturally and socially acquired habits that shroud folks’

construction of reality and retard their mental, physical and environmental

development; providing enabling environment for folks to understand and appreciate

why they should drop certain traditional practices deemed to be inimical to their well

being and adopt new ideas for their own good; and sensitizing grassroots participation

in the conception, packaging and execution of crusade meant to encourage them to

embrace positive social change action. The implication is that social development

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campaign tends to diffuse more and command wide adoption when the targets are

grossly and/or deeply involved in the ideation, planning and execution of the social

development programme being advocated for (Nwodu, 2007:43).

Grassroots mobilization, community mobilization and mass mobilization are used

interchangeably in development communication literature. Imoh (2007: 202) views

commonly mobilization as the psychological, socio-cultural, political and economic

training, retraining and redirection, using relevant processes to create community

awareness, understanding and motivation for the acceptance and the use of total

community resources for planned collective changes and actions. It involves

community involvement and participation at all stages of a development programme.

It requires intersectoral collaboration and multisectotal approach. It requires working

with different community-based organization (CBOs) and media channels and

reinforcing such messages with group and interpersonal activities at various settings

in the community (Imoh, 2007: 202).

Social mobilization, as the name implies, suggests a breaking away from old

commitments to traditional ways of living, and a moving into new situations where

new commitments may have to be made (Imoh, 2007:202). It denotes a concept

which embraces a number of specific processes of change. These includes a variety

of social and institutional changes among which are changes in policies, expectations

and patterns of group affliation (Deutsch, 1979: 94). As a process, social mobilization

is a means of achieving sustained behavioural changes at different levels and in

distinct phases. Firstly, it includes advocacy and negotiation activities at the policy

and decision makers’ level in order to get policy and financial support and

commitment to a plan of action.

72

Secondly, it involves geared towards increasing involvement of workers government

and nongovernmental organizations ( NGOs). Thirdly, it includes the involvement

and participation of CBOs and communities generally in human and financial terms.

This is best achieved through the involvement of social and political leaders in

planning actions of the local level and organizing the community to take action.

Fourthly, it is a means of changing the knowledge, attitudes and behaviours of target

audience to enable them improve their productivity and contribute meaningfully in the

development process. This is often achieved through a combination of information,

communication and motivational activities (Imoh, 2007: 202 – 203).

Grassroots mobilization simply refers to the act of convincing and organizing people

to support a course or project. To mobilize people at any level requires persuasive

effort with good communication strategies geared towards appealing to them in a

convincing manner to adopt a particular pattern in approaching an issue (Nwabueze,

2007:64). It is a strategy that is adopted in getting them with the necessary

knowledge and attitude required for participation. It increases the peoples

participation in any social change issue (Ucheanya, 2003). Grassroots mobilization

involves the creation of awareness or enlightenment of the target publics on the issue

they are to participate in actualizing. Be it development projects, poverty reduction

efforts or policies, political programmes, social change activities at any sort,

mobilization is very relevant in winning the support and participation of people for

such programmes (Nwabueze, 2007:64).

Umechukwu (2004) sees mobilization as all efforts and means legitimately employed

to encourage, ginger and get the people ready to take actions aimed at achieving the

goals and aspirations of society. Despite the landable nature of any project, policy, or

73

programme, there is need for people especially those the programme or project is

meant for to be mobilized to support and participate in ensuring its successful

implementation.

Longman (2007) defines the grassroots as ordinary people in society or in any

organization, rather than the leaders or people who take decisions. It is simply used to

refer to the masses, especially those outside the corridors of power. In view of the

fact that in Nigeria, for instance, many people still dwell in rural and semi-urban

areas, targeting the grassroots will basically mean prioritizing the concerns, interests

and participation of ruralites and to some extent, those that could be described as the

“marginalized” or “unrecognized” or “neglected” urban dwellers (Nwabueze,

2007:64). This is why some proponents of meaningful strategies for national

development in African countries suggest the commencement of such efforts by

focusing on the interest of ruralites (Opubor, 1985, Imoh, 2007, Udomisor, 2007,

Nwodu, 2007, Chambers, 1983).

From the foregoing, grassroots mobilization according to Nwabuze (2009:64) could

then be operationally defined as all efforts tailored towards reaching, enlightening,

convincing, and motivating ordinary people in a society to support and participate in

achieving societal goals that affect them. The grassroots mobilization effort is often

targeted at rural and semi-urban dwellers, in addition to neglected urban dwellers.

This mean that grassroots mobilization = mass mobilization = community

mobilization.

The valid nature of the traditional communication media in contemporary Nigerian

society makes them an effective means for grassroots mobilization for innovation

adoption or achievement of development goals (Nwabueze, 2007: 65). Research

74

evidence has shown that traditional communication media which are interpersonal and

reflect the culture of the people are of greater importance than the mass media

channels in diffusion of innovations and achievement of development objectives and

goals in less developed countries (LDCs) (Rogers and Shoemaker, 1971).

Mobilizing people through face-to-face channels like traditional communication

media proves to be very effective. The communicator who speaks to people in the

village or market square, in the church or mosque, in small or large family groups, age

grade or town union meetings has a greater chance of convincing them to participate

in poverty reduction efforts of the government and other development programmes

than where such a communicator is operating from a distance, as often the case in the

mass media (Nwabueze, 2007, Chude, 2007). The use of songs, dances, drama and

local language and dialect to teach people new farming techniques, encourage them to

be self-reliant, acquire good education and health habits, stop harmful traditional

practices and participate in the electoral process constitute effective strategies of using

traditional communication media to mobilize people for development programmes or

projects. The audience see the communicator and ask questions where necessary.

Feedback is immediate and necessary clarifications are made for effective

communication (Nwabueze, 2006, 2007, Chukwu, 2006, Nwodu and Nwanmuo,

2006).

With Westernisation and globalization as the inevitable phenomenon of human

history and civilization, development communication scholars and practitioners have

advocated a mix of the modern mass media such as the radio, television and

newspaper and the traditional communication media like the town crier and village

meetings for optimal grassroots mobilization for development. This is the view of

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Chukwu (2006), Nwodu and Nwanmou (2006), Nwabueze (2006, 2007), Odunlami

(2006) and Enighe (2006). These views agree with the dualistic nature of Nigerian

society, with its corresponding urban and rural dichotomy and influences.

2.13 Development

Development is a holistic concept and process of social change aimed at improving

the living conditions and quality of life of the people, especially the majority of the

poor and vulnerable masses or grassroots, in both the rural and urban areas.

Consequently, development scholars such as Nwosu (2005, 2007), Nwosu and Fab-

Ukozor (2003), Okunna (2002), Nwosu (1990, 2007, 2007), Nwosu (1990-, 2007,

2008), Nwosu and Uffoh (2005), Umoh (2008), Eneh (2007), Rodney (1983),

Onunwa (1997), Juingan (2007) and Todaro and Smith (2009) agree that development

should focus on participatory and inclusive social change aimed at improving the

quality of life of human society, especially that of the underprivileged majority of the

population. The extent this improved quality life has been realized in most nations,

especially developing nations leaves much to be desired. Poverty index has continued

to rise, hunger, diseases including the dreaded HIV/AIDS pandemic, tuberculosis and

malnutrition, infant, child and maternal mortality, gender discrimination and

subjugation, climate change, illiteracy and pollution war natural disasters have

continued to afflict mankind and decimate human population at what Nwodu

(2007:18) calls unimaginable geometric proportion. Thus, the prospect of achieving

the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015 especially in

developing countries including Nigeria is bleak (Njoku, 2008, Eneh, 2009, FRN,

2010).

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Development as Moemeka (1989:4) conceives it should aim at bettering the human,

cultural, socio-economic and political conditions of the individual and society. At the

level of the individual, it implies increased skill and capacity, greater freedom,

creativity, self-discipline, responsibility and material wellbeing (Rodney, 1972,

1982:1). Similarly, Nwabueze (2007:191) opines that development whether rural or

national should result to beneficial change for the individual and the society at large.

From a national perspective, it has been specified defined as increased skill, capacity

and ability of a nation to utilize the resources in its environment for the upliftment of

the quality of life of its people.

Opubor (1985) posits that meaningful national development can only be achieved

from a rural perspective. He argues further that development plans and programmes

must be designed to have their greatest beneficial impact in the rural areas, that they

must involve labour intensive projects, and also provide a capacity for the neglected

majority of rural Africans to continue to better their lives largely through their own

efforts. This is more so in Nigeria and the South East geopolitical zone where a good

number of people still dwell in rural and sub-urban areas. Chambers (1983) has aptly

described the phenomenon of targeting the rural areas and laying greater emphasis on

meeting their needs and main streaming the rural people in the development process,

as “putting the last first”. Achieving national development in Nigeria and the South

East involves even development of Nigeria, the urban and rural areas and spreading

the benefits of development to all Nigerians, irrespective of gender, age, location,

position and status (Isong, 1985; Ukwu, 1985; Okoye, 1985).

According to Todaro and Smith (2009:16), development must therefore be conceived

of as a multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular

77

attitudes, and national institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the

reduction of inequality, and the eradication of poverty. Development, in its essence,

must represent the whole gamut of change by which an entire social system, tuned to

the diverse basic needs and desires away from a condition of life regarded as

materially and spiritually better (Todaro and Smith, 2009:16).

We may conclude that development is both a physical reality and a state of mind in

which society has, through some combination of social, economic, and institutional

processes secured the means for obtaining a better life. Whatever the specific

components of this better life (development is multidimensional and holistic),

development in all societies must have at least the three core values of sustenance,

self-esteem and freedom (Todaro and Smith, 2009:20). These core values represent

common goals sought by all individuals and societies (Goulet, 1971:23). They relate

to fundamental human needs that find their expression in almost all societies and

cultures at all times (Todaro and Smith, 2009:20).

Other significant values of development are participation, inclusiveness and

sustainability. Sustainable development is the current engaging development thought

of the moment. The most popular definition of sustainable development is “meeting

the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of future

generation” (WCED, 1987). Sustainable development addresses and integrates three

fundamental issues and challenges of mankind, which are economic growth, human

development and environmental conservation (Jhingan, 2007, Soobboina, 2004). To

conclude, sustainable development aims at accelerating economic development in

order to conserve and enhance the stock of environmental, human and physical capital

without making future generations worse off. Thus, meeting the needs of the people

78

in the present generation is essential in order to sustain the needs of future generations

(Jhingan, 2007:22).

2.14 Theoretical Framework

This study will have as its theoretical framework development communication

(DEVCOM) theory. Development communication (DEVCOM) or Development

Support Communication (DSC), as the name implies, is a holistic communication

effort, approach or action designed to mobilize a people towards active participation

in programmes aimed at achieving improved physical, socio-cultural, political and

economic environments for the benefit of man in society (Nwodu, 2007:18). It is the

use of all forms of communication in reporting, publicizing and promotion of

development at all levels of a society (Edeani, 1993:30).

Earlier, Quebral (1985: 27) cited in Okunna (2002:293) defined development

communication as the art and science of human communication applied to the speedy

transformation of a country and the mass of its people. The views of development

communication scholars show that DEVCOM emphasizes self reliance, participation

and ability to learn (Lent, 1987 Ojobor, 2007). There is a preference in the new

DEVCOM model for horizontal instead of vertical information flow and a promotion

of traditional and interpersonal media with attention on the peoples’s culture, belifefs,

attitudes and needs (Ojobor, 2007:49).

Coldevin (1987) therefor wrote that DEVCOm is the systematic utilization of

appropriate communication channels and techniques to increase the peoples’s

participation in development and to inform, motivate and train the rural population,

mainly at grassroots level. For Servaes (1999), DEVCOM is definitely alive and

kicking and can be described as a dialectical process of social change involving

79

struggles for capital accumulation, social mobilization, cultural integration and

political legitimization.

These definitions clearly indicate that development communication is communication

for social change for the better or improved living conditions and quality of life for

the people. According to Nwodu (2007:18), DEVCOM involves:

Sharing development programme objectives among development agents;

Communicating development programme objectives to the programme targets;

Mobilizing development programmes;

Evaluating programme strategies, before, during and after programme

implementation for purpose of enhancing future programme delivery.

DEVCOM also involves the use of appropriate communiation media involviong

traditional media (tradomedia), modern mass media, or a mix of the two (tradomodern

media) in promoting and achieving development outcomes forn the people in their

locality.

DEVCOM is a product of the interface between development and communiation

emanating from the development media theory, a theory made distinctly for situations

in developing antions. This is in view of developing nations’ hunger for development

in the face of poverty, hunger and disease. Faced with globalization and the digital

divide, most developing countries, including Nigeria and its South East geopolitical

zone are desperate for things as basic bood for bead their people. Thus, resources

including the media, need to be chanelled towards achievieng the goal of community,

rural, urban and national developemtn. The media and development scholars,

practitioners and agencies and people are as a result of partners with government to

bring about sustainable development.

80

There are case example models of DEVCOM Theory. The fist is the ACADA model.

As an acronym, ACADA stands for Assessement, Communication, Analysis, Design

and Action. The ACADA DEVCOM model was developed by the United Nations

Children’s Fund (UNICEF) to enable the organization succeed in its Polio

Eradication and Routine Expanded Programme on Immunization Campaigs, as well

as National Immunisation Days Campaign (UNICEF, 2006).

As a DEVCOM model, it is anchored on three satrategies: advocacy, social

mobilization and programme communication. Advocacy seeks to raise resources in

addition to political and social leadership commitment, social mobilization engenders

wider participation in the development programme and enlightens the people about

collective ownership, and programme communication brings about changes in

knowledge attitude and practices among development programme beneficiaries

(Ojobor, 2007: 50).

Secondly, there is the synergistic communication for development (SCD) model

developed by Nwosu (2007). The SCD model emphasizes a holistic philosophy,

orientation, approach and strategy to planning and executing developemtn

programmes and projects among development communication scholars and

practitioners for optimal effectiveness and success. According to Nwosu (2007:12)

“SCD calls for imbibitious and application of team building capabilities among all

communications professionals or practitioners to ensure unity of purpose, more

focused use of their different critical or special knowledge and expertise in working

together for the achievement of development communication objectives. It is a

systematic and professional application of what is known in Igbo Cosmology and

81

community development efforts in Igbo land as “Igwe bu Ike” (unity is strength) as

opposed to “Ike out onye” (one-man show).

SCD requires that all communication professionals or practitioners pull their

resources together in handling the development-related issues and problems of their

various professions, various constituencies, various countries and various peoples

(Nwosu, 2007:12).

The third and last DEVCOM model to be considered in this study is the uses and

certification model. Popularized by communication experts like Blumler and Katz

(1974) but dating back to the 1920s studies of exposure to and influences of the early

radio serials, the uses and members first, for result-oriented development

communication. According to the model, we should not be making the costly mistake

of regarding the audience members as passive. They should be seen for what they

are, as active participants in the communication process who come into it with their

needs, expectations or purposes, electively exposing themselves to, selectively

perceiving the communication messages and selectively remembering them when

they want to use them in making decisions or taking actions (Nwosu, 2007:5). These

are deliberately doen by the target audience members whose responses can be positive

or negative, depending on whether their needs, expectations or purposes are served,

satisfied, gratified or taken care of by the communication message (Nwosu, 2007:6)

More recent attempts by communication experts like Mody (1991), Nwosu (1993),

Nwuneli and Opubar (1999), Nwosu and Nwodu (2006), Nwodu (2005), Fab and

Ukozor (2003) to apply this model to the analysis of DEVCOM efforts in Nigeria and

Africa in achieving development outcomes, share common strategy of audience

sensitivity and audience participation in all communication efforts.

82

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Approach, Enugu: new Generation Books. Onabajo, O. (1995), The Impact of Radio and Television Rural Development

Programmes, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press. Onagoruwa, G.O. (1978), “Press Freedom in Crisis: A Study of the Amakiri Case”.

Nigeria: Mass Media Politics in Changing Cultures. New York: John Wiley. Onunwu, P. (1997), Thoughts on the Development Question, Owerri: Granite-Will. Opubor, A. E. (1985), “Mass Communication and Modern Development in Nigeria”

in Nwuneli, O. (ed) Mass Communication in Nigeria: A Book of Reading, Enugu: Forth Dimension Publishers.

85

Pye, L.W., (1998), "Models of Traditional, Transitional and Modern Communication Qualifications and Notes Towards a Conceptual Model” Africa Media Review, Vol. 1, No. 2.

Rodney, W. (1982), How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, West African Edition,

Enugu: Ikenga Publishers. Rogers, E. M. and Shoemaker, F. F. (1971), Communication of Innovation: A Cross-

Cultural Approach, New York: Free Press. Servaes, J. (1999), “Communication for Development is Alive and Kicking” Media

Development, 2/1999. Todaro, M. P. and Smith, S. C. (2009), Economic Development, Tenth Ediation,

Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Ucheanya, C. C. (2003), “Mass Media and Mass Mobilization for a Peaceful

Elections” in Nwosu, I. E., Fab-Ukozor, N. T. and Nwodu, L. C. (eds) Communication for Sustainable Human Development, Enugu: African Council for Communication Education, ACCE.

Udomisor, I. W. (2007), “Communication, Agriculture and Rural Development”, The

Nigerian Journal of Communications, Vol. 5, No. 1: 175-190. Ugboajah, F.O. (1980), Communication Policies in Nigeria. Paris: UNESCO. Ukwu, I. U. (1985), “Even Development in Nigeria: An Overview” in Nwosu, E. J.

(ed) Achieving Even Development in Nigeria: Problems and Prospects, Enugu: Economic Development Institute, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus.

Umoh, B. D. (2008), “Failure of Force of Arms in Managing the Niger Delta

Conflicts: A Case for the Traditional Mediating Roles of Women”, The Nigerian Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 6; No. 2 71-84.

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United Nations Children’s Fund, UNICEF (2006), Communication Handbook for

Polio Eradication and Routine EPI, New York: UNICEF. Wilcox, D. (1975), Mass Media In Black Africa, New York:.Praeger Publishers. World Commission on Environment and Development, WCED (1987), Our Common

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86

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

In carrying out this research, the researcher employed descriptive research procedure.

This procedure was used because descriptive research gives a picture of a situation

and it serves as a basis for most researches in assessing the situation as a prerequisite

for drawing conclusion. Descriptive research also involves collecting data in order to

test hypotheses or ensure questions covering the study (Ikeagwu, 1998, Akuezuilo and

Agu, 2007). The method applied in this research is the survey method. This method

made use of primary and secondary data to elicit the necessary information required

for this research.

3.2 Sources of Data

Both primary and secondary data were considered pertinent in solving the research

problems.

3.2.1 Primary Sources:

Questionnaire: The researcher used questionnaire to obtain a lot of information from

the respondents. Questions were formulated to generate relevant information to the

study.

3.2.2. Secondary Source:

Relevant information were also obtained from textbooks, records of the three

television stations, journals, magazines and other published and unpublished works on

the subject matter.

87

3.3 Population of the Study

The population of this research comprises of the employees of the three television

stations, on one hand. The second population studied were the consumers of

television services, comprising the viewers and advertisers of products within the

Southeast of Enugu, Anambra and Ebonyi States. The population is regarded as an

INFINITE POPULATION, because the exact population could not be determined.

3.4 Sample Size

It was not possible to study the entire population because of time and financial

constraints. The researcher therefore determined the sample size from the population.

To determine the sample size, the researcher conducted a pilot survey in which 20 of

the research questionnaire was administered randomly on the Management and Staff

of the three Television Stations under study, and the advertisers and viewers of the

Television Stations under study. Out of the 20 questionnaire administered, 17 was

correctly filled and returned, while the remaining 3 was not returned. To calculate the

optimum sample size, the researcher employed or applied the Freund and William’s

method/model of sample size determination, calculated at 95% confidence level of

significance and 5% standard error; the formula is:

n = (2)2 (pg) e2 Where: n = Sample size P = Percentage of positive response Q = Percentage of negative response E = Normal variant for the desired level of confidence n = (1.96)2 (85.15) 52

= 3.8416.1275 25 = 489.04 25 = 195.92

88

With this outcome, the researcher decided to approximate the sample to 200 for easy

administration.

3.5 Sampling

Having obtained a sample size of 200 respondents, efforts were made to ensure

proportionate representation based on the sample size. Having decided the sample to

be drawn from each of the states, the research instruments were allocated based on

judgmental proportionate representation, where seventy copies of the questionnaire

were allotted to Enugu and Anambra States respectively while 60 copies were allotted

to Ebonyi State.

3.6 Validity and Reliability of the Research Instrument

Validity of a research instrument refers to the extent to which the instrument measures

what it is supposed to measure test, and the concept of reliability refers to the degree

of consistency of results obtained (Udegbe, 2007, Osuala, 1991, Chisnall, 1981). The

researcher used the test-retest technique to estimate the reliability of the questionnaire.

By selecting four respondents each, who had filled the questionnaire and giving them

another questionnaire to fill, it was discovered that their responses showed an

appreciable degree of consistency. For the validity, the research instruments were

validated by the project supervisor and a data analyst.

3.7 Instruments Administration

The administration of both the questionnaire and oral interview were carried out from

June 2011 to July, 2011. Structured questionnaires and interview schedule were

administered to the respondents through the direct contact approach. The purpose of

this approach was to reduce the incidence of biased responses and unwillingness on

the part of the respondents, as they were persuaded for compliance. Thus, the

89

respondents were made to know the purpose of the study and encouraged to respond

to questions frankly and completely.

3.8 Data Analysis

Given the array of data generated, quantitative and qualitative analytical techniques

were used. These include tables, percentages, frequencies and charts. The Statistical

Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software was used to test the hypotheses.

3.9 Test of Hypothesis

The statistical tool used in testing and analyzing data in order to arrive at valid

conclusion is the Z-test statistics. The Z-test determines if the responses of the

respondents are normally distributed, i.e. if their responses are distributed around the

mean. The formula for Z-test statistics is:

Z-Test

Z =

Where x = values

µ = mean σ2 = variance n = sample size

3.10 Problems Encountered in the Field

The problems encountered in the field include the poor state of roads infrastructure in

the South-East States (SES), the high illiteracy rate and Igbo language (including

dialects) barrier in the rural areas which necessitated the engagement of interpreters at

additional costs, the field work was carried out during the rainy season which

sometimes necessitated rescheduling of movement which impeded progress, and

reluctance and apathy on the part of some respondents. However, these challenges and

problems were not sufficient to adversely affect the results of the findings.

90

REFERENCES

Akuezuilo, E. O. and Agu, N. (2007), Research and Statistics in Education and Social

Sciences, Awka: Nuel Centi Publishers and Academic Press Limited. Chisnall, P.M. (1981), Marketing Research Analysis and Measurement, Illinois: Illinois Press

Ltd. Ikeagwu, E. K. (1998), Groundwork of Research Methods and Procedures, Enugu:

Institute for Development Studies, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus. Osuala, E. C. (1991), Introduction to Research Methodology; Nsukka: University

Press Ltd. Udegbe, G. I. (2007) “Methods of Data Collection” in Anaekwe, C. (ed) Basic

Research Methods and Statistics in Education and Social Sciences, Onitsha: Sofie Publicity and Printing Limited.

91

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

To analyze the data collected, this chapter is divided into two sections, vis:

questionnaire administration and test of hypotheses. The study sought to determine

and establish the uses and impact of Traditional Communication as effective tool for

grassroots mobilization and development in South-East, Nigeria, with a particular

focus on Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu States.

4.1 PRESENTATION OF DATA

Data collected in the course of this study is presented descriptively using frequency

tables, percentages and charts.

4.1.1 Return Rate of Questionnaire

Out of 200 copies of the questionnaire that were administered, 175 copies were

successfully filled and returned. This constituted 87.5% of the administered copies.

The remaining 12.5% (25 copies) were either not correctly or completed filled. This

is presented in details in table 4.1

Table 4.1: Return Rate of Questionnaire Area Administered (%) Successfully Filled

and Returned (%) Unsuccessfully Filled and Returned (%)

Anambra 70 (100) 63 (90.0) 7 (10.0) Ebonyi 60 (100) 52 (86.7) 8 (13.3) Enugu 70 (100) 60 (85.7) 10 (4.3) Total 200 (100) 175 (87.5) 25 (12.5)

Source: Field Survey, 2011

92

0

10

2030

40

50

60

70

Anambra Ebonyi Enugu

Successfully Filled and Returned

Unsuccessfully Filled and Returned

Fig. 4.1: Return Rate of Questionnaire

4.1.2 Sex

The distribution of the respondents by their sex is presented in table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Distribution by Sex

Sex Frequency Percentage (%)

Male 106 60.6

Female 69 39.4

Total 175 100

Source: Field Survey, 2011

Male

Female

Fig. 4.2: Bar Chart showing Sex Distribution of Respondents

From the above study, 60.6% of the sampled respondents are males while 39.4% are

females. This indicates that more of the study group consisted of males.

93

4.1.3 Age

The age categorisation of the sampled respondents is presented in table 4.3.

Table 4.3: Age Categorisation of Respondents

Age Group Frequency Percentage (%)

18 – 25 26 14.9

26 – 35 49 28.0

36 – 45 44 25.1

46 – 55 37 21.1

56 and above 19 10.9

Total 175 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0

10

20

30

40

50

18 – 25 26 – 35 36 – 45 46 – 55 56 and above

Fig. 4.3: Chart Showing Age Category of Respondents

Based on the categorisation of the respondents, 28% of the respondents were between

26 and 35 years old, followed 25.1% of the respondents who were between 36 and 45

years old. The least number of respondents (10.9%) were 56 years old and above.

This shows that more of the staff of the sampled organizations were within their prime

age, while those within the retirement age were the fewest in the organizations.

94

4.1.4 Marital Status

The distribution of the respondents based on their marital status is presented in table

Table 4.4: Distribution by Marital Status

Marital Status Frequency Percentage (%)

Married 88 50.3

Single 58 33.1

Divorced/Separated 18 10.3

Widowed 11 6.3

Total 175 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Married Single Divorced/Separated Widowed

Fig. 4.4: Chart Showing Marital Status Distribution of Respondents

50.3% of the respondents are married, followed by the singles that constitute 33.1% of

the respondents. Divorced/separated and widowed sampled respondents are 10.3%

and 6.3% respectively. This shows that more of the study population comprise of

married persons.

4.1.5 Educational Qualification

The distribution of the sampled respondents based on their educational qualification is

presented in table 4.5.

95

Table 4.5: Distribution by Educational Qualification Educational Qualification Frequency Percentage (%)

SSCE 48 27.4

OND/NCE 35 20.0

HND/BSc 76 43.5

MSc 16 9.1

Total 175 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

SSCE OND/NCE HND/BSc MSc

Fig. 4.5: Chart Classification of Respondents by Educational Qualification

With 43.5% and 9.1% of the respondents having a minimum of HND/BSc and MSc

respectively, the sampled group comprises of more respondents that have acquired

tertiary level of education.

4.1.6 Occupation

The distribution of the respondents according to their occupation is presented in table

4.6.

96

Table 4.6: Distribution by Occupation

Occupation Frequency Percentage (%)

Business 34 19.4

Civil Servant 65 37.1

Media Practitioner 15 8.6

Farmer 39 22.3

Others 22 12.6

Total 175 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Business Civil Servant MediaPractitioner

Farmer Others

Fig. 4.6: Chart Classification of Respondents by Educational Qualification

37.1% of the respondents are civil servants, constituting a higher frequency of the

study group, followed by farmers being 22.3% of the sampled respondents. Media

practitioners were the least in number (8.6%) among all the sampled occupation.

4.1.7 Knowledge of Traditional Media

The opinion of the respondents on their knowledge of traditional media is presented in

table 4.7.

97

Table 4.7: Knowledge of Traditional Media

Occupation Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 175 100.0

No 0 0.0

Not Sure 0 0.0

Total 175 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0 50 100 150 200

Yes

No

Not Sure

Fig. 4.7: Knowledge of Traditional Media All the sampled respondents (100%) noted that they know what traditional media is;

hence the appropriateness of their participation in the study.

4.1.8 Awareness of Traditional Media used in South East Nigeria

The respondents’ awareness of traditional media used in the South East Nigeria is

presented in table 4.8.

Table 4.8: Awareness of Traditional Media used in South East Nigeria

Occupation Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 175 100.0

No 0 0.0

Not Sure 0 0.0

Total 175 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

98

0 50 100 150 200

Yes

No

Not Sure

Fig. 4.8: Awareness of Traditional Media Usage in South East Nigeria All the respondents (100%) noted that they are aware the usage of traditional media in

the south east Nigeria.

4.1.9 Available Traditional Media in South East Nigeria

The opinion of the respondents on the traditional media being used in the South East

Nigeria is presented in table 4.9.

Table 4.9 Available Traditional Media in South East Nigeria

n =175 Available Traditional Media Frequency Percentage (%)

Town Crier 175 100.0

Music and Dances 69 39.4

Native Language 32 18.3

Folklores 81 46.3

Divination 30 17.1

Eze and his cabinet 171 97.7

Church 120 68.6

Proverbs 15 8.6

Small group meetings 101 57.7

Festivals 135 77.1

Age grades 162 92.6

Town union meeting 172 98.3

Source: Field Survey, 2011

99

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Town Crier

Music and Dances

Native Language

Folklores

Divination

Eze and his cabinet

Church

Proverbs

Small group meetings

Festivals

Age grades

Town union meeting

Fig. 4.9: Traditional Media used in South East Nigeria

Table 4.9 shows that the sampled respondents opined that the major traditional media

used in South East Nigeria are town crier (100%), town union meetings (98.3%), Eze

and his cabinet (97.7%), age grades (92.6%), festivals (77.1%), Church (68.6%) and

small group meetings (57.7%). Other media pointed out are folklores (46.3%), music

and dances (39.4%), native language (18.3%), divination (17.1%) and proverbs

(8.6%).

4.1.10 Use of Traditional Media for Grassroots Mobilization

The respondents’ perception on the applicability of traditional media as a medium for

grassroots mobilization is presented in table 4.10.

100

Table 4.10: Use of Traditional Media for Grassroots Mobilisation

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 139 79.4

No 10 5.7

Not Sure 26 14.9

Total 175 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Yes No Not Sure

Fig. 4.10: Use of Traditional Media for Grassroots Mobilisation

Majority of the respondents (79.4%) said that the traditional media available in the

South East Nigeria can be used as a medium for grassroots mobilization. This

indicates that the variously listed traditional media in table 4.9 can be used to achieve

grassroots mobilization.

4.1.11 Effectiveness of Traditional Media in Grassroots Mobilisation

The extent of effectiveness of traditional media in grassroots mobilization, as

perceived by the respondents, is presented in table 4.11.

101

Table 4.11 Effectiveness of Traditional Media in Grassroots Mobilisation and Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Very Effective 93 66.9

Effective 31 22.3

Not Effective 15 10.8

Total 139 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0

20

40

60

80

100

Very Effective Effective Not Effective

Fig. 4.11: Use of Traditional Media for Grassroots Mobilisation

Out of the 139 respondents that noted that traditional media in the South East Nigeria

can be used for grassroots mobilization, most of the respondents (66.9%) noted that

its use can be very effective while 22.3% of the respondents said it can be effective.

From this, the respondents are of the opinion that the use of traditional media in the

South East Nigeria is effective in grassroots mobilization.

4.1.12 Use of Traditional Media in Grassroots Development

The applicability of traditional media in grassroots development as perceived by the

sampled respondents is presented in table 4.12.

102

Table 4.12: Use of Traditional Media in Grassroots Development

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 152 86.9

No 0 0.0

Not Sure 23 13.1

Total 175 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Yes No Not Sure

Fig. 4.12: Use of Traditional Media in Grassroots Development

152 respondents (86.9%) noted that traditional media can be used in grassroots

development. Hence, the sampled group affirms that traditional media can be tool in

grassroots development in the South East Nigeria.

4.1.13 Application of Traditional Communication Media

The ways traditional media can be applied in grassroots development in the South

East Nigeria are presented in table 4.13.

103

Table 4.13: Application of Traditional Media n = 175

Application Frequency Percentage (%)

Through sensitization of the town crier 161 92.0

Music and dancing should be targeted at informing and not just

entertainment

92 52.6

The use of native language by indigenes to preach oneness and

togetherness in developing our motherland

172 98.3

The Eze and his cabinet should be forbearers to identify projects in their

community and ensure that they are carried out

113 64.6

Small group meetings should be focused on actualization of government

agendas for the locality

86 49.1

Church pastors and leaders should support the community projects,

morally and prayerfully

33 18.9

Festivals should be targeted at bringing all sons and daughters from

Diaspora to support the development of the community

175 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

The respondents noted that major ways in which traditional media in the South East

Nigeria can be used in grassroots development is by designing and implementing

festivals to ensure the participation of sons and daughters in Diaspora in community

development (100%), using native language to preach oneness and togetherness

among indigenes in developing the motherland (98.3%), ensuring the sensitization of

the town crier (92%), identifying and carrying out of community projects by the Eze

and his cabinet (64.6%), and targeting music and dancing at informing the grassroots

and not mere entertainment (52.6%).

4.1.14 Extent of Traditional Media Usage in Grassroots Development

The extent to which the respondents perceive that traditional media can be used in

grassroots development in the South East Nigeria is presented in table 4.14.

104

Table 4.14: Extent of Traditional Media Usage in Grassroots Development

Extent Frequency Percentage (%)

Very great extent 45 29.6

Great extent 95 62.5

Little extent 12 7.9

Total 152 100

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0

20

40

60

80

100

Very great extent Great extent Little extent

Fig. 4.13: Extent of Traditional Media Usage in Grassroots Development

Only 7.9% of the respondents said that traditional media communication can be used

for grassroots development in the South East to a little extent. This shows that the

respondents generally believe that traditional media communication can be used for

grassroots development in the South East Nigeria.

4.1.15 Achieved Major Grassroots Projects

The major grassroots projects that the respondents believe have been achieved

through the use of traditional media communication are presented in table 4.15.

105

Table 4.15: Achieved Major Grassroots Projects n = 175

Project Frequency Percentage (%)

Road Construction 141 80.6

Free Antenatal Care 102 58.3

Provision of Fertilizer for farmers 38 21.7

Youth Skills’ Acquisition Programmes 52 29.7

Provision of Electricity 91 52

Provision of good Pipe Borne Water 29 16.6

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Road Construction

Free Antenatal Care

Provision of Fertilizer forfarmers

Youth Skills’ AcquisitionProgrammes

Provision of Electricity

Provision of good PipeBorne Water

Fig. 4.14: Achieved Major Projects

Among all the listed major projects in table 4.15 that the respondents indicated have

been achieved through traditional media communication, road construction (80.6%)

and provision of free antenatal care (58.3%) are the major projects that the

respondents agree have been achieved.

106

4.1.16 Positioning of Traditional Media Communication

The opinion of the respondents on whether there is a better way of repositioning the

traditional media communication to reach the rural populace is presented in table

4.16.

Table 4.16: Repositioning Traditional Media Communication

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 170 97.1

No 0 0.0

Not Sure 5 2.9

Total 175 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0

50

100

150

200

Yes No Not Sure

Fig. 4.15: Repositioning Traditional Media Communication

Majority of the respondents (97.1%) noted that there is a better way of positioning the

traditional media communication to reach the rural populace.

4.1.17 Ways of Using Traditional Media Communication

The ways suggested by the respondents in using traditional media communication to

reach the rural populace is presented in table 4.17.

107

Table 4.17: Ways of Using Traditional Media Communication n = 170

Ways Frequency Percentage (%)

Ensuring massive participation of rural dwellers in

community activities

170 100.0

Government partnering with traditional rulers to

inform them of their plans and programmes

130 76.5

Rural populace should be informed of getting

national news through the traditional media

73 42.9

Leaders of age grades, town unions and other

special groups should be news carriers rather than

story carriers

52 30.6

Each meeting should have a headline for

discussion or adoption or celebration

103 60.6

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Ensuring massive participation of rural dwellers incommunity activities

Government partnering with traditional rulers toinform them of their plans and programmes

Rural populace should be informed of getting nationalnews through the traditional media

Leaders of age grades, town unions and other specialgroups should be news carriers rather than story

carriers

Each meeting should have a headline for discussion oradoption or celebration

Fig. 4.16: Ways of Using Traditional Media Communication

From table 4.17, the most commonly suggested way of using traditional media is

ensuring massive participation of rural dwellers in community activities (100%),

followed by government partnering with traditional rulers to inform them of their

108

plans and programmes (76.5%) and ensuring that each meeting has a headline for

discussion or adoption or celebration (60.6%).

4.1.18 Availability of Hindrances to Traditional Media Communication

The perception of the respondents on whether there is any hindrance to use of

traditional media communication is presented in table 4.18.

Table 4.18: Availability of Hindrances to Traditional Media Communication Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 115 65.7

No 50 28.6

Not Sure 10 5.7

Total 175 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Yes No Not Sure

Fig. 4.17: Availability of Hindrances to Traditional Media Communication There are hindrances that could be encountered when using the traditional media

communication, as indicated by majority of the respondents (65.7%).

4.1.19 Hindrances to Traditional Media Communication

The perceived hindrances to traditional media communication are presented in table

4.19.

109

Table 4.19: Hindrances to Traditional Media Communication n = 115

Hindrances Frequency Percentage

(%)

Disruption of Information 113 98.3

Lack of trust on the sender 78 67.8

Inability to understand the content of message 18 15.7

Inability of sender to relay the message in clear terms 112 97.4

Untrained trado-media personnel 32 27.8

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Disruption of Information

Lack of trust on the sender

Inability to understand thecontent of message

Inability of sender to relaythe message in clear terms

Untrained trado-mediapersonnel

Fig. 4.18: Hindrances to Traditional Media Communication

The respondents noted that disruption of information (98.3%), inability of sender to

relay the message in clear terms (97.4%) and lack of trust on the part of the sender

(67.8%) are the main hindrances to traditional media communication. However,

untrained trado-media personnel (27.8%) and inability of sender to relay the message

(15.7%) in clear terms were also pointed out to be hindrances to traditional media

communication.

110

4.1.20 Suggestions to Reducing Hindrances

Responses on how to reduce the hindrances to effective use of traditional media

communication are presented in table 4.20.

Table 4.20: Suggestions to Reducing Hindrances

Suggestions Frequency Percentage

(%)

Mass media personnel should be engaged to train traditional

media communicators

42 36.5

Messages should be announced more than once to ensure

clarity and comprehension

32 27.8

Key persons should discuss the content of the message for

full understanding before the rural dwellers are informed

21 18.3

The sender/source of the message should be a person that is

honest and trustworthy

20 17.4

Total 115 100

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Mass media personnel should be engaged to traintraditional media communicators

Messages should be announced more than once toensure clarity and comprehension

Key persons should discuss the content of themessage for full understanding before the rural

dwellers are informed

The sender/source of the message should be aperson that is honest and trustworthy

Fig. 4.19: Suggestions to Reducing Hindrances

As presented in table 4.20, the suggestions made by the respondents to reducing

hindrances to traditional media communication are mass media personnel should be

engaged to train traditional media communicators (36.5%), messages should be

111

announced more than once to ensure clarity and comprehension (27.8%), key persons

should discuss the content of the message for full understanding before the rural

dwellers are informed (18.3%) and the sender/source of the message should be a

person that is honest and trustworthy (17.4%).

Communication 4.1.21 Availability of Policies/Projects that Boost Use of Trado-Media

The respondents’ opinions on whether there were policies or projects that can be used

to boost the use of trado-media are presented in table 4.21.

Table 4.21: Availability of Policies/Projects that Boost Use of Trado-Media Communication Responses Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 145 82.9

No 10 5.7

Not Sure 20 11.4

Total 175 100

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Yes No Not Sure

Fig. 4.19: Availability of Policies/Projects that Boost Trado-Media Communication From the responses presented in table 4.21, as opined by 82.9% of the sampled

respondents, there are policies/projects that can boost the use of trado-media in the

South East Nigeria.

112

4.1.2 Suggested Policies/Projects for Implementation

The suggestions of the respondents on the policies/projects that should be

implemented are presented in table 4.22 below.

Table 4.22: Suggested Policies/Projects for Implementation

n = 145 Suggestions Frequency Percentage (%)

The village town halls should be used as a trado-media

broadcasting house at least twice in a week, where relevant

information will be relayed to the rural dwellers

125 86.2

All farmers should belong to a union that meet at least once

in a month, to deliberate on how best to improve farming

activities

100 67.0

Monthly information programmes in the village 140 96.6

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

The village town halls should be used as a trado-mediabroadcasting house at least twice in a week, where

relevant information will be relayed to the ruraldwellers

All farmers should belong to a union that meet at leastonce in a month, to deliberate on how best to improve

farming activities

Monthly information programmes in the village

Fig. 4.20: Suggested Policies/Projects for Implementation

Policies/projects suggested by the sampled respondents that can be used to boost

trado-media in the South East Nigeria are monthly information programmes in the

village (96.6%), the village town halls should be used as a trado-media broadcasting

house at least twice in a week, where relevant information will be relayed to the rural

113

dwellers (86.2%), and all farmers belonging to a union that meets at least once in a

month, to deliberate on how best to improve farming activities (67%).

4.1.23 Possibility of Combined Usage of Mass and Traditional Media Communication The opinions of the respondents on whether mass media and traditional media can be

used together for grassroots development and mobilization in the South East Nigeria

are presented in table 4.23 below.

Table 4.23: Possibility of Combined Usage of Mass and Traditional Media Communication Responses Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 175 100.0

No 0 0.0

Not Sure 0 0.0

Total 175 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0

50

100

150

200

Yes No Not Sure

Fig. 4.22: Possibility of Combined Usage of Mass and Traditional Media Communication All the respondents (100%) agreed that mass media and traditional media can be used

together to enhance grassroots development and mobilization in the South East

Nigeria.

114

4.1.24 Ways of Combining Mass and Traditional Media

The ways the respondents perceived that mass media and traditional media could be

used together towards grassroots development and mobilization in the South East

Nigeria are presented in table 4.24.

Table 4.24: Ways of Combining Mass and Traditional Media

Suggestions Frequency Percentage (%)

Through partnership to bring programme knowledge to rural

populace

70 40.0

To use a simple medium such as radio programmes 65 37.1

Locally organized programmes in the mass media 40 22.9

Total 175 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2011

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Through partnership tobring programme

knowledge to ruralpopulace

To use a simple mediumsuch as radio programmes

Locally organizedprogrammes in the mass

media

Fig. 4.23: Ways of Combining Mass and Traditional Media

The suggested ways of combining mass media and traditional media to achieve

grassroots development and mobilization are through partnership to bring programme

knowledge to the rural populace (40%), the use of a simple medium such as radio

programmes (37.1%) and locally organized programmes in the mass media (22.9%).

115

4.2 TEST OF HYPOTHESES

In pursuit of the objectives of this study, the variously stated hypotheses were tested

using the Z-test statistics. The results are presented and discussed below.

4.2.1 Test of Hypothesis One

This is restated in the null and alternative forms

HO: Traditional Media cannot be used for effective grassroots mobilisation

Data presented in table 4.10 was used in this test. Table 4.25: Non-Parametric Z-Tests Result for Hypothesis One can traditional media be

used for effective national communication?

N 175 Normal Parametersa,,b Mean 1.3543

Std. Deviation .72728 Most Extreme Differences

Absolute .481 Positive .481 Negative -.313

Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z 6.366 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000 a. Test distribution is Normal. b. Calculated from data. From the above table, the mean response value of 1.3543 was obtained. This

indicates that the respondents are of the opinion that traditional media can be used for

effective grassroots mobilisation. With a calculated Z-test value of 6.366, which is

greater than the critical Z-value (at 95% level of significance) of 1.96, and with an

asymptotic significance of 0.000 < 0.05, this conclusion is valid and significant.

Thus, the null hypothesis should be rejected and the alternative hypothesis accepted.

Therefore, traditional media can be used for effective grassroots mobilisation .

116

4.2.2 Test of Hypothesis Two

This is restated in the null and alternative forms

HO: There are no trado-media tools for grassroots development

Data presented in table 4.12 was used for this test.

Table 4.26: Non-Parametric Z-Tests Result for Hypothesis Two are there traditional media

communication tools that can be used for grassroots development?

N 175 Normal Parametersa,,b Mean 1.2629

Std. Deviation .67768 Most Extreme Differences

Absolute .520 Positive .520 Negative -.349

Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z 6.873 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000 a. Test distribution is Normal. b. Calculated from data. From the above table, the mean response value of 1.2629 was obtained. This

indicates that the respondents are of the opinion that there are traditional media

communication tools that can be used for grassroots development. With a calculated

Z-test value of 6.873, which is greater than the critical Z-value (at 95% level of

significance) of 1.96, and with an asymptotic significance of 0.000 < 0.05, this

conclusion is valid and significant. Thus, the null hypothesis should be rejected and

the alternative hypothesis accepted. Therefore, there are traditional media tools for

grassroots development.

4.2.3 Test of Hypothesis Three

This is restated in the null and alternative forms

HO: Traditional media cannot be strategically used to reach the rural

populace

117

Data presented in table 4.16 was used in testing this hypothesis.

Table 4.27: Non-Parametric Z-Tests Result for Hypothesis Three can traditional media be used

to strategically reach the rural populace?

N 175 Normal Parametersa,,b Mean 1.0571

Std. Deviation .33415 Most Extreme Differences

Absolute

39 Positive .539 Negative -.432

Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z 7.135 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000 a. Test distribution is Normal. b. Calculated from data. From the above table, the mean response value of 1.0571 was obtained. This

indicates that the respondents are of the opinion that traditional media can be used to

strategically reach the rural populace. With a calculated Z-test value of 7.135, which

is greater than the critical Z-value (at 95% level of significance) of 1.96, and with an

asymptotic significance of 0.000 < 0.05, this conclusion is valid and significant.

Thus, the null hypothesis should be rejected and the alternative hypothesis accepted.

Therefore, traditional media can be strategically used to reach the rural populace.

4.2.4 Test of Hypothesis Four

This is restated in the null and alternative forms

HO: There are no significant hindrances to the effective utilization of

traditional media

118

Data presented in table 4.18 was used in testing this hypothesis.

Table 4.28: Non-Parametric Z-Tests Result for Test of Hypothesis Four are there hindrances to the effective

utilisation of traditional media communication?

N 175 Normal Parametersa,,b Mean 1.4000

Std. Deviation .59693 Most Extreme Differences

Absolute .406 Positive .406 Negative -.251

Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z 5.368 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000 a. Test distribution is Normal. b. Calculated from data. From the above table, the mean response value of 1.4000 was obtained. This

indicates that the respondents are of the opinion that there are hindrances that could be

encountered when using the traditional media communication. With a calculated Z-

test value of 5.368, which is greater than the critical Z-value (at 95% level of

significance) of 1.96, and with an asymptotic significance of 0.000 < 0.05, this

conclusion is valid and significant. Thus, the null hypothesis should be rejected and

the alternative hypothesis accepted. Therefore, there are significant hindrances to the

effective utilization of traditional media.

4.2.5 Test of Hypothesis Five

This is restated in the null and alternative forms

HO: There are no policies/projects to boost the use of trado-media

119

Data presented in table 4.21 was used in testing this hypothesis.

Table 4.29: Non-Parametric Z-Tests Result for Hypothesis Five are there policies/projects that

boost the use of trado-media?

N 175 Normal Parametersa,,b Mean 1.2857

Std. Deviation .65965 Most Extreme Differences

Absolute .496 Positive .496 Negative -.332

Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z 6.563 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000 a. Test distribution is Normal. b. Calculated from data. From the above table, the mean response value of 1.2857 was obtained. This indicates

that the respondents are of the opinion that there are policies/projects that boost the

use of trado-media. With a calculated Z-test value of 6.563, which is greater than the

critical Z-value (at 95% level of significance) of 1.96, and with an asymptotic

significance of 0.000 < 0.05, this conclusion is valid and significant. Thus, the null

hypothesis should be rejected and the alternative hypothesis accepted. Therefore,

there are policies/projects to boost the use of trado-media.

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CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

This study was carried out on the uses and impact of traditional communication as

effective tools for grass root mobilization and development with a focus on South-

East Nigeria. The findings of this study are:

5.1 Use of Traditional Communication Media in Grassroots Mobilization

From the study it was revealed that there were various forms of traditional

communication media, foremost of which were town crier, age grades, town union

meetings, Eze and his cabinet, church, small group meetings and festivals. These

media had served in various ways and times as channels of information dissemination

in the South East Nigeria. Upon review of their relevance in national communication,

it was revealed that these media can be used in national communication and can be

very effective if used. This assertion is premised on the fact that in the South-East

Nigeria, which has more rural settings than urban settings and where cultural practices

are still being observed, the more efficient way of communication has been through

these traditional media. Based on this, while the government emphasizes on modern

mass media to enhance mobilization and development, the need for the integration of

traditional communication is imperative. This finding is in agreement with the work of

Chude (2007).

5.2 Traditional Communication Media Tools and Grassroots Development

As shown in the findings to objective one, there are traditional communication media

that are in use in the South East Nigeria. These tools have been effective in

information dissemination; and as a result, in agreement in the findings of this study,

these tools have important roles to play in grassroots mobilization and development.

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However, the study pointed out that the effectiveness of these tools can only be assured

when town criers are sensitized to the purpose of the function, that music and dancing

as well as festivities, group meetings and religious gatherings are geared towards

information and education and not mere entertainment and ecstasy even though they

cohere on human development. The role of the Eze and his cabinet in being custodians

of culture and community projects and implementation was pointed. With this being

the case, the study revealed that traditional media tools will significantly enhance

grassroots mobilization and development, as it had enhanced the implementation of

certain grassroots projects in the South East Nigeria like road constructions, provision

of free antenatal care, provision of fertilizers for farmers as well as provision of youth

skills’ acquisition programmes, good pipe borne water and electricity.

5.3 Strategic Role of Traditional Communication in Reaching Rural Populace

This study showed that traditional communication media has the prospects of

enhancing grassroots mobilization and development in the South-East Nigeria.

However, this is only achievable by its ability to strategically reach the rural populace

with the right information and at a timely manner. The study showed that to ensure

this, traditional communication media should be positioned and repositioned by being

geared towards ensuring that there is massive participation of rural dwellers in

community activities, partnership of government and traditional rulers towards

programme information and national as well as international news that will provide

information on grassroots developmental issues and the need for every leader in the

South East Nigeria to inform and not misinform the led. These are possible because of

the informal, interpersonal nature and culture specific of traditional media, advantages

they have over the modern mass media. This finding tallies with the works of

Nwabueze (2006, 2007), Chukwu (2006) and Nwodu and Nwanmuo (2006).

122

5.4 Hindrances to Effective Utilisation of Traditional Communication Media

Utilisation of traditional media in the South East Nigeria towards grassroots

mobilization and development are not without challenges. These challenges include,

but are not limited to, the disruption of information, lack of trust in the sender, inability

to understand the message content, inability of the sender to relay the message in

understandable terms; and untrained trado-media personnel. The effect of these

hindrances has been significant as they have contributed to the state of grassroots

mobilization and development in the South-East Nigeria. Because of the de-emphasis

on trado-media and more emphasis on modern communication media, traditional media

have been plagued with unqualified and untrained personnel who lack the effective

communication skills, in the native language of the reached. However, the study

revealed that in attempt to combat these hindrances, there is need for the engagement

of mass media practitioners to train traditional media communicators on effective

communication process.

5.5 Policies/Projects that Boost Use of Traditional Communication-Media

To enhance the effectiveness of the trado-media in the South East Nigeria, there is need

for the implementation of certain policies or projects. These policies/projects will

ensure that there is a boost to the use of trado-media in the actualization of grassroots

mobilization and development. Some of the suggested policies/projects are the usage

of village town halls as a trado-media broadcasting house at least twice weekly,

instituting of and compliance to trade and craft unions and town meetings and monthly

information programmes in the South East Nigeria.

To further ensure that the trado-media receives a boost, they should be used in

conjunction with the mass media, whether electronic or print, and particularly through

123

the partnership of government and traditional rulers and locally organized programmes

in the mass media. This finding and suggestion agrees with the views of Chukwu

(2006), Nwabueze (2006, 2007), Odulami (2006), Nwodu and Nwamuo (2006) and

Enighe (2006).

124

REFERENCES

Chukwu, C. O (2006), “The Inter-Face of Traditional African Communication and the Modern Mass Media” in Nwosu, I. E. and Nsude, I. (eds) Trado-Modern Communication Systems: Interfaces and Dimensions, Enugu: Immaculate Publications limited.

Nwabueze, C. (2006), “Synergizing the Traditional and Modern Mass Media for

Sustainable Development Communication in Africa” in Nwosu, I. E. and Nsude, I. (eds) Trado-Modern Communication Systems: Interfaces and Dimensions, Enugu: Immaculate Publications limited.

Nwabueze, C. D. (2007), “Role of the Traditional Media in Grassroots Mobilization

and Poverty Reduction for Sustainable Human Development” in Nwosu, I. E., Fab-Ukozor, N. T and Nwodu, L. C. (eds) Communication for Sustainable Human Development, Enugu: African Council For Communication Education, ACCE.

Nwodu, L. C. and Nwanmuo, A. N. (2006), “Harmonizing Trado-Media Contents for

Developing Purposes” in Nwosu, I. E. and Nsude, I. (eds) Trado-Modern Communication Systems: Interfaces and Dimensions, Enugu: Immaculate Publications limited.

Odunlami, D. (2006), “An Examination of the Application and Relevance of Des

Wilson’s Taxonomy of Traditional Media Systems in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart” in Nwosu, I. E. and Nsude, I. (eds) Trado-Modern Communication Systems: Interfaces and Dimensions, Enugu: Immaculate Publications limited.

125

CHAPTER SIX

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The various data gathered have been presented and analyzed in chapter four. This

chapter therefore, will discuss issues generated from the analysis and make

recommendations accordingly.

6.1 Summary of Findings

The findings of this study revealed that in the South East Nigeria;

Traditional Communication can be used for effective grassroots mobilisation ;

There are traditional communication media tools for grassroots development;

Traditional communication media can be strategically used to reach the rural

populace;

There are significant hindrances to effective utilization of traditional

communication media; and

There are particular policies/projects that boost the use of traditional

communication media.

6.2 Conclusion

Any message designed for the rural populace that does not share the same frame of

reference with the majority of the masses that constitute the target audience before,

and for whom the messages are meant, will surely not meet the objective of the

project/program as such gesture will amount to exercise in futility. This is because

most government and development agencies carry out their projects or programmes at

the rural areas with the belief that they understand the villagers very well to be poor

and therefore, have no choice, that whatever they (villagers) are given is acceptable

by them.

126

Lack of education or improper sensitization programmes hinder the full and better

appreciation of most government and development agencies’

plans/programmes/projects by the rural dwellers thereby making them ignorant,

apathetic, hostile and prejudiced towards any development project that is destined for

them.

Continuous preference and dominance of modern communication over traditional

communication will adversely affect our traditional and cultural system, as this will

gradually and surely erode our traditional values, norms and cultural heritage. Thus,

for effective grassroots mobilization and development, traditional communication or

tradomedia is very critical.

6.3 Recommendations

Messages and programmes/projects targeted at the rural populace should be

well designed in line with the wishes and aspirations of the rural populace

through adequate and thorough research on their needs.

There should be adequate and proper education and sensitization programmes

aimed at bringing to the ruralites’ awareness the gains of development

projects, and this should be done through the best and most relevant traditional

media

There should be proper funding of traditional media of communication, as this

will help to preserve our values, norms and heritage.

There should be involvement of traditionally inclined persons (e.g members of

a particular rural area a project is to be executed; chieftaincy Title Holders,

rural-based youths and market women, rural- based clergy men/women, rural-

based government/development officers) so as to ensure and enhance easy

127

relationship which can only be guaranteed through goodwill, better

understanding and co-operation.

In as much as modern communication promises and assures easy and faster

mobilization and development, there should be more emphasis on traditional

communication than modern communication in times of rural project

execution, mobilization, support and development, this is because of the fact

that the rural populace have been exposed to it and are so used for it. Again,

the traditional communication creates a better forum for clarification over

certain issues that might seem ambiguous, and this helps to guarantee better

understanding and appreciation. At best, an integration of traditional and

modern (tradomodern) communication is strongly recommended.

6.4 Suggestions for Further Research

1. Uses and Impact of Modern Communication for Grassroots Mobilisation and

Development

2 Uses and Impact of Traditional and Modern Communication in Grassroots

Mobilisation and Development

128

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APPENDIX

RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

Institute for Development Studies

University of Nigeria

Enugu Campus,

Enugu.

April, 2011.

Dear Respondent,

This questionnaire is designed by a postgraduate student of University of Nigeria,

Enugu Campus, it is meant for collecting data for a study titled “Uses and Impact of

Traditional Communication as effective tools for grassroots mobilization and

development”, with a focus on south-East Nigeria.

This is in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of a postgraduate Master

of Science (M.Sc) in development Studies. You are therefore, required to tick where

appropriate. Please, be assured that all information supplied will be treated with

utmost confidentially.

Thanks.

Yours faithfully,

Ilo, VinMartin

134

1. Sex (a) Male [ ] (b) Female [ ]

2. Age (a) 18 – 25 [ ] (b) 26 – 35 [ ] (c) 36 – 45 [ ]

(d) 46 – 55 [ ] (e) 56 and above

3. Marital Status

(a) Married [ ] (b). Single [ ] (c) Divorced [ ]

(d) Widowed [ ] (e) Separated [ ]

4. Educational qualification

(a) SSCE [ ] (b) OND/NCE [ ] (c) HND/B.Sc [ ]

(d) M.Sc [ ]

5. Area of Resident

(a) Anambra [ ] (b) Ebonyi [ ] (c) Enugu [ ]

6. What is your occupation

(a) Business [ ] (b) Civil servant [ ] (c) Media practitioner [ ]

(d) Farmer [ ] (e) If other specify ………………………………

7. Do you know what traditional media is?

(a) Yes [ ] (b) No [ ] (c) Not Sure [ ]

8. If yes are you aware of the traditional media used in South-East Nigeria

(a) Yes [ ] (b) No [ ]

9. Can you identify among the below listed the traditional media used in the

South East Nigeria

(a) Town Crier [ ]

(b) Music and dances [ ]

(c) Nature language [ ]

(d) Folk lores [ ]

(e) Diviation [ ]

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(f) Eze and his Cabinent [ ]

(g) Church [ ]

(h) Small group meetings [ ]

(i) Festivals [ ]

(j) Age grades [ ]

(k) Town union meeting [ ]

10. Can the listed media in (9 above) be used as a medium for national

communication?

(a) Yes [ ] (b) No [ ] (c) Not sure [ ]

11. If yes, how effective can it be used for the flow of national communiation?

(a) Very effective [ ] (b) Effective [ ] (c) Not effective

12. Can these media listed in (9) be used for grassroots development?

(a) Yes [ ] (b) No [ ] (c) Not sure [ ]

13. If yes, identify among the below listed way how they can be used?

(a) Through sensitization of the town crier [ ]

(b) Music and dancing should be targeted at informing and not fust

entertainment [ ]

(c) The use of native language by indigenizes to preach oneness and

togetherness in developing our mother land [ ]

(d) The Eze and his cabinet should be fore bearers to identify projects in their

community and ensure that they are carried out [ ]

(e) Small group meeting should be focus on actualization of government

agendas for the locality [ ]

(f) Church pastors and leaders should support community projects through

morally and prayerfully? [ ]

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(g) Festivals should be targeted at bring all sons and daughters from dispora to

support the development of the community [ ]

14. To what extend do you believe that traditional media communication can be

used for grassroots development?

(a) To a very great extend [ ]

(b) To a great extend [ ]

(c) To a little extend [ ]

(d) To no extend [ ]

15. Can you identify a major grassroots project that has been achieved through the

use of traditional media communication

(a) Road construction [ ]

(b) Free antenatal cares [ ]

(c) Fertilizer for farmers [ ]

(d) Youth skills acquisition programmes [ ]

(e) Provision of electricity [ ]

(f) Good pipe borne water [ ]

16. Are there any better way of positioning the traditional media communication

to reach the rural populace

(a) Yes [ ] (b) No [ ] (c) Not sure [ ]

17. If yes, how can the traditional media be used strategically to reach the rural

populace

(a) By ensuring massive participation of rural dwellers in community

activities [ ]

(b) By government and partnering with traditional rulers to inform them of their

plans and programs [ ]

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(c) The rural populace should be inform of getting national news through the

traditional media [ ]

(d) Leaders of age grades, town unions and other special group should be news

carries rather than stories carrier [ ]

(e) Each meeting should have a headline for discussion or for adoption or for

celebration [ ]

18. Are there any hindrances that could be encounter when using the traditional

media communication?

(a) Yes [ ] (b) No [ ] (c) Not sure [ ]

19. If yes, what are these hindrances

(a) Disruption of infection [ ]

(b) Lack of trust in the sender [ ]

(c) Inability to understand the content of message [ ]

(d) Inability of sender to relate the message in an understandable terms [ ]

(e) Untrained trado-media personnel [ ]

20. What are the possible ways of reducing the hindrances to effective use of

traditioner media communicators

(a) Mass media personnel should be engage to train traditioner media

communicators on how messages should be related

(b) Messages should be announced more than once to ensure clarity and

compression [ ]

(c) Key persons should discuss the content of ht message for full

understanding before the rural dwellers are informed [ ]

(d) The sender and source of the message should be a person that is honest and

trust worthy [ ]

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21. Are there any polices/projects that can boost the use of trado-media

(a) Yes [ ] (b) No [ ] (c) Not sure [ ]

22. What are this policies/projects that should be implement

(a) The village town halls should used as a trado-media brocasting house at

least twice in a week, where relevant information will be related to the

rural dwellers [ ]

(b) All farmers should belong to a union that meet at least once in a month, to

deliberate on how best to improve farming activities

(c) Monthly information programmes in the village

23. Do you agree that the mass media and the traditional media can be used

together for grassroots development and mobilization?

(a) Yes [ ] (b) No [ ] (c) Not sure [ ]

24. If yes, state the way by which they can be used?

(a) Through partnership to ring programme knowledge to rural populace [ ]

(b) To use a simple medium, such as radio programmes [ ]

(c) Locally organisaed programmes in the mass media [ ]