i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. G. Chandrasena, honorable Vice Chancellor, Uva

Wellassa University and Dr. S. Jayamanna, Dean, Faculty of Animal Science and Export

Agriculture and Dr. L. M. H. R. Alwis, Head, Department of Export Agriculture for giving me

the opportunity to carry out this valuable training program under their supervision and

guidance.

Then I would like to pay my gratitude Dr. K.G. Premathilake , Coordinator of field training

program on Tea production for arranging field training program with the guidance and

supervision.

I would like to pay my gratitude to Balangoda Plantations PLC and Mr. T. G. A. De Mel,

General Manager, Balangoda Plantations PLC for facilitating the field training program on

behalf of us.

Also I wish to render my sincere gratitude to Mr. H. S. C. Nanayakkara, Superintendent, Glen

Alpin Estate, Mr. N. P Liyanage, Superintendent, Telbedde Estate, Mr. J. U. Hulangamuwa,

Superintendent, Ury Estate and Mr. P. K. Senanayake, Superintendent, Wewessa Estate for

their co-operation.

I am immensely grateful to all other assistant superintendents for their guidance and

supervision in field operations. Then my thank goes to all field officers, factory officers, and

office staff members providing their assistance during the training program.

Further, I would like to appreciate Ms. R.M.S.D. Rathnayake, Lecturer and Ms. Madhusha De

Silva, Temporary Lecturer for their assistance and supervision as my supervisors. Finally, I am

most thankful to my parents, group members and colleagues who helped me in numerous ways

to complete this field training program successfully.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................ i

TABLE OF CONTENT ........................................................................................................... ii

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. vi

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF PLATES ............................................................................................................... viii

CHAPTER 01 ........................................................................................................................... 1

1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Objective of the Training ............................................................................................ 1

1.2 Introduction to the Company....................................................................................... 1

1.3 The Organizational Hierarchy ..................................................................................... 3

CHAPTER 02 ........................................................................................................................... 4

2.0 Activities Undertaken .................................................................................................. 4

2.1 Nursery ........................................................................................................................ 4

2.1.1 Site Selection ....................................................................................................... 4

2.1.2 Soil Selection ....................................................................................................... 5

2.1.3 Soil Treatment (Fumigation of Soil) .................................................................... 5

2.1.4 Preparation of Nursery Beds ................................................................................ 5

2.1.5 Bagging ................................................................................................................ 5

2.1.6 Sources of Planting Material ................................................................................ 6

2.1.7 Preparation of Mother Bushes ............................................................................. 6

iii

2.1.8 Method of Taking Cuttings .................................................................................. 6

2.1.9 Planting of Cuttings ............................................................................................. 7

2.1.10 Aftercare Management......................................................................................... 7

2.2 Replanting ................................................................................................................... 9

2.2.1 Land Selection ..................................................................................................... 9

2.2.2 Uprooting ............................................................................................................. 9

2.2.3 Forking and Leveling ......................................................................................... 10

2.2.4 Construction of Drainage Lines ......................................................................... 10

2.2.5 Soil Rehabilitation ............................................................................................. 11

2.2.6 Planting and Maintaining of Mana Grasses ....................................................... 11

2.2.7 Planting of Shade Trees ..................................................................................... 12

2.2.8 Pegging and Field Planting of Tea ..................................................................... 13

2.2.9 Early Aftercare Operations ................................................................................ 13

2.3 Plucking ..................................................................................................................... 14

2.3.1 Leaf Standard ..................................................................................................... 14

2.3.2 Standard of Plucking .......................................................................................... 15

2.3.3 Frequency of Plucking (Plucking Round).......................................................... 15

2.3.4 Severity of Plucking ........................................................................................... 15

2.3.5 Methods of Plucking .......................................................................................... 16

2.3.6 Weighing of Green Leaf .................................................................................... 17

2.3.7 Cost of Plucking ................................................................................................. 17

iv

2.3.8 Transport of Green Leaves ................................................................................. 18

2.4 Pruning ...................................................................................................................... 18

2.4.1 Starch Test ......................................................................................................... 18

2.4.2 Methods of Pruning............................................................................................ 19

2.4.3 Field Categorization ........................................................................................... 20

2.4.4 Post Pruning Practices........................................................................................ 20

2.4.5 Tipping ............................................................................................................... 21

2.5 Fertilizing of Tea ....................................................................................................... 21

2.5.1 Fertilizer Recommendation ................................................................................ 21

2.6 Draining ..................................................................................................................... 23

2.6.1 Desilting ............................................................................................................. 23

2.7 Forking ...................................................................................................................... 23

2.8 Weeding .................................................................................................................... 24

2.8.1 Characteristics of Weeds.................................................................................... 24

2.8.2 Methods of Weed Management ......................................................................... 24

2.9 Tea Manufacturing .................................................................................................... 25

2.9.1 Orthodox manufacture ....................................................................................... 25

2.9.2 Tea Manufacture – Rotorvane ........................................................................... 28

2.10 Maintenance of Estate Records ................................................................................. 29

2.10.1 Estate Record Books .......................................................................................... 29

2.11 Welfare Activities ..................................................................................................... 30

v

CHAPTER 03 ......................................................................................................................... 32

PROBLEMS IDENTIFIED AND SUGGESTIONS ........................................................... 32

CHAPTER 04 ......................................................................................................................... 33

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................... 33

REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 34

APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................ 35

vi

LIST OF TABLES

No. Title Page No

Table 1.1: Overview of Four Estates ......................................................................................... 2

Table 2.1: Nursery Calendar for Uva Region (North-East monsoon) ....................................... 4

Table 2.2: Pesticide Use in Tea Nurseries ................................................................................. 8

Table 2.3: Shade Trees and Their Planting Distances ............................................................. 13

Table 2.4: Severity of Plucking ............................................................................................... 15

Table 2.5: Method of Plucking ................................................................................................ 17

Table 2.6: Resting Periods According to Starch Level ............................................................ 19

Table 2.7: Method of Pruning .................................................................................................. 19

Table 2.8: Nitrogen Replacement Schedule............................................................................. 22

Table 2.9: Estate Record Books and Their Inclusion………………………………………...29

Table 2.10: Responsibilities of the Welfare Staffs .................................................................. 31

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

No. Title Page No

Figure 1.1: Organizational Hierarchy of an Estate .................................................................... 3

Figure 2.1: Single Node Cutting ................................................................................................ 7

Figure 2.2: Lateral Drains with Lock and Spill, and Lock and Spill with Silt Pit .................. 11

viii

LIST OF PLATES

No. Title Page No

Plate 2.1: Uprooting Tea Bushes and Constructing Drains ..................................................... 11

1

1.0 CHAPTER 01

Introduction

This report comprises detailed information on activities followed and experience gained in the

field training programme designed for BSc. in Tea Technology and Value Addition course

offered at Uva Wellassa University. The training programme was conducted for a period of

one month under the supervision of internal and external supervisors.

1.1 Objective of the Training

To acquire the competencies in technical, operational and managerial practices in tea industry

while identifying and assessing the development needs required to sustain the tea industry as

the most viable economic activity of the country.

1.2 Introduction to the Company

Balangoda Plantations PLC is a company which managed by the Stassen group. It is engaged

in the cultivation, processing and selling activities under tea and rubber. The company has 16

tea estates, one rubber estate and 7 tea and rubber mixed estates which spread about 5400 ha

under tea and 1900 ha under rubber in Badulla, Balangoda and Ratnapura regions.

Balangoda plantation PLC was incorporated in 1992 to take over the assets and liabilities of

various estates owned and managed by the Janatha Estate Development Board (JDB) and the

Sri Lanka State Plantation Corporation (SLSPC) as a public limited company.

Their vision is to achieve excellence in the production and marketing of tea and rubber both

locally and internationally. Their mission is to increase productivity as well as to encourage

team work and motivate amongst employees and provide for carrier development.

The field training program was conducted by Balanoda plantations PLC at their estates named

Glen Alpin, Thelbedde, Ury and Wewesse. All the four estates bested near Badulla, with a

varying elevation between 3000 to 6000 feet under Uva medium category known as one of the

world’s best tea producing region. Glen-Alpin, Wewesse, Ury estates are producing pure

2

Orthodox tea while Telbedde estate undergoes Unorthodox-rotorvane manufacturing process

according to the market demand.

Entire training period was conducted 4 weeks from 22nd of September to 17th of October 2014.

A description of estates related to the field training is given as follows (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1: Overview of Four Estates

Estate Tea land

extent (ha) Labor force

Training

period Activities

Ury 340.13

548

22nd of Sept to

26th of Sept

2014

Plucking, Record Keeping,

Weeding and Pest & disease

management

Telbedde 697.97 1320

28th of Sept to

3rd of Oct

2014

Rotorvane tea manufacturing,

Fertilizer application and

Nursery management

Glen

Alpin

352.7 556

6th of Oct to

11th of Oct

2014

Uprooting, Soil rehabilitation,

Soil conservation, Replanting,

Pruning and Shade management

Wewesse 285 446

12th of Oct to

17th of 2014

Orthodox tea manufacturing,

Labor management & welfare

activities and Muster

3

1.3 The Organizational Hierarchy

Managing Director

Superintendents / Estate Manager

Field Staff

Senior Factory

Officer

Assistant Superintendents

Office Staff

Factory Staff

Mid Wife Factory Workers

Factory Officer

Field Workers

Kangani

Assistant Field

Officer

Field Officer

Welfare

Officer

Welfare Staff

Chief Clerk

Divisional

Clerk

Chief Executive Officer (CEO)

Estate Doctor

Crèche Staff

General Manager

Figure 1.1: Organizational Hierarchy of an Estate

4

2.0 CHAPTER 02

Activities Undertaken

2.1 Nursery

Successful tea cultivation is based on the regular maintenance of the plant from the nursery

itself and also tea cultivation should have strong foundation as unlike short term crops,

therefore tea nursery management is an important operation undertaken in tea cultivation. The

objective of nursery management is to raise vigorous, healthy, and uniform plants from

suitable cultivars with least casualties. In Uva region, all the agricultural practices are

scheduled upon the North-East monsoon, where the nursery operations are recommended as

follows. Shows in table 2.1

Table 2.1: Nursery Calendar for Uva Region (North-East monsoon)

Activity Season

Pruning mother bushes ( 4- 6 months prior to planting) May – Jul

Soil collection, Preparation, Fumigation and bagging Jul - Aug

Planting of cuttings Oct - Dec

Supplying casualties (2 week intervals) Dec - Jan

Fertilizer application (2 week intervals) Jan - Feb

Disbudding (4 - 5 leaf stage) Feb – Mar

Thumb nailing (7 - 8 leaf stage) Mar - Apr

Restacking (4 - 5 month stage) Apr – May

Hardening (5 - 7 month stage) May – Jun

Field planting

Up country and Uva in 10-12 months, Low country in 8-9 months

Oct - Nov

2.1.1 Site Selection

These factors should be considered for selection of a site. Proximity to a source of water,

proximity to a source of soil and source of planting material, it should have good drainage

5

system and good protection from wind. It should not have shade trees, overhanging branches

of trees.

2.1.2 Soil Selection

Sandy loam or loam soil are better as the media. The pH of the soil should be within a

range of 4.5 and 5.5. The soil chosen for bagging should be sieved using No.4 mesh

to remove stones, pebbles and large root particles. These characteristics of soil could be

obtained from mana soil, patana soil, jungle soil and sub soil. Paddy husk, refuse tea and coir

dust could be used as substitute for the soil.

2.1.3 Soil Treatment (Fumigation of Soil)

Soil fumigation was practiced to eradicate nematode infestation at the preliminary stage in the

nursery by adding 800 ml of Metham Sodium or 500 g of Bazamid per 1 cube of soil after

sieving from No. 4 mesh. Then it was covered for three weeks using 300 gauge black polythene.

In Uva, soil solarization is not practiced as a soil treatment, due to the lack of solar radiation

exposure continuously for six hours. The covered soil should be mixed well after the 9th, 12th,

15th and 21st days.

2.1.4 Preparation of Nursery Beds

A recommended size of nursery bed having 1.0 m width and any convenient length up to 20 m

were built in to North-South direction to receive the sunlight throughout the day. Raise beds

were built about 15 cm height for assisting drainage and to avoid the contamination with

nematodes coming through running water by keeping and 60 cm apart path is for walking.

2.1.5 Bagging

About 500 transparent polythene sleeve have recommended gauge (150) and size (4 x 6 inches)

were obtained from 1 kg of polythene. Bags were filled with moisten fumigated soil by

uniformly pressurizing the soil towards the polythene sleeve. Air pockets should not be there.

6

Then bags should be kept for 2 - 3 weeks to settle down. Approximately 800-900 bags could

be filled using 1 cube fumigated of soil. Bagging task for a labor was 500 sleeves per day.

2.1.6 Sources of Planting Material

Suitable mother bushes should be selected to obtain shoots, because it assists to produce

healthy, vigorous and uniform plants in the nursery affects for the longevity of the tea bush.

This selection should be depended on yield of the cultivar cultivar, pest and diseases tolerant

ability, tolerant to undesirable climatic conditions in particular region, quality of the made tea,

wide plucking table, minimum four year old, fast growing after pruning and also it should be

suited with the region (For Uva: TRI 3018, TRI 3019, TRI 4042, DG 7, DN).

2.1.7 Preparation of Mother Bushes

Remove of terminal buds and foliar application of Zink Sulphate (ZnSO4) and application of 2

- 3 % Urea should be done in order to break dormancy of auxiliary buds about 2 - 3 weeks prior

taking shoots. Mother bush should be over four years in age when the cuttings are taken.

Vigorously grown erect shoots should be selected. Good, healthy shoots for laying cuttings

were selected and collected early in the morning. Lateral branches were not be taken.

2.1.8 Method of Taking Cuttings

“Single node cutting” is the ideal form of the vegetative part for planting in nursery. In Uva

region, 3-5 suitable cuttings per shoot. The best cuttings were taken from semi hard wood,

middle portion of the shoot leaving the apical tender portion and the basal mature portion.

Initial length of a cutting should be about 2.5 - 3.8 cm. Cuttings with flower buds, over grown

shoots and damaged mother leaf containing cuttings were removed. Immediately after the

cuttings were obtained, dropped then into a Cu base fungicide solution container. This was

done for inhibiting the Blister blight attack initial stage in the nursery. The ideal shoot that we

had taken from healthy shoot was as follows.

7

2.1.9 Planting of Cuttings

The basal end of the cutting was dipped in a solution of “IndolButric Acid” (Maxi Crop) to

induce rooting. Cuttings were inserted vertically down into the soil applying a gentle pressure.

After that, they were lightly watered. Cuttings were placed along one direction at an angle to

avoid the overlapping of the mother leaves. The upper cut was not covered by soil.

2.1.10 Aftercare Management

2.1.10.1 Shade the Nursery

Cuttings should not be exposed to direct sunlight. Optimum shade supply is important. There

are different types of shades, low shade with bracken fern was used as shade providing method.

Bracken ferns were inserted in clusters of about 2 - 3 fern shoots between alternative polythene

sleeves. Bracken ferns (Gleichenia linearis) were used as clusters leaving two bags. About 80

% of shade can be provided within first 3 months using bracken ferns.

2.1.10.2 Watering

Watering should be practiced 2 - 3 times per day after planting. One watering can will be

enough to wet 120 plants. Frequency of watering will be depending on the weather condition.

2.1.10.3 Fertilizer application

Fertilizer application should be commenced only, when cuttings have rooted (The months of

Jan - Feb according to nursery calendar of Uva). Initially, about 35 g of T 65 in 5 L water for

Figure 2.1: Single Node Cutting

8

1 m2 (120 plants) at fortnight intervals should be applied and the dosage should be gradually

increased up to 70 g after two months and should continue. Watering should be done after each

fertilizer application using fresh water to prevent foliar damage. To enhance early bud break

and for active growth of plants ZnSO4 can be applied as foliar application. About 14 g of

ZnSO4 in 5 L of water can be sprayed by using Knapsack sprayer for 4500 plants about a week

after the first application of T 65.

2.1.10.4 Pest and Disease Control

Pest and disease control is an important practice to obtain healthy plant. Tea tortrix and the

shot hole borer are the most common pest can be found in tea nurseries. Pest and disease on

young leaves in tea nurseries can be controlled using pesticides shown in the table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Pesticide Use in Tea Nurseries

Pest / Disease Chemicals used to control

Tea Tortrix Mimic / Atabrone

Shot Hole Borer Lebasid

Blister Blight Copper sulphate

2.1.10.5 Disbudding and Thumb-nailing

To encourage the formation of lateral branches from the lower levels of the stem Disbudding

and Thumb nailing were practiced. Removal of bud and the first two leaves at the 7-8 leaf stage

is called as Thumb-nailing while the removal of the terminal bud at the 4-5 leaf stage is called

Disbudding.

2.1.10.6 Restacking and Hardening

When the plants are grown up to 4 - 5 months, re-staking and hardening should be conducted

to give more attention for low grown plants. To obtain plants in uniform size, the plants are

separated by restacking them according to their growth (height). Conversion of the plants to

9

the natural climate is called as hardening. As more leaves are formed, plants need exposure

to more sunlight for better growth. This can be achieve by the removing shade gradually

up to 25 % shade.

2.2 Replanting

Replanting works are very important practices done in tea fields because old seedling and VP

plants that are aged more than 30 years, not providing sufficient productivity. This operation

is conducted to increase the yields and when launching a replanting work it is important to

follow the recommended standards. Extent of replanting at an estate is decided by the estates

according to their available resources.

2.2.1 Land Selection

Land selection is very much important in replanting, as the estate invest much money on

replanting. For that, field categorization is very essential depending on the productivity. Fields

are categorized into three groups as A, B and C. Lower B and upper C categorized fields in

estate. It is important to establish soil profile pits and subjected to inspect from an expertise

from Tea Research Institute. It is recommended to establish 10 pits per ha, but practically this

is reduces up to 8 - 9. Characteristics of suitable land for tea growing are well drained soil, soil

depth greater than 50 cm, slopes less than 70 %, rockiness not more than 20 %, gravel content

in the top 90 cm less than 50%.Size of a pit is 3 × 3 × 3 ft.

Lands under prolonged spells of dry weather and desiccating winds are unsuitable for

replanting. Even in the best lands that are selected for replanting, there may be patches of land

areas having poor soil depth, clay or gravel soil, poor drainage and steepness.

2.2.2 Uprooting

All the roots of tea bushes and shade trees which are more than pencil thickness were removed

manually by using “Mamotee” and “Crawbar” or mechanically by Back hoes. According to

10

TRI guidelines uprooting should commence from the uppermost section of a slope. But when

it is used Back hoes to this operation it is not practicable with some field restrictions. Old tea

plants were uprooted using the winch as it is capable of removing almost all the big roots. All

shade trees should be ring barked 2 - 2 ½ years prior to uprooting in order to deplete the

carbohydrate reserves.

2.2.3 Forking and Leveling

After uprooting, deep fork to depth of 45 cm was conducted. Heavy machines should be used

to uprooting such as back hoes and at the same time forking also conducted.

2.2.4 Construction of Drainage Lines

Basically there are two types of drains called leader and lateral drains. Leader drains are the

main drains which constructed on natural drainage lines. All the lateral drains are gently sloped

towards the leader drains. The main purpose of the drains constructing is minimize the soil

erosion.

Leveled land was pegged along the contour at a gradient of 1:120 to slope towards the leader

drain by using “A-Frame” and “Road tracer” to make a lateral drain. Finally smoothed the drain

line with more pegs. After the demarcation, lateral drains were cut according a particular

pattern called lock and spill pattern. Sometime silt pits also used. The dug soil should be put

onto the upper side of the drain (Figure 2.2). Otherwise it can be caused the soil erosion. In

order to prevent the collapse of leader drain the lateral drain should not be cut directly opposite

towards the leader drain. Upper end of the drain was planted with vetever grass to prevent

11

collapse and soil erosion. The space between lateral drains is depended on the slope of the land

and amount of rain fall (usually it is taken 6-12 m).

The excess water from lateral drains is collected by the leader drains and carried away at

slowly. It should be constructed on step wise with a reverse slope to slow the velocity of

running water. Check dam should be constructed at frequent intervals to collect silt. Base and

the side walls of the leader drain were paved.

(a) (b)

(a)Uprooting Tea Bushes (b) Constructing Drains

Plate 2.1: Uprooting Tea Bushes and Constructing Drains

2.2.5 Soil Rehabilitation

Before planting grass dolomite should be applied to adjust the soil pH to the desirable range of

4.5 - 5.5. The dolomite was uniformly distributed on the soil surface.

2.2.6 Planting and Maintaining of Mana Grasses

Mana (Cymbopogon conefetiflorus) is the recommended as rehabilitation grass species for Uva.

The grasses should be planted along contours at 10 - 15 cm spacing in the row and at 60 - 90

2'

10'-12'

Silt pit

3'

Lock

1' 1.5'

9'' 6'

Soil surface

0.5'

Figure 2.2: Lateral drains with lock and spill, and lock and spill with silt pit

12

cm spacing between rows. The lands should be kept under rehabilitation grasses at least for 18

months along with proper fertilizing and lopping. U- 625 fertilizer mixture could be added to

the rehabilitation grasses.

The mixture is included with Urea, ERP (Eppawala Rock Phosphate) and MOP (Muriate of

Potash).

Lopping of mana grass was begun at the height of 1.5 feet and the other loppings should be

done at the height of 2 feets. Mana lopping should be practiced before came in to flowering

stage and practice 3-4 times.

2.2.7 Planting of Shade Trees

Shade management is important in tea cultivation. Three types of shade trees are used for

shading according to the requirement. They are Low shade, Medium shade and High shade.

2.2.7.1 Medium Shade Management

The establishment of shade trees was done during the planting of rehabilitation grasses. Dadap

(Erythrina lithosperma) is one of recommended and commonly used Medium shade type for

high elevations. Shade was established by planting poles of suitable size and maturity. The

height of the pole was 6 - 7 ft and the soils of the planting hole were mixed with 225 g of

dolomite prior to planting the pole. The initial spacing among plants were 10 × 10 ft and later

the plants can be thinned out to a spacing of 20 × 20 ft.

2.2.7.2 High Shade Management

Gravillia robustais a recommended high shade species in mid and high elevations. Seedlings

of Gravillia were inter planted with medium shade trees, initially at 20 × 20 ft spacing and later

can be thinned out to a spacing of 40 × 40 ft. Dolomite at the rate of 1 kg was mixed with soil

and incorporated into each planting hole. Shade trees and their planting distances are mention

in table 2.3.

13

Table 2.3 Shade Trees and Their Planting Distances

Type of Shade Shade Tree Initial Stand(ft2) Final Stand(ft2)

Medium shade Dadap /Gliricidia 10 x 10 20 x 20

High shade Grevillea 20 x 20 40 x 40

2.2.8 Pegging and Field Planting of Tea

Planting of tea was commenced with early monsoon from October - November. Grasses are

cut up to the ground level. About 1 ft away from the upper drain and 1.5 ft away from the lower

drain were left without planting tea while rest of the land under goes planting.

For good spreading cultivars, the road tracer at 0 or naked eye should be used for lining and

pegging for single row tea planting. It was done by keeping 2 ft within the row and 4 ft in

between tea rows. Pegging for double row planting was done for low spreading cultivars by

keeping a spacing of 5 ft between double tea rows and 2 ft - 1.5 ft within the rows.

After that, planting holes were prepared for planting. The depth, top diameter and bottom

diameter of the hole should be 18” × 12” × 9” respectively. Around 2/3of the planting hole was

filled with top soil and 7 g of Carbofuran was added to prevent the white grub infestation. In

gravelly soils, 18” × 12” sized trenches should be constructed for tea planting instead of holes.

After the soil is settled in hole, plant was placed after removing the polythene cover. Then the

hole is filled with sub soil up to the ground level and staked to avoid the wind damage.

2.2.9 Early Aftercare Operations

2.2.9.1 Thatching

After planting tea thatching should be spreaded over 4 inches radius, without keeping Mana

lopping too close to the collar of the plant to avoid the wood rot.

14

2.2.9.2 Centering

At the first centering, the main stem was cut at a height of 20 - 25 cm from the base of the

plant. Second and third centering were done at 35 - 40 cm and 45 - 55 cm respectively to induce

the formation of lateral branches and the bush structure using the secateurs. Other aftercare

operations such as planting the cover crops such as Desmodium ovalifolium and Arachis

pintoiias live mulch crops to conserve soil, application of fertilizers such as T 200 and T 750

and weeding was carried out in a new clearing.

2.3 Plucking

Plucking is removal of tender apical shoots with 2-3 leaves at regular intervals. This is the most

important operation among the other field works. As it supplies raw materials for production

process. This is the most labor intensive field operation in tea plantations. 30-35 % out of the

total cost of production (COP) is allocated for plucking process. Generally about 70 % of labor

force of an estate is employed for manual plucking. Quality plucking is essential to profit

maximization. It is the main control point in high quality tea manufacturing.

2.3.1 Leaf Standard

In order to produce good quality tea, harvested shoots should have only 2-3 tender leaves. They

should not be physical damages. Harvested leaves can be categorized into two standards

according to the quality. There are Good leaf and Bad leaf.

Good leaf - Tender shoots with 2-3 single immature leaves free of physical damage,

immature dormant leaf

Bad leaf – Tea shoots with mature (coarse) leaves and stalks and damaged shoots

Usually, the presence of more than 75 – 80 % good leaf ensures a better quality of the end

product.

15

2.3.2 Standard of Plucking

The standard of plucking is determined by the size or degree of the maturity of harvested

shoots. Mainly there are three plucking standards; viz there are fine plucking, medium plucking

and hard plucking. Medium plucking is the best standard of plucking which provides an

acceptable leaf standard for producing better quality tea at a low cost

2.3.3 Frequency of Plucking (Plucking Round)

Frequency of plucking is the number of days between subsequent plucking rounds. It is defined

as the time, taken by the majority of shoots remaining after the previous round to recover for

harvesting. Generally the plucking round in Uva region is 5 - 6 days for VPs and 8 - 9 days for

Seedlings. Shorter plucking round could be observed in wet weather and cropping season.

2.3.4 Severity of Plucking

The severity of plucking determines the point at which a shoot is harvested as mention in the

table below.

Table 2.4 Severity of Plucking

Severity of plucking Description

Single leaf plucking Shoot is plucked leaving the most

mature normal leaf

Mother leaf plucking The mature leaf left on the bush after

plucking. Lightest and healthiest

plucking in tea

Fish leaf plucking Plucking to the fish leaf. Hard plucking

system

Janam leaf plucking Plucking below the fish leaf .Hard

plucking systems

16

2.3.5 Methods of Plucking

There are three types of plucking methods.

Manual Harvesting

Well grown with, one or two older generation of shoots having 2-3 leaves were removed

manually to practice manual plucking while keeping younger generations of shoots called

arimbus in the plucking table for the next round. That shoots should not be plucked. Selective

plucking gives high and sustainable yields. During the plucking specific terminologies were

identified. (See Appendix A)

Shear Plucking (TRI Selective Tea Harvester)

Shear plucking was practiced as a selective plucking method. Labour productivity can be

increased and to prevent the physical damages can be prevent to shoots in the fields with high

shoot density and less number of dormant shoots with long internodes. Shear plucking was

avoided at the stage of “bringing young tea into bearing” and “tipping after pruning”, because

of insufficient foliage and open nature in the plucking table.

Motorized Machine Plucking

Machine plucking using motorized harvesters. It is a non - selective plucking method, which

is suitable for uniformly grown shoots with a good ground cover with trained canopies than in

a slopy land and closer plantings. When machine plucking was done; plucking table becomes

leveled facilitating the formation of “Mudichchi”. But, in rush crop season, this could be the

best alternative to increase the efficiency of harvesting along with the labours shortage in Uva.

Two workers should be assigned for a machine to avoid the inconveniences such as handling

the machine and maintenance of plucking table by rotating the tasks among two workers.

Plucking details for Uva region can be shown as in the table below

17

Table 3.5 Method of Plucking

Method of plucking Pluckers per

hectare

Plucking round

(days)

Norm (Kg)

Manual Plucking 10 – 12 7 – 8 18

Shear plucking 8 – 10 10 18

Machine plucking 4 15 40

Tipping 5 - -

2.3.6 Weighing of Green Leaf

Plucked green leaves are weighed by sack labor with the supervision of Assistant Field Officer

or Field Officer using round dial scale in the muster shed or pre-determined place. After picking

bad leaves around 8 kg of leaves were filled into a bag. The field weight was calculated by

multiplying the number of bags from 8 kg. This field weight is recorded in the green leaf

statement and handed over to the factory by the Field Officer. Weight taken after the leaves

filled sacks reach the factory is called as factory weight. For every 8 kg of green leaves 1 kg

was deducted and recorded in the green leaf statement book and relevant weighing books for

each and every division. 3 % difference in between the field weight and factory weight and 2

% in between check roll weight and factory weight is allowed and are not considered as a

significant loss.

2.3.7 Cost of Plucking

To work out cost of plucking all the related cost for plucking and quantity of made tea produced

were taken in to consideration.

Cost of plucking = Total cost related to plucking = (Rs.125 / 1kg of made tea)

Total quantity of made tea produced

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2.3.8 Transport of Green Leaves

The plucked green leaves were transported to factory as soon as possible, in order to treat them

for manufacturing. Lorries and tractors were use too transport green leaves. During the

transport care should be taken to not to damage green leaves due to premature fermentation

will be badly affect on quality of end product.

2.4 Pruning

Pruning is removal of leaf bearing branches at a given height in regular intervals. There are

several objectives of pruning.

Maintain a convenient height of the plucking table for easy harvesting

Stimulate vegetative shoot growth for sustaining productivity

Remove old, decayed, pest-infested and diseased branches for maintaining a healthy

frame

Effectively utilize the land area

2.4.1 Starch Test

Starch test was conducted to identify the recovering ability before pruning. Thumb sized Root

samples were taken from randomly selected tea bushes (10 bushes/ha). Roots were washed and

split into 2 halves length wise. Few drops of iodine were applied to the splited surfaces of the

roots. Color changes were observed after 1 minute as follows.

Dark bluish colour : - Starch content is greater than 15%

Pale bluish colour : - Starch content in between 10 – 15%

No colour change : - Starch content less than 10%

It is not necessary rested the field, if more than 75 % of dark bluish roots resulted. If that

value is less than 75 %, those fields should be rested for 2-3 months prior to pruning. Resting

periods according to the starch test can be shown as follows table 2.6

19

Table 2.6 Resting Periods According to Starch Level

Starch Level in Roots Appropriate Resting Period

>75% No need of resting (The field is suitable for pruning)

50% - 75% Rest the field for 4 – 6 weeks

<50% Rest the field for 9 – 12 weeks

2.4.2 Methods of Pruning

North East monsoonal rain is prominent in Uva region. Therefore, 2nd half of the year could

not produce more crops like 1st half. It is important to obtain 60 % of total annual yield in first

half. To achieve this target keep the entire A categorized fields in estate for cropping season of

Uva in month of March-April without pruning is very essential. Therefore it is important to

select the C categorized fields to prune in January and February and where the A categorized

fields in September and October. Pruning should be done best when adequate soil moisture is

available in the field. There are three main types of pruning styles. They are as follows.

Table 2.7 Method of Pruning

Rim-lung pruning was recommended for Uva region due to undesirable climatic conditions

specially drought or low moisture in soil and less fertility of soil. Rim-lung pruning was

conducted by leaving 3 - 4 healthy branches with 200 - 300 leaves at the periphery of the bush.

During the pruning unwanted branches such as “Mudichchi”, “Asimbuwadu”, “Pinnalvadu”,

Style of pruning Height of pruning (inches)

Clean pruning 10 – 16

Rim-Lung pruning 16 – 22

Cut across Pruning 22 – 28

20

“Puttakatta”, “Pillivadu”, “Mudichchivadu” and “Kolundumudichchi” were removed using the

pruning knife without harming the remaining branches. Sanitary works such as removal of

prominent knots, dead and diseased branches also very essential. Sharp pruning cut was

obtained and slope of the cut should be parallel to the slope of the land.

2.4.3 Field Categorization

Field categorization was based on the performance of the each land. Generally tea fields are

categorized into A, B and C. Every year ¼ of land extent was pruned in each category. Forward

pruning program was drawn to the easiness.

2.4.4 Post Pruning Practices

2.4.4.1 Mossing and Ferning

Removal of moss and ferns could be done either by brushing them off manually or by

spraying lime.

2.4.4.2 Bush Sanitation

Weak, diseased, dead or pest-infested branches were removed with the pruning. Branches with

extensive dieback, wood rot, canker and termite damages could undergo low prune below the

average level of prune height. It is prefered to apply a wound dressing on the prune cuts. Frame

of the bush can be protected from sun scorch by placing some of the prunings over the bushes.

2.4.4.3 Burying of Pruning

Burying of pruning is practiced to enhance organic matter content and to recycle plant nutrients

which were available in soil. Shallow trenches were made with 10 ft length, 2 ½ ft– 3ft width

and 1 ft in height in between inter - rows alternatively on flat and undulating lands. All prunings

are buried in to the soil to increase the soil fertility. 40 - 45 labours are assigned for one hectare.

21

2.4.4.4 Removal of Lung Branches

The lungs should be removed selectively depending on the stage of recovery of individual

bushes. When more than 75 % of bushes were recovered, lungs could be removed. Too early

or too late removal of lungs should be avoided.

2.4.5 Tipping

There is a final step of pruning and commencing step of plucking called Tipping. This should

be done after 90 – 120 days after pruning in Uva region, but this can be vary according to the

recovery of the tea bush when the new shoots emerged properly. Objective of tipping is to

increase plucking points, maintain the bush frame and establish the plucking table after

pruning.

2.5 Fertilizing of Tea

Fertilizing is conducted to provide nutrients artificially to the plant and to recover the soil by

providing nutrients absorbed by plants and to increase yield. In new clearings fertilizer was

applied in a ring around the plant and in mature tea broadcasting method was used. Fertilization

program was based on field categorization. The labour requirement for fertilizing is four per

hectare.

2.5.1 Fertilizer Recommendation

2.5.1.1 Nitrogen Fertilizer Application

Annual fertilizer application should be programmed on the basis of nitrogen replacement on

the potential yield.

Nitrogen ratio = Total Nitrogen for cycle/ Total yield×100%

or

Nitrogen ratio = Total Nitrogen for 12 months/ Total yield×100%

22

Based on this schedule 60% of Nitrogen should be applied during first half of the year. Nitrogen

ratio would be around 12:1 for VP tea and 10:1 for seedling tea. The minimum Nitrogen

applicable for pruned VP tea in the year of pruning would be 180 Kg/ha/year.

Nitrogen replacement schedule as follows in table 2.8.

Table 2.8 Nitrogen Replacement Schedule

Potential yield (made tea Kg/ha,year) Nitrogen requirement (Kg/ha,year)

Less than 900 90

900-1300 140

1300-1500 160

1500-1700 180

1700-1900 200

1900 – 2000 220

2000 – 2500 270

2500 – 3000 320

3000 – 3500 360

2.5.1.2 Nursery Mixtures

T 65 MAP (Mono-ammonium phosphate) and T 65 DAP (Di- ammonium phosphate) mixtures

are used for nursery.

2.5.1.3 Immature Tea Mixtures

Fertilizers mixture T 200 is recommended for immature tea, from the time of planting in the

field to the commencement of plucking (1st and 2nd year after planting).

T 750 fertilizer mixture is recommended commencement of plucking to first prune.

2.5.1.4 Mature Tea Mixtures

After the 1st pruning Urea based mixtures are recommended for mature tea fields. These

mixtures are varying according to the region and whether the plants are VP or seedling teas.

23

TRI recommended ST/UVA 435 for seedling and VP/UVA 945 for VP Seedling teas. TRI

recommended ST/UVA 435 for seedling and VP/UVA 945 for VP teas in UVA region.

2.5.1.5 Special Fertilizer Mixture

(a) Mother Bushes Mixtures

T 200 Fertilizers mixture which is recommended for immature tea is recommended for

fertilizing to mother bushes also.

(b) Rehabilitation Grasses Mixture

U 625 mixture is recommended for fertilizing rehabilitation grass.

2.5.1.6 Dolomite Recommendation

Optimum pH range is essential for better growth of tea. So the ideal pH range is between 4.5

and 5.5. Soil pH should checked prior to every prune and prior to rehabilitate the land and

depending on the pH recommended the dolomite dosage.

2.5.1.7 Foliar Application

Urea, Zink, Sulphate of Potash and Manganese Sulphate are applied as foliar spraying.

2.6 Draining

Draining or construction of drains is recommended to conserve the top soil in a tea

land. The objectives of draining is to minimize soil erosion and increase the retention

of rain water.

2.6.1 Desilting

Once in a pruning cycle in Uva region at the time of tipping after pruning the lateral drains can

be de-silted. Soil should be spread 2-3 tea rows above the lateral drain and should not be done

below.

2.7 Forking

Forking is another important agronomic practice in tea plantation. With the time soilin field is

getting compacted because of various reasons like frequent movement of workers toperform

24

harvesting, use of machineries, raining. This may be caused for reduction of yield. To overcome

this problem loosening the soil is very much important. But due to cost, factor this operation

also limited to B category fields. There are two types of forking methods used in tea plantation.

They are ‘Deep forking’ and ‘Envelop forking’. Deep forking was practiced.

2.8 Weeding

Weed can be defined as a plant which is unwanted and grown in unwanted place. Weeds could

interfere with the growth of tea by competing with light, nutrients and water thus leading to

low the productivity, but sometimes they act as a ground cover to conserve the soil in a positive

manner. However 5 – 9 % and 5 – 11 % yield losses can be occur in vegetatively propagated

and seedling tea respectively due to weeds.

2.8.1 Characteristics of Weeds

Most of the weeds have the ability to grow and thrive in different ecological conditions. They

reproduce sexually by seeds and vegetatively by stem cuttings, roots, leaves, rhizomes, tubers,

comes, runners, stolon, etc. They can tolerant inconvenient climatic conditions also.

2.8.2 Methods of Weed Management

2.8.2.1 Manual Method

This may be either hand pulling or slash weeding. This is a costly operation but safer than any

other method. Scraper or mamotee is restricted to protect the top soil in tea land. The labour

requirement is high.

2.8.2.2 Cultural and Ecological Methods of Control

The objective of using cultural and ecological methods is to enable the quick establishment of

proper ground cover to suppress the growth of weeds. There are several practices to achieve

these method such as, use of suitable mulching materials such as Mana and Guatemala grass,

adoption of all possible measures to encourage the early development of frames in the tea bush,

infilling the vacant patches, planting of green manure crops.

25

2.8.2.3 Chemical Method

This process is easy, economical and cause fewer disturbances to the top soil than the manual

weeding. Herbicides should apply at a dull weather condition and avoid adverse weather

conditions like rain, wind and hot sun. Time of spraying is important to effective weed control.

2.8.2.4 Integrated Weed Management

Integrated Weed Management is use of two or more than two above mentioned techniques to

control weeds.

2.9 Tea Manufacturing

Tea is manufactured by processing the young shoots of the tea plant. The most important

compounds in the fresh tea flush are the polyphenols. Those chemicals undergo series of

chemical changes during black tea manufacturing. The younger leaves have more

concentration of enzymes than the coarser leaves. Therefore younger leaves are ideal for

manufacturing of good black tea.

Followings basic steps of black tea manufacturing as follows, withering, rolling, roll breaking,

fermentation, drying, grading and packing.

Mainly there are two types of black tea manufacturing processes in Sri Lanka. There are

1. Orthodox tea manufacturing

2. Rotorvane tea manufacturing

Above basic steps are involved in both processes with some variation and use of different type

of machineries.

2.9.1 Orthodox manufacture

2.9.1.1 Withering

Withering is an important practice for reduce the moisture content of the leaves. Physical and

chemical changes can be happen to the leaves in withering period. Withering period and

26

hygrometer differences are the most important parameters to consider. This period can be

depend on the weather condition leaf standard and spreading thickness.

Troughs are used to spread the leaves. Sometimes condition air is used to accelerate the

evaporation rate and remove the surface moisture. Green leaves should be uniformly spread

over the troughs and also turning over once or twice within the withering period according to

the weather and leaf condition to gain even wither. As follows several techniques are used to

check the proper withering condition.

After forming a ball from the leaves it should not loosen

When press the thumb in to the leaf the finger print should in it

Stalk of the shoot should not break when it bent.

Hygrometer difference maintains at 7 0 F and withering temperature should not exceed 85 – 90

0 F.

2.9.1.2 Rolling and Roll Breaking

Charging the rollers with withered leaves was experienced. Machinery details, Rolling process,

Proper twisted stage and dhool conditions were observed. The purpose of rolling is to break up

the leaf cells to mix the chemical constituents. Orthodox rollers are used to roll the leaves.

Different types of cone and battens are used to facilitate twisting of leaves. A rolling

programme was created and that badge was followed.

Roller breaking machines, mesh sizes and the differences among dhools were observed. The

main objectives of roll breaking are separated dhools from rolled leaves; prevent over

fermentation of dhools, to cool the bulk of leaf and breaking of lumps.

2.9.1.3 Fermentation

The fermentation reactions start as soon as the leaf is damaged. The objective of fermenting is

to bring about necessary chemical changes which will result in the development of liquor color,

liquor taste, and flavor and leaf color. The thickness of the dhoolsspreaded usually about 2”.

27

But it may vary according to the relative humidity of the environment. The hygrometric

difference is about 2-3 0F. The fermenting period is about 1-2 hours.

2.9.1.4 Firing

Drying should be done for arresting fermentation and drying the tea to 3.0 % moisture. Endless

chain pressure driers (ECP driers) are used to drying tea. Inlet air temperature of the ECP is 88

- 910 C and exhaust temperature is 49 - 54 0 C.

2.9.1.5 Sifting and Grading

Separation of made tea particles into various shapes and sizes according to the trade

requirement, size reduction of oversized particles as it form more acceptable grades with a

cleaning activity of grades are done at the sifting and grading section. 3T, super 3T, Fibro mate

are used to clean and Michie, Middleton bubble tray, Winnower, Chota machines are assisted

with separation activity.

Total shifting process was studied to the given shifting programme, meanwhile the identifying

of different tea grades.

2.9.1.6 Packing Operation

There are two type of sacks used in factory,

1. Paper sacks for packing of broken and off grades

2. Container sacks for packing of wiry grades

2.9.1.7 Tea Tasting

Tea tasting should be done by experienced tea taster to identify whether there is going any

wrong in the manufacturing procedure. Tea tasters are checked mainly appearance, Infusion

and Liquor of the made tea. These are several terms they used, such as

Appearance – black, Bold, Brownish, Choppy, Even, Flaky, Grainy, Grey, Irregular, Leafy,

Liquor – Baky, Body, Brassy, Bright, Character, Corse, Coloury.

28

Infusion - Bright, Coppery, Dark or Dull, Greenish, Mixed or Uneven.

2.9.2 Tea Manufacture – Rotorvane

Rotorvane type tea is mainly producing for obtain high percentage of broken grades and quality

manufacturing at special quality season.

2.9.2.1 Withering

In Rotorvane tea processing type, leaves were flakier than orthodox processing type. 45 %

wither is maintained to avoid the wastage of juices due to heavy maceration in the rotorvane.

All the other activities are handled same as the Pure Orthodox tea manufacturing.

2.9.2.2 Rolling and Roll Breaking

Orthodox rollers are used to preconditioning the leaves. Important of precondition is to rupture

the cells and mix the oxidisable matter. Then pre-conditioned leaves are charged into 8 inch

rotorvane. Usually a rotovane consists with a feed hopper, feed worm, 40 resisters, 9 vanes and

end plate. Generally rotary roll breakers are used for roll breaking in orthodox type of

manufacturing and No.6 and No.7 meshes were used where particle size is small than orthodox.

2.9.2.3 Fermentation

Fermentation activities are related to the pure Orthodox tea manufacturing.

2.9.2.4 Firing

The tempest dryers are used for drying process with an inlet temperature of 105 °C and exhaust

temperature of 65 °C. Puff particles and dust are removed using a cyclone. The firing order is

as 2nd, 1st, 3rd, 4thdhools and finally the big bulk.

2.9.2.5 Sifting and Grading

There is not much variation than the orthodox process. There is one and only difference. That

is producing small number of grades. No. 10, 12, 16, 24 and 30 meshes are used in Chota, while

the bubble tray sizes of Myddleton are 1/8 and 3/16. Within the expected broken grades, main

29

grades and off grades were observed. As main grades - Pekoe, Broken Orange Pekoe, Broken

Orange Pekoe Fannings, and Dust - 1 and as off grades – Broken Mix, Finnings, Dust – 2 were

observed. After the grading process they were passed through the winnower and send to the

packing section. Activities related to the sifting, packing and dispatching are same as the Pure

Orthodox manufacturing.

Moisture content at the dryer mouth and at the packing was examined using the moisture teller

which should be 3 % and 5 – 6 % respectively.

2.10 Maintenance of Estate Records

2.10.1 Estate Record Books

Name of the

Book

Details

Tea book All the details from the field to factory are included.

Check roll book Worker wage details are included.

Stock books All the available stocked goods details are included.

Yield books All the details of yield fertilizer, pruning cycles in each divisions are

included.

Bin card Total weight of each grades in the bin are included.

Dispatch book Dispatched grades, broker details are included.

Amalgamation The book which included all the check roll details of entire field.

Goods received

book

All the details about received goods like manure, machineries are

included.

Worker register All the details of each and every worker and records their day to day

details which help to work out worker wages.

Table 2.9 Estate Record Books and Their Inclusion

30

Budget book Mainly budget estimate on crop, revenue from made tea, total

expenditures and profit on sale of made tea. Based on estimation next

year works are carried out.

Check List Records details like date, EPF No, name, task and time duration of

task which need for check rolling.

Staff Register All details related to staff members are included. In order to work out

staff salary.

Vehicle running

book

Vehicle running details are included.

Requisition book All the required goods details can be included in this book.

2.11 Welfare Activities

At the initial stage, health and sanitary conditions of estate community was not at sufficient

condition. They just stayed in the estate and not mixed with the other communities. Their health

and sanitary condition were poor and also they used to deliver their babies in their own

residence with greater risk of maternity and child deaths. Line residences with small space

resulted to spread any diseases within short time. Infants and children have to be in the field

with their parent until they finished their duty. Gradually after linking with “Janawasama” they

recruited and trained workers on health and sanitary. Estate medical assistant and midwife are

the responsible body for health condition of estate community, while plantation family welfare

supervisor and creche attendants are responsible for sanitary conditions and child development

of estate community. The Plantation family welfare supervisor is responsible to change

dependent mentality of estate workers, line maintenance, co-operative services, toilet and

sanitary services, health and education programme.

31

Table 2.10: Responsibilities of the Welfare Staffs

Staff Member Responsibilities

Estate Medical

Assistant

Issuing medicines as necessary

Cure patients and direct them to the hospital as needed

Consulting regarding sanitary issues

Midwife

Take care on pregnant mother’s pre delivery, delivery

and post-delivery.

Infant and child conservation.

Counseling on family planning, oral health,

environmental health and youth health.

Plantation family

welfare supervisor

Change dependent mentality of estate workers.

Line maintenance, co-operative services, toilet and

sanitary services, health and education programme.

Creche attendant

Taking care of children who need a protection

Counseling for parent

32

3.0 CHAPTER 03

PROBLEMS IDENTIFIED AND SUGGESTIONS

Low productivity

Skillfulness of labors are low. Most of the labors are not aware about their particular task.

Suggestion

Training programmes should be conducted to the farmers by the plantation extension officers.

Their knowledge and experience about a particular operation should be checked before

employing them for operation.

Low productive seedling tea

Most of the tea fields are low productive seedling and some of them are more than hundred

years in age.

Suggestion

High yielding tea varieties should be replaced.

Worker scarcity

Labours are enter to the urban areas for searching some other employments. The younger

generations in estate sector do not like to work in estate.

Suggestion

The attitude of the community about the work in estate should be changed and should

encourage rural Sinhalese people to join the estate. The estate should be mechanized such as

using conveyers, motorize pruning etc.

High cost of production

High cost of production for worker wages, maintenance, electricity and transportation.

Suggestion

The high cost for the worker wages can be reduced by the mechanization of plucking, pruning,

uprooting, etc.

33

4.0 CHAPTER 04

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The four week field training program conducted with the resource endowment of Balangoda

Plantations PLC was successful in conclusion. Being undergraduates following a specialized

course as Tea technology and Value Addition, it is of paramount importance to get hands on

experience in the field activities rather than adhering only to theories. Experience gained during

the training programme will be highly useful for the students in their career life.

Besides, this training programme helped us realize the value of team work. Punctuality was a

must in every activity, therefore it indirectly trained us to understand the worth of the time. The

four week training programme was highly beneficial to us in multiple ways.

34

REFERENCES

A.K.N.ZOYSA, 2008, Hand book on Tea, Tea research institute of Sri Lanka, Talawakelle.

E.L.Keegel, 1983, Monograph on Tea Production In Ceylon, No .4, Tea Manufacturing in

Ceylon, 2nd edition. Reprinted, Tea research institute of Sri Lanka, Talawakelle.

Tea research institute of Sri Lanka, Annual Report, 2008

V.S. Sidhakaran, Chemical Control of Tea Pests, Tea research institute of Sri Lanka,

Talawakelle.

W.W.D. Modder, Editor, 2003, Twentieth century tea research in sri Lanka, Tea research

institute of Sri Lanka, Talawakelle.

35

APPENDICES

Appendix A

Terminologies in Plucking

Tamil Term Meaning

Arimbu Younger generations of shoots

Wangi A dormant shoot

Mudichchi A clump of shoots and stalks

Ulkolundu Shoots below the plucking table

Araela Half or damaged leaves

Karattala Mature single leaf

Kambu Remaining stalk particles above leaf (Internodes)

Pakkavadu Side branches

Matta varichchi Leveling stick