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Transcript of THE METHODS AND ETHICS OF RESEARCH CHAPTER 4 SLIDES 1-5 Science, research, and theory Research...
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THE METHODS AND ETHICS OF RESEARCHCHAPTER 4
SLIDES 1-5•Science, research, and theory•Research techniques•Research ethics
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Science, Research, and Theory
• Science is constantly evolving, so it is tentative.• Theory makes sense amid ambiguity.
– Theory integrates diverse observations.• Example: Amphetamines produce symptoms of schizophrenia,
and amphetamines increase activity in dopamine-releasing neurons.
– Theory generates testable hypotheses.• Example: Drugs that decrease dopamine activity will improve
functioning in schizophrenics.
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Science, Research, and Theory
– Theory attempts to explain the observations.• Example: Schizophrenia is caused by excess dopamine
activity.– Science’s method—empiricism—makes it self correcting.
• Example: Further research showed the dopamine theory is incomplete, so researchers are pursuing additional causes.
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Science, Research, and TheoryExperimental Research
– The experimenter manipulates an independent variable to see if there is an effect on the dependent variable.
• Example: The experimenter induces temporary impairment in the frontal lobes to see if it increases aggression in a laboratory simulation.
– The experimenter eliminates extraneous variables that might influence behavior, or equates them across subjects.
• Examples: Subjects are screened; distracting stimuli are eliminated; subjects are cautioned to avoid stimulants.
The experimenter can conclude that changes in the independent variable caused the changes in the independent variable.
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Science, Research, and Theory
Correlational research The researcher determines whether two variables change together,
but does not manipulate either of them. Example: Relating criminal behavior to frontal lobe deficits.
Correlational studies cannot determine whether there is a cause and effect relationship.
Nevertheless, correlational studies provide valuable knowledge and are an indispensible tool in research.
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Research Techniques
• Neuronal Staining and Imaging Techniques– The Golgi stain method randomly stains about 5% of neurons,
making them visible against the background of neural “chaos”.
– Myelin stains identify neural pathways.– Nissl stains identify cell bodies of neurons.
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Golgi, Nissl, and Myelin StainsFigure 4.3
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Research Techniques
– The fluorogold method determines neural destinations.• Injected fluorogold is taken up by terminals of
neurons and transported through the axons to the cell bodies.
• The fluorogold will flouresce—radiate light—revealing which areas receive input from the injected area.
• Example: Fluorogold injected into the superior colliculi will show up in the retina of the eye.
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Research Techniques• Techniques That Reveal Function:
– In autoradiography, uptake of a radioactive substance reveals which neurons are active during a specific behavior.
• Example: Identification of visual pathways with radioactive 2-DG
• Example: Use of radioactive naloxone to identify opiate receptors
– Immunocytochemistry uses antibodies attached to a dye to identify cellular components.
• Example: Mouritsen determined cryptochromes were present at night in the retinas of night-migrating birds.
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Research Techniques– In situ hybridization uses radioactive complementary
DNA, which docks with messenger RNA, to locate gene activity.
• Example: Mouritsen focused on the CRY2 cryptochrome (rather than CRY1) because it was constructed outside the retina.
Figure 4.6 In situ hybridization
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Research TechniquesLight microscopes:
allow researchers to see cell bodies, dendrites, axons, and large organelles in neurons;
have limited capability due to the nature of light.Electron microscopes:
pass beams of electrons through a thin slice of tissue onto photographic film to produce an image;
have high resolution, magnifying objects up to 250,000 times; can reveal objects in 3-D (scanning electron microscope).
Newer microscopes can use thicker tissue samples. Confocal laser scanning microscope Two-photon microscope
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Scanning Electron MicrographFigure 4.7
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Research Techniques• EEG or electroencephalogram:
– records the combined activity from many neurons by using multiple electrodes;
– has good temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution;– is best used to detect changes in arousal.
• Evoked potential measurement:– uses a computer to average the EEG over several stimulus
presentations;– cancels out the “noise” of the brain’s other activity, leaving only
the unique response to the stimulus.
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EEG and Evoked PotentialsFigures 4.8b, 4.9
Evoked potential to a novel toneEEG during waking and sleep