The Ribat System and Its Role in Coastal Navigation

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The Ribât System and Its Role in Coastal Navigation

Author(s): Hassan S. KhaliliehReviewed work(s):Source: Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 42, No. 2 (1999), pp.212-225Published by: BRILLStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3632336 .

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THE RIBATSYSTEM AND ITS ROLE IN

COASTAL NAVIGATION

BY

HASSAN S. KHALILIEH

(University of Haifa)

Abstract

The article deals with the role of the coastal defense system, called ribadtn medieval

Islam, in coastal navigation. The issues emerge through this discussion are the distancebetween each one of the watching points along the coastal frontiers, inhabitantsof the ri-

bats, and the civil functions of the ribdts. The article proves that these fortresses located

along the Islamic coastal frontiersalong the Mediterraneanas well as the Indian Ocean func-tioned as a refuge for attackedMuslim merchant ships by foreign powers and pirates.Ourevidence came from written sources and archeologicalfinds.

Makingno distinctionbetweendefensiveand offensivepurposes, he Qur'anstates:"Prepare e againstthem what force andcompaniesof horseye can [wa-a'idda lahum md-astata'tum min quwwa wa-min ribdt al-khayl ...]."') Literally,the ribcitmeans the place where the horses were kept ready(lit. "tiedup")tobe mountedfor an expedition.Ribdt, in the abstract,was the safeguardingof

frontiersof the ddr al-Isldmby stationing orces in the harborsand the frontiertowns [thughar] or defense purposes.This type of jihdd, althoughbased on a

Qur'anicinjunction,developed at a time when the Islamic state was on the

defensive.2)Aside fromthe Qur'anicnjunction,Muslimscholarsand specialistsin the hadfthliteratureProphetic radition)explainedthe religious significanceof residingin ribdts.Many Islamic traditionspraiseand encouragethose whovolunteer o garrison n the coastalareasagainst enemyraidsfromthe sea.3)In

1) Qur'cin,8:60. In sara 4, verse 200, the Qur'dnstates: "O ye who believe! perseverein

patience and constancy, vie in such perseverance,strengtheneach other, and fear Allah; that

ye may prosper [Yd ayyuhatal-ladhtna amana usbira wa-sdabirawa-rdbitf wa-ittaqa Alldhala'allakumtuflihan]."

2) Balba' 1968, pp. 27-29; Khaddfiri1973, pp. 114-115; Margais 1936, pp. 1150-1151.

3) Bashear 1991, pp. 193-198. According to the Prophetictraditionsguarding the coastsin general, making takbtr,or even just sitting or moving about there and watching the seawas considered a holy duty. Some of them stated: "Standing [mawqif] for one hour in the

way of God [ft sabfl Alldh] is better than standing in prayer [qiydm]near the Black Stoneon the night of al-Qadr [the night when the ProphetMuhammadwas ascended to heaven].""A sum of three

daysfor a minimal

ribdt and forty days for a full one [wa-man radbata

? KoninklijkeBrill NV, Leiden, 1999 JESHO42,2



THERIBAT YSTEMAND ITS ROLE N COASTALNAVIGATION 213

principle,the institutionof the ribdtwas connectedwith the duty of the holy-war [jihatd].Togetherwith the soldiers and garrisonswhich were changedperi-

odically, the ribdts were also inhabitedby pious Muslims who came therefor

religious salvation. They were border cities on the frontiersof Islam, to bedefendedby the servantsof Allah.4)Architecturally,he structureof the ribdtconsisted of a fortifiedsurroundingwall with an entrance, iving rooms,maga-zines of arms, cisterns,storehouses or provisions,a towerfor signaling,and, in

the case of large-sizedfortresses,a mosque. Customarily,each ribdtalso had

four to eight towers--projecting ircular owers at each cornerand semicircular

towers in the centerof each side (Figures1 & 2).5)The ribatsandmihrases(watchtowers)6)ervedas an alarmsystemwhen the

Islamic coastal frontierswere exposed to enemy attacks.This defense systemwas fully describedby al-Muqaddasiwho providesus with an interestingac-

count of the warningand signalingsystem in Palestine,used here for the ran-

soming of captives:

Along the seacoast of the capital [Ramle] are watch-stations [ribdtdtt],rom which thesummons to arms is given. The warships and the galleys [shalandiyyadtnd shawcni]of the Greeks come into these ports, bringingaboard them the captives takenfrom the

Muslims; these they offer for ransom--three for the hundreddtndrs. And in each ofthese stations there are men who know the Greek

tongue,for

theyhave missions to

the Greeks, and tradewith them in provisions of all kinds. At the stations,whenevera Greek vessel appears,they give the alarm by lighting a beacon on the tower of thestation if it be night, or, if it be day, by making a great smoke. From every watch-station on the coast up to the capital [Ramle] are built, at intervals,high towers, ineach of which is stationeda company of men. As soon as they perceive the beaconon the tower of the coast station, the men of the next tower above it kindle their own,and then on, one after another;so that hardly is an hour elapsed before the trumpetsare sounding in the capital,and drumsare beating from the city tower, calling the peo-ple down to thatwatch-stationby the sea; and they hurryout in force, with theirarms,and the young men of the villages gather together. Then the ransomingbegins. One

prisonerwill be given in exchange for another,or money and jewels will be offered;until at length all the prisonerswho are in the Greek ships have been set free. Andthe ribadtswatch-stations]of this Districtwhere this ransomingof captives takes place

thaldthat ayydmft sabtl Alldhfa-qad rdbata, wa-man rdabata rba'tn yawmanfa-qad istak-mala al-ribdt].""A ribat of one night near the sea from behind an exposed point ['awra] ofthe Muslim is better for me than spending the night in one of the two mosques, the Ka'baand Medina." Lastly, "whoever fears hell-fire for himself should do ribdt on the coast for

forty days [man khdf 'ald nafsihi al-ndrfa-l-yurdbit 'ald al-sdhil arba'fnyawm]."

4) El'ad 1982, p. 157.5) Creswell 1989, pp. 286-289.

6) The differencebetween ribdt and mihradss in the physical size of the structureand inthe number of warriors who stationed there. Mihrds simply means a fortifiedarea containinga small garrisonand a watchtower.The ribdt, on the other hand, is several times bigger thanthe mihras.



214 HASSANS. KHALILIEH

are:Gaza,Mimas Maiumaf Gaza], AscalanAscalon],Mahuiz,7)theportof]Azdfid,theportof] Yubnl,Yafa Jaffa],ndArstif.8)

It is evident that the ribatfunctioned,

firstandforemost,

as a coastalwarn-

ing system. Whenever enemy ships were sighted, the murabitin (the ribdt's

occupants)alertedthe inhabitants f nearbyregionsby kindlinga beacon, if it

was night,and makingsmokein the day. In this mannersignalscould be trans-

mittedfrom one watch-station o another n a very short time. A message sent

from Ceuta(Sabta),Morocco,could reach Alexandriawithin one night, thoughthe distance between the two cities was that of a journey of several months

duration.9) he purposeof the systemwas to trackthe movementsof the enemyor even

pirate shipsand to

provide warningof their

militaryntentions.There

was also an agreedsystemof signals (fire and smoke)which was used to send

governmentalmessages between the districts. Watchmenwere equippedwith

opticaldevices, and stationed n high places.10) econdly,al-Muqaddasihowed

that ransomingof captives was taking place in the coastal frontiers. It was

reportedthat duringthe time of the 'Abbasid caliph Harfinal-Rashid (170-

193/786-809),Lamasa city on the Mediterraneanoast thirty-fivemiles west of

Tarsfs, was chosen as a place for ransomingMuslimand Byzantinecaptives.More than twelve such events occurred hereduringthe ninthcenturyC.E.")

In a letter written n late June or early Julyof the 1060s the consignorwrote:

From these letters which I have received and from the passengerson the barge [thathas just arrived], it has been confirmedthat the following ships have safely movedfartherfrom the coast: Ibn al-Iskander,Ibn Labad,al-Qadi BuiTalib, al-Mufaddal,thevessel of Ibn Madhkfir, he vessel of al-Tarajimaand that of al-Jiljilin]i;... the bargeof al-Ghazzfilwas sighted at Suhat Barqa; at Hirasatal-Qadi, the ships of Sadaqa b.

al-Safrawi, Ibn Rahman and Ibn al-'Udi [were sighted] at Ra's al-Tin, the ships ofSabi b. Shiblfinand al-Zaffatwere sighted. At Shaqqfltal-Wa'r, to the west of Tobruk,the ships of al-Lakki,al-Mursiand Ibn Shabih [were sighted]. The second ship of Ibn

Madhkfirand those of Ibn al-Shubniand 'Abbas Ashnas, and the vessel of Amir andof Ibn Abi Qashsh were sighted at Milha.12)

Undoubtedly, ailingin sight of the coast was of greatimportancen particularwhen enemy and pirate vessels were cruising at sea. Under adverse situations,

merchantvessels could seek shelter from threatening lements and find protec-

7) Mdhaz is an Aramaicword signifying "port," ike "Majuma,"portus or navale.

8) Muqaddasi 1897, p. 291.

9) Maqrizi, Al-Khitat,vol. 1, p. 324; Qalqashandi,Subh al-A'shd, vol. 5, p. 121; ibid.,vol. 14, pp. 398-400.

10) Daradkeh1991, p. 200.

11) El'ad 1982, p. 160.

12) Udovitch 1978, pp. 542-543; Goitein 1973, pp. 319-322; idem 1967a, vol. 1, pp. 319-

320, 330; idem 1967b, p. 395.



THERIBAT YSTEMANDITS ROLE N COASTALNAVIGATION 215

tion from potentialattackers at a coastal fortification.13) And in the case of

necessity, a vessel could stop there for rest, for minor repairs,or to take on

basic supplies such as food and water.14) Documentsfrom the Cairo Geniza

published hus far provideus with little information oncerning he featuresand

functionsof the observationpoints locatedalong the coastal frontiersof Islamic

Mediterranean.My assumption s that the observationpoints to which Goitein

and Udovitch referare, in fact, an arrayof ribacts nd mihrcdses,and thatthey

playedan integralrole in coastal navigation n the classical period.In orderto drawa complete pictureof the actual functions of these observa-

tionpoints, it is necessaryto examine theirtopographical ettingsand the dis-

tances between fortresses o determinewho theiroccupantswere and to uncover

thegovernmentalole in maintainingheseway stations.An interdisciplinaryis-cussion involving archeologicalremains,and historical andjurisprudentialvi-

dence, where it is available,will significantlycontribute o a reconstruction f

the actual functionsof the ribat system. Above all, two questionsshould be

answered:Who was most concernedaboutsecuringthe coastal lanes, andwhy?

Dispersed over a narrowstrip of one hundredand fifty miles, the twentycoastalwatch-stations, ibadtsnd mihradsesf Palestinearelocatedon smallhills

nearthe sea (Figure3).15)Some watch-stationswere built near naturalor arti-

ficial anchorages,and estuaries,such as the mihrdsesat Minat Abfi Zabbtira(Tel Mikhmoret), located 6 miles south of Caesarea, and Tel Qantfir(Tel

Michal),ocated2.25 milessouthof the Islamicportcityof Arsof(modernHerzliya).

Chronologically, hese mihrdses dated from the early Islamic period (13/634-

493/1099). Archeologicalexcavationsat both sites discoveredthat the mihrds

was a squarebuildingwith one preserved loorstrengthened y eight buttresses,two in each corner.According o thearcheological eports,hegeneraldimensions

of the interiorwas 18.3 by 18.3 feet, and each of the walls measured22.5 by

3.66 feet (Figures4 and 5).'6) Althougharcheologicalevidence is necessarily

13) Cahen 1978, pp. 307-308.

14) Udovitch 1978, p. 541.

15) A simple calculation shows that the ribats and mihrtses along the Palestinian coastwere built at set distances. The averagedistance between each watch-stationwas roughly7.5

miles. A combinationof the archeologicalevidence and the Geniza documents would help usto conceive the role of watch-stations in protecting ships sailing along the coast. Based onthe Geniza papers, Goitein calculated that the duration of a maritimevoyage from Acre to

Jaffa was on average five days. Between these two port cities, there were only two major

ports, Caesareaand Arsfif, which could be reachedby a commercial vessel in few days, andseven watch-stations. However, in case of unexpected enemy or pirate attack, commercial

ships must have found shelter in the closest port or ribadt nchorage.Likewise, these anchor-

ages also functioned as stationarypoints at night. For further details about the durationofsea voyages, see Goitein 1967a, vol. 1, pp. 325-326; Udovitch 1978, pp. 511-513.

16) Herzog, et al. 1977, pp. 99-108; idem, 1989, pp. 5-7; Purath,et al., 1985),pp. 126-135.




silentabouta tower'sheight,written ources eporthatthemihrdsreached s

high as 75 feet.'7)

Tworibdtsstillstandn reasonablyoodconditionn thecoastof Palestine,KeferLam(ha-Bonim)ndAzdfd(Ashdod).Thegeographicalocationandthedimensions f thesetworibdcts iffer romeach other.Theformer, ituated enmilesnorthof Caesarea,hreemilesnorth f TantrraDor),andsix miles southof 'Athlit,was builton a highhill (90 feet abovesea level),a halfmilefromthe sea. Theribcit(159by 102feet)has fourprojectingircular owersat thecorners ndtwo semicircularowers lankinghe entrancen the southernide,in addition o sixteenbuttressesupportinghe eastern,western,and northernwalls (Figure6). As usual,it includesa cistern,storehousesor provisions,

magazinesor arms,anda tower or signaling."8)espite ts proximityo thesea, theribcatwas built n close vicinity o a natural nchoragen which,pre-sumably,a few shipscould findshelter from maritime aids or inclementweather.

Situated n theMediterraneanhore en milesnorthof 'Ascalin(Ascalon),thewatch-stationt Azdid(180by 135feet) is slightly arger han hefortressat KeferLam(Figure ). Theexternal ppearancef theribdt,particularlytswest wall, facingthe sea, raises the questionof the civilianfunctionof the

coastal ortifications.hiswall contains f twothree-quarterowersn thenorth-westernand southwesternorners, ndtwo semicircularowersalongsidehe

pieroverlookinghe sea. The fortress'snorth,east,andsouthwalls aresup-portedby buttresses uiltat measured istances,withtwo projectingquaretowersn the northeasternndsoutheasternorners,nd wosemicircularowers

flankinghe mainentrancen the easternacade.As in other slamic ibats,the

archeologistsxcavated residentialnit,stable,magazines,ndstorehouses.'9)

17) Balba' 1968, p. 51.

18) Hadashot Archeologiot 17 (1966), p. 17; Hadashot Archeologiot 33 (1970), p. 11;Benvenisti 1984, pp. 219-221. He contends that this fortress was founded by a Frenchnoble

family during the early years of the Crusaders n the Levant. His assumptionmust be incor-rect since similar architecturaldesigns and plans are found in Qasr al-MushattAJordan),the

ribditsof Suisaand Monastir (Tunisia), and the ribdt of Azdfid (Palestine), all of which arementioned by al-Muqaddasiin the tenth century C.E. More interestingly,medieval sourcesfrom the early Islamic period provide more details regardingthe history of the site and indi-cate that the Umayyad caliph Hishim Ibn 'Abd al-Malik established the settlement of Kefer

Lim. For furtherhistoricaldetails, see Yaqilt,Mu'jamal-Bulddn,vol. 4, p. 470; Sam'fini,Al-Ansadb, ol. 5, p. 671; Marmardji1951, p. 175.

19) Balba' 1968, p. 54. In days of peace and political tranquilitythe ribdts functionedascaravansaries[khdns], so it is not surprisingto discover that each watch-stationincludes of

large numberof roomy magazines and storehouses,and it is reportedthat some ribdts, suchas the Moroccan ribcitof Qfiz (Jiiz), on the Atlantic Ocean, had become commercial centers.



THERIBAT YSTEMANDITSROLE N COASTALNAVIGATION 217

According to the archeological reports, the pier was built to facilitate access to

the muradbiti2n ho periodically patrolled the coasts.20) Since the watch-station

at Azdild was established in an intermediary port, it is possible that the pier was

also intended to provide assistance and shelter to commercial ships sailing alongthe coast in the event of hostile attacks.21)

Historical accounts and jurisprudential inquiries substantiate the hypothesisthatgarrisonsat the ribadts ndmihraseswere obligatedto provideassistanceto

commercial ships confronted by hostile attacks.22) At present there are three

known references dealing exclusively with the role of the ribdt institution in

providing assistance and refuge to seacrafts. Muhammad Ibn 'Ali al-Mazariwrites:

A merchant ave a sailorAlmoravid indrs n the formof a qiraddcommenda)otravel to Sicily. The capitalist (i.e., the merchant)went away and, upon his return,called the sailor to account. The sailor declared having borroweda light boat [qciriblattf] other than the one usually took for his journeys between Sicily and Ifriqiyya.The passengers had been warned of the proximity of the enemy by the occupantsof a citadel [hisn] named al-Rukam and the sailor had abandoned ship, taking allhis belongings, more particularly he merchandisebought with the capitalist's dfndrsand had entrusted the commanding officer [qd'id] of the place in question with

them..... 23)

Additionaldocumentaryvidence thatsubstantiateshis arguments foundinthe commercial privileges granted by the Mamlfik sultdn Qaitbay (872-901/

1468-1496) to the Republic of Florence in 1497 C.E. Article twenty-four of the

treaty states:

XXIV. The aforesaid envoy has asked that when one of the ships of the aforesaidflorentines enters one of thefortresses of our noble station and treacheryhas befallenthe aforesaidship, it should be favored with what it needs for repulsionof the enemy.So let his honorableExcellency promulgatehis exalted commandthat when one of the

20) Conder and Kitchner 1882, vol. 2, pp. 422, 426-427; Le Strange 1965, p. 405;Benvenisti 1984, pp. 219-220; Hadashot Archeologiot 33 (1970) pp. 26-27; Kloner andBirman 1973/4, pp. 21-24; Peiphano 1986, pp. 23-24.

Although typically stationed in majorstrategicports, the fleet with its galleys and warshipswas under certain circumstances concentrated n the ribdts' anchorages. In 585/1189 whenthe Europeanfleets blockadedAcre, the navy of Saladin which was stationed in the ribdt ofal-Zib (Akhziv), ten miles north of Acre, was able to break through the European navalblockade and supply the city by sea. The intermediarystations [ribdts] of Haifa and al-Zib

played an essential role in defendingthe coastal frontiersand providingimmediateassistance

to the Palestinianport cities duringthe early Crusades. AbUiShamaAl-Rawdatayn,vol. 2, pp.181-184; 'AbbAdyand Salem 1981, pp. 284-285; Ehrenkreutz1955, pp. 112-113.

21) Balba' 1968, p. 39.

22) Maqqari Nafh al-Tib, vol. 9, pp. 109-110; Salem and 'Abb~dy 1969, p. 305.

23) Idris 1961, p. 234; idem. 1992, vol. 2, p. 284. An identical fatwa is mentionedby al-

Wansharisi,Al-Mi'ydr,ol. 8, pp. 207-208.




florentines' ships enters one of thefortresses of Islam and treacheryfrom enemies hasbefallen it, it shall be favored with what it needs for repulsion of the enemy, the costand expense falling to the ship's master.24)

The commanderof the fortress was held responsiblefor storingand protect-ing the cargo and propertiesof Muslim and non-Muslimmerchants ailing in

Islamic vessels. He was not entitled to be remunerated or assistanceprovidedto the passengersand merchants board he vessel. In principle, he act of assis-

tance as reflected by Islamic law must be considered as a religious duty.25)Nonetheless, when Muslim governmentssuffered financial crises, the ship'smasterwas chargedfor the protectionof the ship and its contents.

While the biographiesof Muslimscholarsshed little light on the identityof

the proprietors f seagoingvessels, the Genizapapers reportthat these vesselswere owned by personsconnectedwith government: he sultdnhimself, mem-

bersof the royalhousehold,governors qa'idsandamfrs],militarycommanders,

viziers, and Muslimjudges, in additionto well-to-do Muslimsand Jews. The

shippingbusiness was regardedas one of the most profitable nvestments.26)Therefore, he government ook on the responsibilityo physicallymaintain he

coastal defense system and to secure the navigational anes by providingnaval

escorts as a protectionagainstpirateandenemyattacksandby stationingarma-

das and garrisonsalong the coastalroutes.27) s Ibn MammAti544-606/ 1149-1209), the Ayyfibidvizier,writes:

In the month of Barmah&t28)... which coincides with the beginning of the spring,commercialshipshead for theMediterranean ea fromtheEgyptiandistricts, heMaghrib,andByzantium.Duringthismonth[thegovernment]ooks afterconcentratinghegarisonsin the protectedfrontiers,and preparing he victorious battleshipsto defend them.29)

While our sourcesgive mainlyreligiousmotivations or fortifyingthe coasts

and securingthe maritime anes, the government'sconcern was certainlyeco-

nomic. The fact that warships [harbis] served, apparentlyon a fairly regularbasis, as commercialcarriersconfirmsthe government's nterest and involve-

ment in the shippingbusiness.Securingthe maritime anes must have created

favorableconditions to expand the overseas trade, thereby increasingthe tax

24) Wansbrough 1965, p. 519; for the Arabic text see pp. 504-505.

25) Wansharisi,AI-Mi'ydr,vol. 8, pp. 302-304; Ibn Rushd, Al-Baydn wal-TahsFl,vol. 3,

pp. 61-62.

26) Goitein 1967a, vol. 1,pp.

309-313; Udovitch 1978,pp.

519-521.

27) Balba' 1968, p. 34.

28) Barmahit is the seventh month of the Coptic calender corresponding o March/April.29) Ibn Mammati,Qawdninal-Dawdwi^n,p. 247-248: "Baramhait.. wa-huwa ibtidd' asl

al-rabi', wa-fthi jaraydn al-marckib al-safariyya fi al-bahr al-matlih min al-a'amdtl al-

Misriyya wal-Gharbiyyawal-Rumiyya,wa-fihi al-'ihtimdmbi-tarkfzal-ajncidbil-thughfr al-mahrasa wa-mardtkib l-asdtfl al-mansara li-hifzihd."




revenuesand the income of the proprietors f commercialvessels, which were

largelyowned by personsassociatedwith the government.The establishmentof watchtowersalong the coastal lanes extendedbeyond

the Mediterranean egion. The 'Abbasidcaliphatein the East erected watch-towers and lighthousesalong the shores as guides for coasting pilots and to

secure the maritimeroutes.3") asir- K̂hosraw(395-481/1004-1088)vividly de-

scribedthe watchtowerssituatedbetween Basra and 'Abbaidan,tating:

At dawn something like a small bird could be seen on the sea. The closer we ap-proached, the larger it appeared. When it was about one parasang to our left, anadverse wind came up so they droppedanchor and took down the sail. I asked whatthat thingwas and was told that it was called a "khashshdb." t consisted of fourenor-mous wooden posts made of teak and was shaped something like a war machine,

squarish,wide at the base and narrowat the top. It was about forty ells above the sur-face of the water and had tile and stone on top held together by wood so as to forma kind of ceiling. On top of that were four archedopenings where a sentinel could bestationed. Some said this khashshdbhad been constructedby a rich merchant,othersthat a king had it made. It served two functions: first, that area was being silted andthe sea consequently becoming shallow so that if a large ship chanced to pass, itwould strike the bottom. At night lamps encased in glass (so that the wind would notblow them out) were lit for people to see from afar and take precaution,since therewas no possibility of rescue. Second, one could know the extent of the land and, ifthere were thieves, steer a ship away. When the khashshdb was no longer visible,anotherone of the same shape came into view; but this one did not have the watch-tower on top, as though it had not been finished.")

The ribadtnstitution unctionedas observationpoints for ships sailing alongthe coasts. The choice of theirtopographicalocations was not accidental.Most

ribdts and mihrcdses ere built in measureddistances,situated n close vicinityto naturalor artificialanchorages,and on small hills. Functioningas precau-

tionaryguides for pilots sailing along the coast, the lighthouseswere erected

near shallowwaters and coral reefs. These establishmentswere placed at mili-

tary strongholdsn orderto

protectthe coastal frontiers

and commercialves-sels from hostile raids. The architectural lan of the ribat, which consists of

living quarters, toragefacilities for arms and food, and magazines,substanti-ates the idea that this institutionmay have providedassistance to commercial

ships when needed. Like affluentmerchants,membersof governmental ircles,

owing to their involvement n the shippingbusiness,were concerned o secure

the maritime anes and protectcommercialships from enemy or pirateattacks.

30) N^ji1988,p. 177;Barrawi948,pp.295-297.31) Nasir-^Khosraw,Book of Travels (Safarnaima),p. 96. Describing the stockades [kha-

shabdt]near he portcity of Basrah,Irfq, al-Muqaddasieported: This s by far thegreat-est evil, a strait and a shallow combined.Here small huts have been erected on palm trunksset in the sea, and people stationed thereinto keep a fine lighted at night, as a warning to

ships to steer clear of this shallow place." Al-Muqaddas 1̂906, p. 12.




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14 ILlr ? ,1 _

J :F0o 1-4

,aIf

o,i r i,

,•

o.

--.It- ,r

F e e t ,

I;• n ',,,

,tl # •."'I-4 -:~~I , ::! • ?, ,

o 5;. _ .. . . ,' -;...

.. . . . Fee

Figure 1: Reconstructedground plan of the ribcat t Sfisa, Tunisia.

Source:K.A. Creswell, A ShortAccount of Early MuslimArchitecture.

44N

II

0

S - .

Figure 2: Reconst

Source:K.A. Cresw




Ra's l-Niq-raal-ZTb

HaitfaTelal-Samak

'At lTtKefar ~.7n

all-TanturaCaesarea

MinatAb6Zabbura

Ars~fTelQantur

JiAffa•

Yubni * Ramle

Azdid *Jlerusalem

'Ascalin*Beit Jubreen

Gaza

al

- Dir

•T

Rafah

0 301 Miles

Figure 3: Geographical location of ribdts and mihrdses along the coastal frontiers ofPalestine during the early and classical Islamic periods.



THERIBAT YSTEMAND ITSROLE N COASTALNAVIGATION 225

N n

ii.. ..

St . Feet-

-.-----Feet

Figure 4: Archeologicalremains of themihrdsat Minat Abfi Zabbfira.

Source: Y. Purath,Qadmoniot'EmeqRHefer.

Figure 5: Archeological remains of the

mihrds at Tel Qantiir.Source: Z. Herzog, Excavationat

Tel Michal.

N

WFeet

Figure 7: Architecturalplan of theribdt at Azdcid.

Source: A. Kloner and A. Berman,Toldotehashel Ashdod Yam.

- Feet

Figure 6: Architecturalplan of the ribat atKefer Lam.

The Ribat System and Its Role in Coastal Navigation

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Transcript of The Ribat System and Its Role in Coastal Navigation