E X P E R I E N C I N G

C O N S T R U C T I O N

S O E W E I H A O ( 0 3 0 9 9 2 4 ) | W I L L I A M Y A P ( 0 3 1 4 1 2 7 ) | C H E N N R O U A N N ( 1 0 0 1 G 7 6 4 6 3 ) |

T R E V O R N J C H O A R E A U ( 0 3 0 8 9 1 4 ) | L E E M A Y W E N , A N D R E A ( 0 3 1 4 3 2 0 ) | T E H K A H K H E N ( 0 3 1 4 5 0 2 ) |

S E A N H I U ( 0 3 0 9 8 7 4 ) | N U R A D I L A ( 0 3 1 0 4 1 7 ) | W O N G K W O K K E N N ( 0 3 0 0 1 4 6 )

B U I L D I N G C O N S T R U C T I O N 1 [ A R C 1 5 2 3 ] T u t o r : A r . C H I N

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1 [ARC 1523]

C O N T E N T S

S I T E A N D S A F E T Y * N A * A * T K K

2 . 1 P L A N T S A N D M A C H I N E R I E S

I N T R O D U C T I O N * N A * W Y

1 . 1 I N T R O T O S I T E

E X T E R N A L W O R K * T N C J * T K K3 . 1 S E T T I N G O U T A N D E X C A V A T I O N

F O U N D AT I O N * S W H * S H

4 . 1 F O U N D A T I O N ( r e f e r e n c e )

4 . 2 F O U N D A T I O N ( s i t e v i s i t )

S U P E R S T R U C T U R E5 . 1 B E A M A N D C O L U M N * S W H * S H

5 . 2 S L A B * T N C J

5 . 3 W A L L * W Y * A

5 . 4 S T A I R C A S E * T K K * W K K

R O O F * C R * N A

6 . 1 R O O F F R O M R E F E R E N C E

6 . 2 R O O F F R O M S I T E

S U M M A R YS T U D E N T S

S O E W E I H A U

W I L L I A M Y A P

C H E N N R O U A N N

T R E V O R N C J

A N D R E A

T E H K A H K E N

S E A N H I U

N U R A D I L A

W o n g k w o k k e n n

* S W H

* W Y

* C R

* T N C J

* A

* T K K

* S H

* N A

* W K K

2 . 0

I N T R O D U C T I O NN U R A D I L A & W I L L I A M Y A P

1 . 0

I N T R O D U C T I O N Experiencing Construction by analysing, documentation and experiencing construction progress was our first

assignment of Building Construction 1. Our task was to select ongoing construction site which should be medium rise or low rise

buildings. From there, we were able to study the materials, details and construction process for documentation and future

purposes. In addition, we applied and showed our knowledge in the details of building construction drawing to show our reflect of

understanding of the construction itself.

Andrea Deplazes once said, " the separation between designing and constructing made by the teachers is a didactic

strategy to create thematic focal points, which can be explained beautifully by the metaphor of the potter and his wheel "

(Deplazes, 2005). We, as an architecture students could get a better view by being on site and get exposed with the machineries,

labours and materials. In addition, we could have a direct conversation with the labour and contractors to identify parts of work,

structures and costs. We also had divided the task adequately to each of our members for better outcome of this project.

Organization of works between us running perfectly by discussing and compiled every part together.

In conclusion, each of us able to explain and understand more on current construction technology on local

construction sites. We also learnt the basic principles and procedures of construction process through real life project.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

1

1 . 1

W E L C O M E T O O U R S I T E

I N T R O T o S I T E

S I T E A : -A D D R E S S : N O . 2 5 ( l o t 4 9 ) , J a l a n L a k s a m a n a 1 2 / 1 , S e k s y e n 1 2 , 4 0 1 0 0 S h a h A l a m , S e l a n g o r

T Y P E : S I N G L E S T O R E Y B U N G A L O W H O U S E ; F O U N D A T I O N A N D B E G I N N I N G O F C O N S T R U C T I O N

O B S E R V A T I O N : W h e n w e r e a c h i n t o t h e s i t e , t h e y o n l y h a v e b a s i c a n d f o u n d a t i o n o f

c o n s t r u c t i o n t o b u i l d a s i n g l e s t o r e y b u n g a l o w h o u s e . T h e r e w e r e n o t m u c h o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n

s u p e r s t r u c t u r e b u t w e w e r e a b l e t o e x p o s e d o u r s e l v e s t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d f o u n d a t i o n o f

b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n .

2

1 . 1

W E L C O M E T O O U R S I T E

I N T R O T O S I T E

S I T E B : -A D D R E S S : J A L A N C A M A R 4 / 5 , S E K S Y E N 4 , K O T A D A M A N S A R A , M U K I M D A M A N S A R A , D A E R A H P E T A L I N G

T Y P E : 2 7 U N I T S o f 2 S T O R E Y S H O P H O U S E S ; I N T H E M I D D L E O F C O N S T R U C T I O N A N D A L M O S T

C O M P L E T E

O B S E R V A T I O N : W h e n w e r e a c h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e , w e c a n s e e t h e b u i l d i n g h a d b e e n r i s e . W e

w e r e a b l e t o a n a l y z e m o r e o n b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h t h e h e l p o f c o n t r a c t o r a n d e n g i n e e r a s

w e l l o b s e r v e d i t o u r s e l v e s . I n a d d i t i o n , w e c o u l d c o v e r m o s t o f t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e c o m p o n e n t s

a n d a s p e c t s t o h e l p o n o u r a s s i g n m e n t .

3

2 . 0

S I T E & S A F E T Y N U R A D I L A

T E H K A H K H E N

2 . 0 S I T E S A F E T Y

W H Y D O W E N E E D T O F O L L O W T H E S I T E A N D S A F E T Y R U L E S ?

B e c a u s e w e d o n ’ t w a n t t h e s e k i n d

o f s i t u a t i o n h a p p e n e d t o u s !

W h y i s i t s o e a s y t o b e e x p o s e d o n

t h e s e k i n d o f a c c i d e n t s i n

c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e

i . A l o t o f n a i l s a n d

d a n g e r o u s s u b s t a n c e s l y i n g o n

t h e g r o u n d

i i . A l o t o f b i g m a c h i n e r i e s

w i t h b i g c u t t e r a n d s a w

i i i . T h e s o u n d a n d s i t u a t i o n i s

r e a l l y n o i s y f o r p e o p l e t o

r e a l i z e i f s o m e o n e i s i n j u r e d

i v . E v e r y o n e m i n d i n g t h e i r

o w n b u s i n e s s d u e t o a l o t o f

m a c h i n e r i e s a n d b u i l d i n g

c o n s t r u c t i o n d u t i e s .

S o , h o w d o w e p r e v e n t t h e s e

k i n d O f a c c i d e n t h a p p e n e d t o

u s ?

O B S E R V E , U N D E R S T A N D &

F O L L O W T H E S A F E T Y R U L E S

PROHIBITION

( RED )

WARNING

( YELLOW )

MANDATORY

( BLUE )

SAFETY SIGN

( GREEN )

MOST IMPORTANT ! WEAR SAFETY ATTIRE 4

2 . 0

L E T ’ S B E S A F E & W E A R T H E C O R R E C T A T T I R E

S I T E S A F E T Y

S A F E T Y H E L M E T

G O G G L E S

S A F E T Y B O O T

To prevent from dangerous

equipment fall on top of the

head

To prevent from dust and

dangerous substances enter our

eyes

To prevent from step and exposed to

dangerous substances on the floor

of the construction site

5

2 . 0

P L A N T S & M A C H I N E R I E SL E E M A Y W E N , A N D R E A

2 . 1

P L A N T S & M A C H I N E R I E S

M A C H I N E R I E S

I n t ro d u c t i o n t o M a c h i n e r yT h i s s t u d y p r o v i d e s a s u m m a r y o f i n n o v a t i o n r e s e a r c h i n t e r m s o f m a c h i n e r y i n b u i l d i n g

c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e a u t h o r w i l l t h e n o f f e r a d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e t y p e s o f m a c h i n e r y u s e d i n

t h e c h o s e n s i t e , a s w e l l a s p i c t u r e s a n d d i a g r a m s t o s u p p o r t t h e a u t h o r ’ s r e s e a r c h .

A R o a d r o l l e r ( o r “ r o l l e r - c o m p a c t o r ” ) i s a c o m p a c t o r t y p e e n g i n e e r i n g v e h i c l e u s e d f o r t h e

c o m p a c t i o n o f g r a v e l , c o n c r e t e , s o i l a n d a s p h a l t i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r o a d s a n d f o u n d a t i o n s .

A c c o r d i n g t o “ E n g i n e e r i n g I n t r o ” a w e b d o c u m e n t b y J a l a l A f s a r , t h e r o l l e r - w o r k i n g p r i n c i p l e i s

b a s e d o n v i b r a t i o n , i m p a c t l o a d i n g , k n e a d i n g a n d b y a p p l y i n g d i r e c t p r e s s u r e o n t h e r e s p e c t i v e

l a y e r .

R o a d R o l l e r s

Image from http://evangelchina.en.made-in-china.com/product/qoyJGezdMZcW/China-XCMG-26-Ton-Single-Drum-Vibratory-Road-Roller-XS262-.html

A r o a d r o l l e r c o n s i s t o f t w o o r m o r e h e a v y

d r u m s , o n e d r u m t o p r o v i d e t h e p u s h i n g

f o r c e , t h e o t h e r p i v o t e d a n d c o n n e c t e d t o

t h e r o l l e r b o d y . I t i s r o t a t e d t o g u i d e t h e

r o l l e r t o t h e c h o s e n p a t h w a y . D i f f e r e n t

s m o o t h e n i n g a n d c o m p a c t i n g e q u i p m e n t i s

u s e d w i t h r o l l e r s f o r r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n

o p e r a t i o n s .

6

2 . 1 M A C H I N E R I E S

7

2 . 1 M A C H I N E R I E S

I N T O T H E S I T EI n r e l a t i o n t o o u r s i t e , c o m p a c t i o n o f t h e s o i l i s i n c r e a s e d b y u s i n g v i b r a t i n g r o l l e r d r u m s t h a t

e n a b l e s a s m a l l e r m a c h i n e t o a c h i e v e t h e s a m e c o m p a c t n e s s a s a l a r g e r o l l e r . T h e I N G E R S O L L - R A N D

S P 5 4 V i b r a t o r y R o l l e r i s u s e d t o c o m p r e s s t h e s u r f a c e b e i n g r o l l e d u s i n g i t s m e c h a n i c a l a d v a n t a g e

( v i b r a t i n g ) . T h e i n i t i a l p r o c e s s i n w h i c h a s t r e s s a p p l i e d t o a s o i l ( c o m p a c t i o n ) c a u s e s d e n s i f i c a t i o n

a s t h e a i r d i s p l a c e d f r o m t h e p o r e s b e t w e e n t h e s o i l g r a i n s o f t h e s u b s t r a t e o n a r o a d p r o j e c t i s

d o n e u s i n g a p a d f o o t d r u m r o l l e r , w h i c h a c h i e v e s h i g h e r c o m p a c t i o n d e n s i t y d u e t o t h e p a d s h a v i n g

a l o w s u r f a c e a r e a .

Tyre rollers are available

in widths ranging up

to 2.7 metres (8.9 ft),

T h e I N G E R S O L L - R A N D S P 5 4 u s e d t o c o m p r e s s s o i l m a k i n g

t h e a r e a s u i t a b l e f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r l d

8

2 . 1 M A C H I N E R I E S

Tractors are engineering vehicles designed to deliver great attractive force at slow speeds, for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery

used in construction or agriculture.

Tractors are divided into 3 categories:

Wheel TractorsWheel Tractors are used for heavy duties, they can be equipped with many attachments allowing as much possible tasks.

Utility TractorsThese tractors are used for maintenance and gardening, it often comes with attachments like lawn mowers, snow blowers and chipper.

Crawler TractorsLess common than the Wheel Tractor, the Crawler Tractor is built to evolve on difficult grounds.

T R A C T O R S

On site, the Ford

5000 Wheel

Tractor is used for

light construction

duties, earthworks

and landscaping.

Contractors need maximum traction to plow and pull. For that

purpose, the rear wheels need to be large and wide enough

because usually only they are powered by the engines.

9

2 . 1 M A C H I N E R I E S

B A R B E N D I N G & C U T T I N G M A C H I N E ST o d e v e l o p f i r m a n d s t r o n g c o n c r e t e w a l l s f o r t h e a u t h o r ’ s b u i l d i n g , s t e e l b a r s a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r r e i n f o r c i n g t h e

c o n c r e t e . B a r b e n d i n g & c u t t i n g m a c h i n e s a r e u s e d t o b e n d a n d s h a p e s t e e l r o d s , a s w e l l a s c u t t h e m i n t o t h e

n e c e s s a r y s i z e s .

B a r B e n d i n g M a c h i n e

R e b a r – a c o m m o n s t e e l r e i n f o r c i n g b a r u s e d i n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e . I t i s f o r m e d f r o m m i l d s t e e l , a n d i s g i v e n r i b s f o r b e t t e r f r i c t i o n a l a d h e s i o n t o t h e c o n c r e t e

B a r C u t t i n g M a c h i n e

B e s i d e s b e i n g u s e d i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f s t e e l r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s , i t i s a l s o u s e d i n t h e

r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f c o n c r e t e s l a b s a n d p i l l a r s . W i t h o u t t h e s e m a c h i n e s , t h e w a l l s o f t h e a u t h o r ’ s b u i l d i n g

w o u l d n o t b e p r o p e r l y r e i n f o r c e d , l e a d i n g t o a c c i d e n t s i n t h e f u t u r e .

10

2 . 1 M A C H I N E R I E S

C o n c r e t e m i x e r s

A c o n c r e t e m i x e r m a i n l y c o m p o s e d b y t h e m i x i n g

b a r r e l , c h a r g i n g a n d d i s c h a r g i n g m e c h a n i s m , w a t e r

s u p p l y s y s t e m , t h e p r i m e m o t o r, d r i v e m e c h a n i s m ,

f r a m e a n d s u p p o r t i n g d e v i c e .

Concrete mixer includes a power mechanism through the shaft and

drive mechanism connecting and the drive mechanism driven roller, the

roller cylinder jacket around the cylinder barrel set ring gear, shaft and

set on the ring gear meshing gear.

The function of the concrete mixers used in the author’s site include:

a) To make each component on the macro and micro uniform.

b) To damage the surface of cement particles of the initial water

compound film parcel layer.

c) To improve the mix each element in the number of motion trajectory

and the crossover frequency, accelerate the uniform qualitative.

11

2 . 1 M A C H I N E R I E S

A I R C O M P R E S S O R S

A i r c o m p r e s s o r s a r e u s e d i n t h e c h o s e n

c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g

p o w e r t o m o t o r s a n d p u m p s . T h e u s e o f

c o m p r e s s o r s e n a b l e w o r k e r s t o b o r e

h o l e s , c u t m a t e r i a l s , c r u s h r o c k a n d

p o u r v i b r a t e d c o n c r e t e .

A n a i r p r o c e s s o r c o m p r e s s e s t h e s a m e

a i r w e b r e a t h e t o s t o r e e n e r g y a n d

a d a p t i t f o r u s e i n c o u n t l e s s

a p p l i c a t i o n s .

12

2 . 0

E X T E R N A L W O R KST E H K A H K E N & T R E V O R N J C H O A R E A U

E X T E R N A L W O R K S3 . 1

‘’The category of external works is dedicated to any features that can be used to finish the external environment of a project, whether

it be a residential, commercial, industrial or a community project. Within most projects external features are needed to ensure the

functionality of, and to add value to, the end result’’(http://www.theconstructioncentre.co.uk/products/external-works/)

Functional external features may take the form of access requirements where security may be an issue. To enhance security on any

project fencing could be used to separate the site from adjacent properties and land. Any form of fencing, whether it be full

perimeter fencing or partial fencing installed at key areas of the site, can stop or cut down any unwanted pedestrian or vehicular

access. To remove the threat of vehicular access a number of fencing options are available, ranging from aesthetic low level fencing,

which can be scaled easily, to high level security for maximum protection.

Where perimeter fencing has been specified it is likely that some form of gate will be necessary to compliment the fencing

arrangement and maintain security. Gates can be purchased or manufactured in many different forms with low level aesthetic gates

typically manufactured from wood and high level gates manufactured from steel.

On our site currently, due to on-going construction works, a temporary fencing and gate made out of wood and zinc sheets is used to

barricade the site and provide security for onsite machinery as well as obscuring ongoing construction works from the sub-urban

surrounding.

13

E X T E R N A L W O R K S3 . 1

Retaining walls are structures designed to restrain soil to unnatural slopes or in man-made slopes. They are used to bound soils

between two different elevations often in areas of terrain possessing undesirable slopes or in areas where the landscape needs to be

shaped severely and engineered for more specific purposes like hillside farming or roadway overpasses. There are four basic types of

retaining walls seen in Malaysia, each used for a specific purpose depending on the terrain or objective wanted. They are Gravity

retaining wall, sheet piling retaining wall, anchored retaining wall, and finally, seen on our site, cantilevered retaining wall.

Fig. 2.4 – four basic types of retaining walls used in Malaysia – the anchored wall is seldom used

Gravity wall - Standard wall type holding the earth mainly through its own weight. Will topple relatively easily,As the internal leverage of the earth pressure is very high

Piling wall - using long piles, this wall is fixed by soil on both sides of its lower length. If the piles themselves can resistthe bending forces,this wall can take high loads.

Cantilever wall – the cantilever wall (which may also extend in the other vertical direction) uses the same earth pressuretrying to topple it to stabiliseItself with a second lever arm.

Anchored wall - this wall keeps itself from toppling by having cables driven into the soil or rock, fixed by expandinganchors ( can be combined withOther types of walls.

14

E X T E R N A L W O R K S3 . 1

C a n t i l e v e r e d r e t a i n i n g w a l l

C o u n t e r f o r t / B u t t r e s s o n C a n t i l e v e r e d W a l l

C a n t i l e v e r e d r e t a i n i n g w a l l s a r e m a d e f r o m a n i n t e r n a l s t e m o f s t e e l - r e i n f o r c e d , c a s t - i n - p l a c e c o n c r e t e o r

m o r t a r e d m a s o n r y ( o f t e n i n t h e s h a p e o f a n i n v e r t e d T ) . T h e s e w a l l s c a n t i l e v e r l o a d s ( l i k e a b e a m ) t o a l a r g e ,

s t r u c t u r a l f o o t i n g , c o n v e r t i n g h o r i z o n t a l p r e s s u r e s f r o m b e h i n d t h e w a l l t o v e r t i c a l p r e s s u r e s o n t h e g r o u n d

b e l o w . S o m e t i m e s c a n t i l e v e r e d w a l l s a r e b u t t r e s s e d o n t h e f r o n t , o r i n c l u d e a c o u n t e r f o r t o n t h e b a c k , t o

i m p r o v e t h e i r s t r e n g t h r e s i s t i n g h i g h l o a d s . B u t t r e s s e s a r e s h o r t w i n g w a l l s a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e m a i n t r e n d

o f t h e w a l l . T h e s e w a l l s r e q u i r e r i g i d c o n c r e t e f o o t i n g s b e l o w s e a s o n a l f r o s t d e p t h . T h i s t y p e o f w a l l u s e s

m u c h l e s s m a t e r i a l t h a n a t r a d i t i o n a l g r a v i t y w a l l .

Fig. 2.5 – retaining wall on site

15

S L A B S3 . 1

As defined previously, external works include the works carried out around the building or off site.

In this site, the external works include signboard, temporary boundary fencing, and sewage connection to main sewer line.

Here is a detail drawing of the signboard found on site which gives the name of the project and all parties involved. Notice that even the signboard

needs to have a good supporting foundation. (Fig. 2.0)

The fencing here on this site differs to that of our previous site, not on type, but on how the materials were acquired. It is the same basic fencing,

with timber and cheap corrugated iron sheets/zinc sheets. However, in the second site, all the timber and zinc sheets used for fencing had to be

ordered as new. (fig. 2.1) The first site used second hand timber and iron sheets. Another thing to notice on this site is the temporary toilet

installation. Usually there are a few on large scale sites.

(Fig. 2.0) - hoarding/signboard (Fig. 2.1) – temporary boundary fencing

16

S L A B S3 . 1

As in all projects, provision must be made well ahead of time on the ‘’connecting of the building sewage to the main

sewage line. In our first site, there was only need for one connection, whereas on the second site, which is of a larger

scale, there are three connections from the site to the main sewer line (fig. 2.3)

(Fig. 2.3) – connection of sewer pipe to main sewage line

17

E X C A V A T I O N3 . 1

Excavation is the process involving earthworks - engineering works created through processing parts of the earth’s surfaceinvolving quantities of soil or unformed rock. Earth may be moved and formed into desired shapes for many purposes. Mostearthworks involve machine excavation and fill or backfill.

Excavation can be classified into different types :

1. Topsoil excavation-the topmost layer of the earth’s surface (which comprise of vegetation) is removed. The top layer of soilcontains higher moisture than bottom layer as it supports the growth of vegetation. When removed, it is stockpiled and restoredfor further landscaping. This is done so that layer under it loses moisture and can be handled easily.

2. Earth excavation– the removal of the layer of soil under the topsoil. This soil is excavated using scrapers or other earthmovingequipment and used to construct embankments and foundations.

3. Muck excavation -the removal of material that contains excessive amounts of water and undesirable soil. Its consistency is determined by the percentage of water contained. Due to the lack of stability, muck is seldom used as an embankment. However, the moisture content can be removed through drying.

4.Unclassified excavation - the removal of a combination of soil. This is usually used when earthmovingisdone regardless of thematerials encountered. It is also performed because of the difficultyfaced while distinguishing types of soil encountered.

Removal of topsoil according to depth and stored for landscaping

use.

A backhoe or excavator normally used for

excavation.

Excavated material is stored to be used for

filling.

The depth is controlled and any material within will be removed unless

stated.

18

E X C A V A T I O N3 . 1

Excavation may be classified in accordance with the type of the work done :

1. Stripping- the removal of all materials on the surface due to unsuitability. These are later refilled with materials that are acceptable for permanent embankment.

2. Drainage excavation/Structure excavation - the removal of materials encountered during the installation of drainage structuressuch as pipes and culverts. After installation, backfilling is done with an acceptable material.3. Footing excavation-the digging of a column or wall foundation for a building. This work is usually done in neat a line so that theconcretecan be casted without forms. Although elimination of forms saves money, special equipment and outstanding handworkare usually required for this type of excavation.4. Borrow excavation-the work done in obtaining materials for embankments or fills from a source outside the site. In mostinstances, obtaining materials behind slope lines is classified as borrow, although it is commonly considered as getting materialfrom a source off the site. Most specifications prohibit the use of borrow until all required excavation has been completed or theneed for borrow has been established beyond a reasonable doubt. Borrowed materialsarestored in a borrow pit, cleared oftimber and debris.

Stripping due to the unsuitability of material is done before filling to a height of six feet using a combination of soil and aggregate (about 300 tones) brought in from another site. Rammers are then used for compaction in

order to obtain a stable foundation platform.

Drainage excavation is done to fit the drainage systems such as pipes (900mm) and sumps that connect the pipes-erected using cement bricks, all prior before filling using red soil.

Pipe

Sumps

Raised ground level

Neighbouring first floor

19

E X C A V A T I O N3 . 1

Excavation is also related to cut and fill - the process of moving earthfrom one place to another in order to make even ground surfaces.These are done using machineries like back-hoe loader. A ‘cut’ is madewhen earth is cut from above the desired ground height while a ‘fill’ ismade when earth is used to fill a hole to the desired ground level.Cutting and filling a land carries a certain risk when the land filled isused for building construction. When earth is moved, naturalcompaction is disturbed. The soil in this state is described as ‘fluffed’ or‘aerated’.Under safety practice, the earth is compacted using a drumroll style compactor, plate compactor or rammers to avoid settling.

Unsuitable material is removed (cut) before any construction work begins. Red soil is added in

return. In this site, the height is brought to ground level.

In this site, the raised ground is perimetered with a retaining wall to prevent the erosion of soil. It also serves a part of the

building plan of the house.

Retaining wall

20

2 . 0

F O U N D AT I O NS E A N H I U & S O E W E I H A U

F O U N D A T I O N4 . 1

There are few types of foundations :

1. Shallow Foundation

A shallow foundation is a type of foundation which transfers building loads to the earth very near the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer or a range of depths as does a deep foundation. Shallow foundations include

pad foundation, strip foundation, and raft foundation. Not suitable if soil is low in strength or very easily compressible.

• Strip foundations are used where the soil is of good bearing capacity. The key

sizes of a strip foundation for concrete cavity wall construction and timber

frame cavity wall construction are similar. The size and position of the strip is

directly related to the overall width of the wall. The principle design features of

a strip foundation are based on the fact that the load is transmitted at 45

degrees from the base of the wall to the soil. The depth of a strip foundation

must be equal to or greater than the overall width of the wall. The width of the

foundation must be three times the width of the supported wall.

• Pad foundations is the support used at a point load such as columns or framed

structures. They may be circular, square or rectangular and consist of a block

or slab of the thickness. The pad foundations may be stepped or haunched if

they are required to spread the load from a heavy column. The pads are

usually shallow but deep ones can be found depending on the structure.

• Raft foundation is a thick concrete slab reinforced with steel which covers the

entire contact area of the structure like a thick floor. Sometimes area covered

by raft may be greater than the contact area depending on the bearing capacity

of the soil underneath. The reinforcing bars runs normal to each other in both

top and bottom layers of steel reinforcement. Sometimes inverted main beams

and secondary beams are used to carry column loads that require thicker

foundation slab considering economy of the structure. Both beams cast

monolithically with raft slab.

21

F O U N D A T I O N4 . 2

2. Deep Foundation

Deep foundations are used to transfer the structural loads to a deeper soil strata and when the soils are subjected to scour. The different types of deep foundations available are piles foundation, piers foundation and

caissons foundation.

• Piers and caissons are larger piles. For drilled piers, a shaft is drilled into the soil and filled with

concrete. The shaft may be cased with metal casing which will be later left in place as part of the

pier or may be gradually removed. Caissons are used for the construction of bridge piers and

abutment in river and lakes. It may be an open end or box type.

Piers and caissons are used instead of piles when:

1. Pile capacities are not sufficient to carry the imposed loads.

2. When larger end-bearing area is needed.

3. When driving noises and vibrations are not allowed at the site.

• Pile foundations are long, slender, columnar elements in a foundation that are installed into the

ground. They are typically made from steel or reinforced concrete and possibly timber. A

foundation is described as piled when its depth is more than three times its breadth.

On Site :

As you can see, at our site friction piling is used. Friction piling is a load-bearing pile that

receives its principal vertical support from skin friction between the surface of the buried pile

and the surrounding soil. Piling foundation was used in this is site is because that they want to

raise the level to a certain height. Aggregates for the deep foundation was brought in from

another site of the contractor’s project’s extra. Piling foundation was used to place the

foundation deeper into the bedrock.

Piling foundation found in Site A

• Friction piling

Soft soil becomes increasingly stiff with depth

Piling on Site A

22

2 . 0

B E A M A N D C O L U M N S O E W E I H A U & S E A N H I U

B E A M S & C O L U M N S5 . 1

BEAM is a structural element which can be found in any super structure of a building which its primary function is to withstand and load applied on the surface above it by resisting bending. The way beams perform are by

distributing the load applied on it towards any attached columns, walls or girders.

COLUMN is a vertical structure usually built to support beams and arches on a building. Due to its structural element being vertical, it should be able to withstand load applied on it by the beams it supports and any other

super structure built on it; with the right calculation and application.

There are a few types of beams :

A. Simply supported beam. This type of beam are freely supported by the

walls or columns. However, this type is rarely used and practiced in normal

construction unit.

B. Fixed beam. This type of beams are rigidly fixed and applied on its

supports such as walls or columns. Reinforcement bars and stirrups are

provided for this.

C. Cantilever beam. These beams are fixed on one end but not on the other.

D. Continuous beam. These beams are considered to be more economical

and provides a better structure. They are supported by more than two

supports (walls/columns) and can span very lengthy depending on the site.

E. Overhanging beam. This type of beam acts much like cantilever beam with

the exception that an overhanging beam has a support in between the

free end and the fixed end of a beam. This causes the other end to look

more like a stretched out beam rather than a beam with no support.

E

D

C

B

A

23

B E A M S & C O L U M N S5 . 1

O n S i t e :On our site, located in Kota Damansara, which is to be two rows of shop lots, are at its final phase. After

thorough analysis and interview with the contractor, we know that the shop lots uses the continuous

beam which seems to be the most appropriate type of beam in our opinion as well.

According to the contractor, he mentioned that all beams were

calculated beforehand to ensure that the continuous beam structure is

viable and rigid. Therefore, I managed to obtain a few explanation

from the civil engineer on how this beams are calculated. Basically,

every concrete column has a pressure being applied to it from both

end. When the concrete beam is placed on it, it exerts pressure on one

end but not the other. Hence, the contractor and the engineer has to

take note of the tension left on the unpressured side of the column

and is advised to build based on the calculation done to ensure the

superstructure is stable.

As seen in the picture, the contractor uses this because the rows of shops are stretched

far and with the continuous beam structure, it is saves on the cost of construction and

also is more economical.

Each shop lots stretches for as deep

as four single beams (excluding

exterior). The beam system and

structure provides a comfortable

space supported by structurally rigid

and sound superstructure.

24

B E A M S & C O L U M N S5 . 1

R e i n f o r c e d C o n c r e t e o n B e a m s a n d C o l u m n sReinforced concrete is a technique in which the concrete is casted around a structure-like steel bar which when once the concrete sets in, surrounding the steel bars, the two materials act together in a manner that both

together resist any applied force to the casted concrete, be it beams or columns which are the common structure to be reinforced with concrete.

Web reinforcement

Reinforcement consisting of bent

bars or stirrups, placed in a concrete

beam to mainly to resist diagonal

tension

Top bar

Any of the longitudinal bars serving

as tension reinforcement in the

section of a concrete beam or slab

subject to a negative moment

Truss bar

A longitudinal bar bent upwards or

downwards at points of moment

reversal in a concrete beam

Concrete

Steel bars

Vertical reinforcement

Vertical reinforcement is a longitudinal reinforcement

placed in a concrete column to absorb compressive

stresses, resist bending stresses and reduce effects of

creep or shrinkage in the column.

25

2 . 0

S L A B ST R E V O R N J C H O A R E A U

S L A B S5 . 2Slabs

Slab (noun): - a large, thick, flat piece of stone, concrete, or wood, typically rectangular.

The base floor inside a building might simply be a cast-in-place concrete slab-on-grade with restricted style issues for structural support or

environmental control functions. The bottom floor might also be comprised of a mud or structural foundation block complete with waterproofing

and carrying block with the overall system designed to carry structural hydrostatic pressure hundreds and maintain controlled surroundings.

Floor blocks square measure often the occurrence of leaks into the building with slab cracking of common concrete materials being a primary

cause. Issues of dominant soil gas emissions such as radon gas might also be of importance.

Because the price penalty to correct a foundation or block on grade waterproofing failure is usually extraordinarily overpriced (up to seven times the

initial cost of waterproofing) or practically not possible to correct once construction is completed.

In typical office environments, the concrete floor block itself is comprised of 4" to 6" thick concrete reinforced with one layer of welded

wire fabric at middle depth, unless below the water table, once hydrostatic heads might exert upward pressure, requiring stronger construction.

The figure below contains an overall schematic that characterizes the four functions i.e. Structural Support, Environmental control, Finish, and

Distribution as they relate to the below grade enclosure element of floor slabs.

Fig. 1.0 : general schematic of a reinforced concrete slab26

S L A B S5 . 2

The four functions should be carefully regarded when slab detailing is made-

Structural Support Functions—The floor block of the below grade building enclosure must be designed to carry downward vertical gravity

loadings moreover as any upward soil or hydrostatic pressure loadings. Downward vertical gravity loadings exist from the dead weight of the

ground block and any occupancy live hundreds. In several deeper structures the ground block might also be a mat

foundation block carrying important building column and wall hundreds. Floor slabs might also resist upward soil or hydrostatic pressure loadings.

Upward soil pressures could also be applied to the ground block in situations where it's acting as a matt foundation and also

the building purpose hundreds on the muse leads to AN upward pressure on the ground block. In areas such as crawlspaces and unoccupied

basement areas the structural support component involving a concrete block may not be required. In these areas,

environmental control functions should still need to be self-addressed.

Environmental control Functions—The exterior surroundings that the ground block is subjected to includes environmental control loadings such

as thermal, moisture, insects, and soil gas. the interior surroundings that the ground block is subjected to includes

environmental control loadings such as thermal and wet. The performance of the ground block system depends on its ability to manage, regulate

and/or moderate these environmental control loadings on the interior of the ground block to desired levels.

As with foundation wall systems, the control of wet is probably the most important environmental control operation. wet control is restrained during

an evacuation and barrier type of style approach. For cases with hydrostatic pressure from well water levels the primary section of control of wet are

often accomplished through pumping and dewatering systems to unnaturally drive down the natural water table level. The second component of

the wet system includes a granular combination capillary break layer below the ground block to permit an area for wet to accumulate and dissipate

or to be wired out or drained into an exit drain or sump system. In several floor block situations with low tide table elevations or dry conditions, the

granular combination capillary break layer (with exit drain if required) can control the bulk of the water. There could also be no need for a

lively pumping system.

27

S L A B S5 . 2

Finish Functions—With floor systems the only end of concern is to the interior area. This end depends on the

interior use whether or not it's a controlled office surroundings or a non-controlled parking surroundings.

Typical end systems might embody carpet, tile or adhered flooring. the {proper the right the correct} control of vapor

migration loadings is critical with tile or adhered flooring applications that require proper adhesion. In some

applications such as interior parking or cupboard space the interior end is just the interior surface of the concrete

floor block. In others, such as crawlspaces, the end could also be the vapor retarder.

Distribution Functions—The floor block might contain distribution systems such as electrical feeders, electronic conduit,

mechanical piping or heating systems

28

S L A B S5 . 2

On site

On our site, the basic reinforced concrete (R.C.) slab is used with a C/W of 500g. The interior slabs as well as the exterior

walkway slab will both have ceramic tile finish. Of course, provision was made for all electrical wire installations and all

necessary circuits were installed prior to any concrete pouring. Wires are circuited through PVC pipes. Due to low moisture

content of the soil found on the site, only a granular aggregate capillary break layer is used below the slab to control

moisture. However, this is not included in the first floor slabs.

Fig. 1.0 – walkway slab Fig. 1.1 – floor slab

29

2 . 0

W A L L S W I L L I A M YA P & L E E M AY W E N , A N D R E A

W A L L5 . 3

In the world of construction, walls are vertical planes that serve as separators and protection for given spaces. Walls are constructed in different forms and of various materials to serve different functions.

Exterior walls protect the building interior from external environmental effects such as ultraviolet radiation, sound heat and cold, sunlight (etc) while containing desirable interior environmental conditions.

In addition, walls are designed to be strong enough to safely resist the horizontal and vertical forces imposed upon them. Such loads include wind forces, self-weight, possibly the weights of walls and floors

from above, the effects of expansion and contraction as generated by temperature and humidity.

Load bearing- Walls which have to bear more

than their self-weight on one

story.

Non-load bearing- Walls which are only loaded by

their self-weight and are not used

for bracing against buckling.

Wall Types- Concrete wall

- Masonry wall

- Dry wall

- Glass wall

- Curtain wall

WALL

30

W A L L5 . 3

Dry wall system• Used indoors and is not load bearing

Properties :- Thermal insulation properties are not as good as a brick wall but if used property it can be insulated well

- Fast, relatively simple & clean to install

- Type of partition board and stud backing system can be varied to suit a user’s requirements

- Susceptible to water damage and mould

- Hollow and susceptible by damage by external forces

Insulation is inserted before

closing up the wall again

Vertical studs are made of aluminum.

These studs are placed close together

to ensure the walls are properly

reinforced.

Process :

Vertical studs (attached together

through the placement of nails)

Plaster board

31

W A L L5 . 3

Concrete WallConcrete walls are used for both strength and esthetic purposes. These walls may be cast in place or precast, they may

also be bearing or curtain walls. they are placed vertically, side by side and caulked at adjacent edges.

Concrete walls (finished with paint) being used on our site. Concrete is the

most suitable material for construction, since it can withstand whatever

compression forces, moreover it is workable and durable material, can be

formed to any shape you like, also it is some how cheap materials. As for

its disadvantages special care and precautions are required during casting

(otherwise it could cause cracks and failure)

Components of a concrete wall

32

W A L L5 . 3

Masonry WallMasonry walls are a traditional, common, and durable. They are designed in accordance with building

codes and constructed by individual placement of bricks, blocks of stone, cinder concrete, cut stone and

combinations of these.

In areas with ample rock deposits or deposits of materials which can be used to make substances like glass

and brick, masonry can be a cheap construction method. It also creates increased thermal mass,

contributing to efficiency, and it can bear a great deal of weight when it is well designed. A masonry wall

also confers fire protection, as it will take some time for a fire to break through such a wall.

33

W A L L5 . 3

Glass Wall• Can be divided into structural, or non structural.

Characteristics :• Allows transparency, yet retains the strengths of a typical wall

• A glass wall enables a building to have large spans

• Requires the help of specialists consultants & contactors

* A beam would usually be in placed before constructing glass walls. The fittings will be put in

before inserting the glass, followed by appropriate sealing.

Lightly tinted glass panels found in Site B.

Blow up of the mullion used for glass walls34

W A L L5 . 3

Curtain WallA curtain wall system is an outer covering of a building in which the outer walls are non-structural, but

merely keep the weather out and the occupants in. As the curtain wall is non-structural it can be made of

a lightweight material reducing construction costs. When glass is used as the curtain wall, a great

advantage is that natural light can penetrate deeper within the building.

Two types of curtain walls :

Characteristics :• Use a lot in offices

• Non-structural, non-load bearing

• One of the newest wall system & used primarily for

façade treatments

• High cost and expertise

1. Unitized• Complete panel is attached on site

• A lot faster but more difficult to transport on site

• More expensive

2. Stick• More commonly used (not as fast as unitized)

• Mullion is first assembled on site, the transom is then

installed

35

2 . 0

S T A I R C A S ET E H K A H K E N A N D W O N G K W O K K E N N

S T A I R C A S E5 . 4

STAIRS provide means for moving from one level to

another and connects the important links in the

overall circulation of the building. Aspects that

should be considered when designing a staircase is

the placement of stairs, ease of travel and most

importantly the safety.

The design of a stairway is strictly controlled by the

building code especially when a stairway is an

essential part of an emergency egress system.

(Francis D. K. Ching, 2008) The design of a stairway

should take proper consideration of the width,

landings, handrails, guardrails, treads, risers and

nosing which are the requirements of a staircase.

Accessible stairs should also serve as a means of

egress during an emergency, or lead to an

accessible area of refuge where people who are

unable to use stairs may remain temporarily in

safety to await assistance during an emergency

evacuation.

Design of a stair

36

S T A I R C A S E5 . 4

There are a few types of staircase design :

A. Straight-run stair. This type of stair connects one level to another without any

turns or winders.

B. Quarter-turn stair. This is a variation from the straight-run stair where it

makes a right-angled turn in the path of travel. However, the two flights

connected by an intervening landing may be equal or unequal.

C. Half-turn stair. This stair turns 180° at an intervening landing. This stair is

more compact than a single straight-run stair and similar to the quarter-turn

stair. Also, the two flights connected by an intervening landing may be equal

or unequal.

D. Winding stair. This stairway is constructed with winders which is potentially

hazardous since the space of the interior side is very narrow. According to the

building codes, this winders is often restricted for private stairs.

E. Circular stair. This stairway has a circular plan.

F. Spiral stair. This stairway consists of wedged-shaped treads supported by a

central post and only takes up minimal spaces.

37

S T A I R C A S E5 . 4

The type of stair for the site we visited (Site B) is a straight-run stair. This stair connects the ground level to the first floor without any turn in the path of travel. The

flights of stairs are connected by a landing in which each flight of stairs has 6 steps and 14 steps respectively. This is due to the building code that prohibits the design of

a staircase having 16 risers in a flight consecutively. Therefore, this staircase is divided into two flights of unequal intervening landings.

The height from the ground where the staircase is place is also sufficient (>2m) which follows the regulations.

Flight of stairs in Site B

Circular handrail Landing

Width

Riser

This staircase is not divided as the width of this stairs is less than 2000mm. If more than 2000mm wide the flight should be

divided. (building code)

For safety purposes, a handrail is also installed which in this

case is a circular handrail for better grip.

38

S T A I R C A S E5 . 4

C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a C o n c r e t e S ta i r c a s eThe height of the room has to be measured to build an interior stair. The method for obtaining the height can be shown below:

Height from floor to ceiling / No. of steps intended = Measurement of single tread & single rise

“The stair ratio is a relationship between the tread run (width) and the riser height so that as one increases, the other decreases, and vice versa. A minimum tread run and a maximum riser

height keep the stairs from exceeding the critical angle of the whole stair.” (stair construction, 2008).

The width of the stairs is set by the ability for two people to be able to pass by comfortably on the stairs, and also considering the fact about carrying furniture up and down the stairs.

Each step should be the same size while constructing a staircase. The riser’s height on a flight of stairs to be equal to prevent the user from tripping. “However, the board (not the unit rise) for

the top riser and the bottom riser in a flight of stairs may vary in height in order to make up the difference in thickness of flooring.” (Stair Construction, 2008).

Steel rebars of a concrete stairs.

39

S T A I R C A S E5 . 4

A foundation is needed to construct a concrete stairs. The dimensions (= footprint of the

stairs) of the staircase foundation must be determined in order to do so.

A form is built using either plywood or framing lumber. The side form is cut according to the

calculations of the tread and risers. In order for the stairs to bond perfectly to the foundation,

the side form should be securely attached to the building’s foundation. Wooden stakes are

added along the outside surface of the form to brace against the outward movement of the

poured concrete.

Next up, the boards that will form the face of the risers are installed. Bracing should be added

to the centre of each riser as the stair is pretty wide. The cement is poured starting from the

bottom, it is done one step at a time. A spade or rod is used to remove air bubbles.

A screed board- a piece of lumber which is longer than the width of the stairs is used to get the

excessive concrete off the treads.

A wood float is used to level the surface. A wood float is a flat lumber with a handle that is

attached on one of it’s surfaces.

A steel trowel is used to produce a finer finish, which is somewhat similar to wood float but it

is much smoother which will result in a better and an almost flawless surface.

Once the surface is smooth, keep the concrete damp for about a week while it cures. This can

be done by covering it with burlap or plastic. The stairs should be sprayed with curing

compound. It is important to do so as the humidity of the concrete will decrease if it is exposed

to open air, and it will affect the strength of the concrete.

After a week, the concrete will have its final shape. Lumbers can be removed but curing has to

continue to take place until about a month.

Example process of constructing concrete stairs.

40

S T A I R C A S E5 . 4

Components of a Concrete Stair

1. Rise surface2. Decorated surface (Recess)3. Chamfer4. Stepping surface5. Site surface

6. Slip prevention part7. Displacement prevention groove8. Rear surface9. Rear surface recess10. Round part

41

S T A I R C A S E5 . 4

C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a W o o d e n S ta i r c a s e• Carriages/rough stringers are

inclined beams supportingthe treads and risers. Thenumber and spacing of thecarriages depends on thespanning capability of thetread material.• Stringers, sloping finishmembers alongside astaircase.• Tread

• Riser; some stairs have no risers.

• Carriages may be attachedto supporting beam, headeror wall framing with metalhangers or a ledger.

• Kick plate, anchors andabsorb the thrust of inclinedstair carriage.

• Finishing• Full stringer

• Softfit

• Fireblocking

• Carriage

• Chamfer edges for carpeting

42

S T A I R C A S E5 . 4

C o m p o n e n t s o f a W o o d e n S ta i r

43

S T A I R C A S E5 . 4

R a m p

Apart from stairs, ramps provide smooth transitions between the floor levels

of a building. To have comfortable low slopes, they require relatively long

runs. They are typically used to accommodate a change in level along an

accessible route to provide access for wheeled equipment. Short, straight

ramps act as a beams and may be constructed as wood, steel, or concrete

floor systems. Long or curvilinear ramps are usually of steel or reinforced

concrete.

44

2 . 0

R O O F C H E N R O U A N N A N D N U R A D I L A

R O O F6 . 1

U S E S O F R O O F

A D E S I R E F O R A C O V E R I N G

T H E P R O M I S E O F P R O T E C T I O N

K E E P I N G T H E W A T E R O U T

P r o t e c t a g a i n s t d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f w e a t h e r a n d

r e f l e c t i o n ( s u n r a d i a t i o n ) f r o m e n t e r i n g t h e

b u i l d i n g ’ s i n t e r i o r .

I t i s u s e d t o s h e d w a t e r t o a s y s t e m d r a i n s , g u t t e r s

a n d d o w n s p o u t s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e f o r m a n d s l o p e o f a

r o o f m u s t b e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e t y p e o f r o o f i n g .

T h i s s e c t i o n p i c t u r e s h o w s h o w a h u m a n c a n f e e l

c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h a r o o f o n t o p o f h i s h e a d . H e h a s t h e

d e s i r e t o c o v e r h i m s e l f f r o m i n f i l t r a t i o n o f a i r a n d t h e

f l o w o f h e a t a n d s o l a r r a d i a t i o n . T h i s i s b e c a u s e r o o f

s h o u l d c o n t r o l t h e w a t e r f l o w , a i r a n d h e a t f l o w . I n

c o n c l u s i o n , i t h a s g o t a d e s i r e t o c o v e r t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e

s p a c e s .

45

R O O F6 . 1

T Y P E S O F R O O F

F L AT R O O F

P i t c h r o o f h a s a r o o f c o v e r i n g a n d p r o t e c t i o n

a g a i n s t w e a t h e r , f i r e a n d r e f l e c t i o n . T o e n s u r e f o r

a l l o f t h e p r o t e c t i o n s , i t h a d b e e n b u i l t w i t h a

c e r t a i n k i n d o f s l o p e t h a t c a n b e c a t e g o r i z e d a s l o w

s l o p e d r o o f s a n d m e d i u m - t o h i g h s l o p e d r o o f s . I n

a d d i t i o n , t h e s l o p e c a n a l s o b e h a r m o n i z e d w i t h t h e

s i t e c o n t e x t t o m a k e t h e b u i l d i n g l o o k m o r e

b e a u t i f u l . P i t c h r o o f a l s o h a s l a y e r s t o e n s u r e t h e

f u n c t i o n b e c o m e m o r e a c c e s s i b l e . E x a m p l e o f t h e

l a y e r s a r e l o a d b e a r i n g l a y e r , v e n t i l a t i o n c a v i t y ,

s e a l i n g l a y e r a n d e t c . I n o r d e r t o m a k e t h e i n t e r i o r

f e e l s c o m f o r t a b l e , t h e v a p o r b a r r i e r l a y e r o f t h e

r o o f w i l l p r o t e c t a g a i n s t w a r m , m o i s t i n t e r i o r a i r

d i f f u s i n g i n t o t h e r o o f c o n s t r u c t i o n .

T h e p r o t e c t i o n a n d d r a i n a g e l a y e r o f f l a t r o o f i s m o s t l y t o

p r o t e c t a g a i n s t m e c h a n i c a l d a m a g e a n d u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n

w h i l e t h e r e i s s t r u c t u r e t h a t c a n p r o t e c t a g a i n s t t h e w e a t h e r .

T h e m i n i m u m r e c o m m e n d e d s l o p e f o r t h i s r o o f i s 1 / 4 p e r f o o t .

T h e s l o p e u s u a l l y f l o w t o t h e i n t e r i o r d r a i n s ; p e r i m e t e r

s c u p p e r s t h a t c a n b e u s e d a s o v e r f l o w d r a i n s . I t i s c o m p a t i b l e

f o r a n y h o r i z o n t a l d i m e n s i o n a n d c a n b e d e s i g n e d t o s e r v e

o u t d o o r s p a c e . T h i s t y p e o f r o o f a l s o h a s a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f

l a y e r w i t h p u r p o s e s s u c h a s w a t e r p r o o f i n g l a y e r , t h e r m a l

i n s u l a t i o n , i m p a c t s o u n d i n s u l a t i o n a n d e t c .

T h e f i g u r e a b o v e s h o w s h o w p i t c h r o o f c a n b e

h a r m o n i z e d w i t h T H E s i t e c o n t e x t d u e t o t h e s a m e t y p e

o f s l o p e ( b e t w e e n t h e r o o f a n d m o u n t a i n ’ s s l o p e ) .

P I T C H R O O F

46

R O O F6 . 1

T Y P E S O F R O O F F L AT R O O F P I T C H E D R O O F

R E I N F O R C E

C O N C R E T E S L A B S

F L A T T I M B E R /

S T E E L T R U S S E S

T I M B E R O R S T E E L

B E A M S & D E C K I N G

W O O D O R S T E E L

J O I S T S & S H E E T I N G

W O O D o r S T E E L

R A F T E R S a n d S H E E T I N G

T I M B E R o r S T E E L B E A M S ,

P U R L I N S , a n d D E C K I N G S

T I M B E R o r S T E E L

T R U S S E S

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l t y p e s o f f l a t r o o f s t r u c t u r e s : -

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l t y p e s o f p i t c h r o o f s t r u c t u r e s : -

The slope of the roof is recommended to have the minimum slope of ¼ per foot

H i g h S l o p e

M e d i u m S l o p e

L o w S l o p e

The sloping of the roofs can be categorized to:- Low Sloped roofs (up to

3:12) and medium –to high – sloped roof (4:12 to 12 : 12)

47

R O O F6 . 0

C O M P O N E N T S O F R O O F

S k e t c h : C o m p o n e n t s o f P i t c h R o o f

S k e t c h : C o m p o n e n t s o f F l a t R o o f

48

R O O F6 . 0

D E T A I L S O F R O O F

EDGE ROOF – PARAPET WALL

The intention of parapet walls is to prevent

from spread of fire from a building to another

Sketch : FLAT ROOF Sketch : PITCH ROOF

WOOD ROOF JOISTS AND RAFTERSF u n c t i o n : T o l o a d a n d s u p p o r t t h e

r o o f o n t o p .

F l a t r o o f : T h e s p a c e d o f j o i s t o r

r a f t e r s a r e s p a c e d i n d i f f e r e n t

n u m b e r d e p e n d i n g t h e r o o f l o a d .

N u m b e r s o f s p a c e d ( 1 2 “ , 1 6 ” o r 2 4 ” )

P i t c h R o o f : M e m b e r s s u p p o r t i n g

r a f t e r s t h a t a r e l e s s t h a n 3 : 1 2

m u s t b e d e s i g n e d a s b e a m s .

49

R O O F6 . 1

I N T O T H E S I T E

SITE A & SITE B – FLAT ROOF

The slope of the roof is 5 °

A c c o r d i n g t o b o t h o f t h e s i t e v i s i t t h a t w e w e n t , w e c a n o b s e r v e a f l a t r o o f t y p e o f b u i l d i n g . T h e

r o o f a l s o h a s a p r o p e r s l o p e o f 5 ° t o e n s u r e p r o p e r f l o w o f w a t e r . T h e y a l s o p l a n a p r o p e r

d r a i n a g e s y s t e m t o e n s u r e s m o o t h r a i n w a t e r f l o w a n d b e t t e r p i p i n g s y s t e m . B e s i d e t h a t , w i t h a l l

t h e c o n c e r n o f p r o p e r d e t a i l e d i n e v e r y a s p e c t , t h e w o r k e r s c a n s t a r t t o b u i l d i t . I n a d d i t i o n , t h i s

r o o f a l s o i n c l u d e s a p r o p e r p a r a p e t w a l l t o p r e v e n t s p r e a d o f f i r e f r o m a b u i l d i n g t o a n o t h e r

b u i l d i n g .

One of the flat roof in this building S k e t c h o f S i t e A E l e v a t i o n a n d D e t a i l e d o f r o o f

50

R O O F6 . 1

I N T O T H E S I T E

A b o v e d e t a i l e d s k e t c h i s t o s h o w t h e r a f t e r f r a m i n g t o l o a d

t h e f l a t r o o f . T h e s p a c i n g o f t h e j o i s t s h o u l d b e b e t w e e n t o

1 2 ” a n d 1 4 ” . B e s i d e t h a t , t h e j o i s t s m a y b e o v e r s i z e d t o

p u t u p t h e r e q u i r e d t h e r m a l i n s u l a t i o n ( w h i c h m a i n t a i n a

h y g i e n i c i n d o o r c l i m a t e a t l o w a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s ) .

A c e i l i n g f i n i s h i s a p p l i e d u n d e r n e a t h o f r o o f o r c e i l i n g j o i s t s .

T H E E L E V AT I O N D R A W I N G O F T H E R O O F

51

2 . 0

S U M M A R Y A N D C O N C L U S I O N

S U M M A R Y 7 . 0

52

B e i n g a b l e t o e x p l o r e t h e a c t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e s , i t i s a n e y e o p e n i n g e x p e r i e n c e

w h i l e b e i n g e x p o s e d t o t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e a n d p r o c e d u r e s o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

p r o c e s s a n d a l s o f u r t h e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e c y c l e h a r m o n i z a t i o n o f c o n s t r u c t i o n a t

s i t e . S o m e t h i n g s t h a t c a n n o t b e l e a r n t i n a c l a s s r o o m .

B e i n g e x p o s e d t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y a n d a l s o t h e e x t e n s i v e d e t a i l s o f t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e g r o u p a l s o u n d e r s t a n d s a n d g a i n e d t h e s k i l l s t o p r o d u c e m a n u a l

s k e t c h e s , a n d t o i n c l u d e t h e d r a w i n g s a n d d e t a i l i n g , a n d l a s t l y c r e a t e a

d o c u m e n t a t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n f u n d a m e n t a l s .

T h e g r o u p i s a b l e t o c o o p e r a t e i n h a r m o n y i n a l a r g e r g r o u p t h a n t h e g r o u p i s u s e d

t o , a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , h o w t o p r o p e r l y m a n a g e w o r k a n d t i m e t o p e r f o r m t h e

t a s k d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e m . W i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n g a i n e d , t h e g r o u p c a n i n c o r p o r a t e

t h e k n o w l e d g e a n d t o a p p l y t h a t f o r t h e f u t u r e u s e .

I N C O N C L U S I O N