PROCEEDINGS OF THE

XIVth INTERNATIONAL NUMISMATIC CONGRESS

GLASGOW 2009

Edited byNicholas Holmes

GLASGOW 2011

All rights reserved by The International Numismatic Council

ISBN 978-1-907427-17-6

Distributed by Spink & Son Ltd, 69 Southampton Row, London WC1B 4ETPrinted and bound in Malta by Gutenberg Press Ltd.

International Numismatic Council

British Academy

PROCEEDINGS OF THE

XIVth INTERNATIONAL NUMISMATIC CONGRESS

GLASGOW 2009

II

PrefaceEditor’s note

Inaugural lecture

‘A foreigner’s view of the coinage of Scotland’, by Nicholas MAYHEW

Antiquity: Greek

I Delfi ni (distribuzione, associazioni, valenza simbolica), by Pasquale APOLITO

Lessons from a (bronze) die study, by Donald T. ARIEL

Le monete incuse a leggenda Pal-Mol: una verifi ca della documentazione disponibile, by Marta BARBATO

Up-to-date survey of the silver coinage of the Nabatean king Aretas IV, by Rachel BARKAY

Remarks on monetary circulation in the chora of Olbia Pontica – the case of Koshary, by Jarosław BODZEK

The ‘colts’ of Corinth revisited: a note on Corinthian drachms from Ravel’s Period V, by Lee L. BRICE

Not only art! The period of the ‘signing masters’ and ‘historical iconography’,by Maria CACCAMO CALTABIANO

Les monnaies préromaines de BB’T-BAB(B)A de Mauretanie, by Laurent CALLEGARIN & Abdelaziz EL KHAYARI

Mode iconografi che e determinazioni delle cronologie nell’occidente ellenistico, by Benedetto CARROCCIO

La phase postarchaïque du monnayage de Massalia, by Jean-Albert CHEVILLON

A new thesis for Siglos and Dareikos, by Nicolas A. CORFÙ

Heroic cults in northern Sicily between numismatics and archaeology, by Antonio CRISÀ

La politica estera tolemaica e l’area del Mar Nero: l’iconografi a numismatica come fonte storica, by Angela D’ARRIGO

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CONTENTS

CONTENTS2

New light on the Larnaca hoard IGCH 1272, by Anne DESTROOPER- GEORGIADES

The coinage of the Scythian kings in the West Pontic area: iconography, by Dimitar DRAGANOV

The ‘royal archer’ and Apollo in the East: Greco-Persian iconography in the Seleukid Empire, by Kyle ERICKSON & Nicholas L. WRIGHT

ὖ ὰ ῖ ῖ . Retour sur les critères qui défi nissent habituellement les ‘imitations’ Athéniennes, by Chr. FLAMENT

On the gold coinage of ancient Chersonese (46-133 AD), by N.A. FROLOVA

Propaganda on coins of Ptolemaic queens, by Agnieszka FULIŃSKA

Osservazioni sui rinvenimenti di monete dagli scavi archeologici dell’antica Caulonia, by Giorgia GARGANO

La circulation monétaire à Argos d’après les monnaies de fouille de l’ÉFA (École française d’Athènes), by Catherine GRANDJEAN

Silver denominations and standards of the Bosporan cities, by Jean HOURMOUZIADIS

Seleucid ‘eagles’ from Tyre and Sidon: preliminary results of a die-study, by Panagiotis P. IOSSIF

Archaic Greek coins east of the Tigris: evidence for circulation?, by J. KAGAN

Parion history from coins, by Vedat KELEŞ

Regional mythology: the meanings of satyrs on Greek coins, by Ann-Marie KNOBLAUCH

The chronology of the Hellenistic coins of Thessaloniki, Pella and Amphipolis, by Theodoros KOUREMPANAS

The coinage of Chios during the Hellenistic and early Roman periods, by Constantine LAGOS

Évidence numismatique de l’existence d’Antioche en Troade, by Dincer Savas LENGER

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189

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259

265

CONTENTS 3

Hallazgo de un conjunto monetal de Gadir en la necrópolis Feno-Púnica de los cuarteles de Varela, Cádiz, España, by Urbano LÓPEZ RUIZ & Ana María RUIZ TINOCO

Gold and silver weight standards in fourth-century Cyprus: a resume, by Evangeline MARKOU

Göttliche Herrscherin – herrschende Göttin? Frauenbildnisse auf hellenistischen Münzen, by Katharina MARTIN

Melkart-Herakles y sus distintas advocaciones en la Bética costera, by Elena MORENO PULIDO

Some remarks concerning the gold coins with the legend ‘ΚΟΣΩΝ’, by Lucian MUNTEANU

‘Une monnaie grecque inédite: un triobole d’Argos en Argolide’, by Eleni PAPAEFTHYMIOU

The coinage of the Paeonian kings Leon and Dropion, by Eftimija PAVLOVSKA

Le trésor des monnaies perses d’or trouvé à Argamum / Orgamé (Jurilovca, dép. de Tulcea, Roumanie), by E. PETAC, G. TALMAŢCHI & V. IONIŢĂ

The imitations of late Thasian tetradrachms: chronology, classifi cation and dating, by Ilya S. PROKOPOV

Moneta e discorso politico: emissioni monetarie in Cirenaica tra il 321 e il 258 a.C., by Daniela Bessa PUCCINI

Tesoros sertorianos en España: problemas y nuevas perspectivas, by Isabel RODRÍGUEZ CASANOVA

‘Ninfa’ eponima grande dea? Caratteri e funzioni delle personifi cazioni cittadine, by Grazia SALAMONE

The coin fi nds from Hellenistic and Roman Berytas (fourth century BC – third century AD, by Ziad SAWAYA

Monetazione incusa magnogreca: destinazione e funzioni, by Rosa SCAVINO

Uso della moneta presso gli indigeni della Sicilia centro-meridionale, by Lavinia SOLE

La moneta di Sibari: struttura e metrologia, by Emanuela SPAGNOLI

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405

CONTENTS4

Le stephanophoroi prima delle stephanophoroi, by Marianna SPINELLI

Weight adjustment al marco in antiquity, and the Athenian decadrachm, by Clive STANNARD

The Magnesian hoard: a preliminary report, by Oğuz TEKIN

Zur Datierung und Deutung der Beizeichen auf Stateren von Górtyn, by Burkhard TRAEGER

Aspetti della circolazione monetaria in area basso adriatica, by Adriana TRAVAGLINI & Valeria Giulia CAMILLERI

La polisemia di Apollo attraverso il documento monetale, by Maria Daniela TRIFIRÒ

Thraco-Macedonian coins: the evidence from the hoards, by Alexandros R.A. TZAMALIS

The pattern of fi ndspots of coins of Damastion: a clue to its location, by Dubravka UJES MORGAN

The civic bronze coins of the Eleans: some preliminary remarks, by Franck WOJAN

The hoard of Cyzicenes from the settlement of Patraeus (Taman peninsula), by E.V. ZAKHAROV

Antiquity: Roman

The coinage of Diva Faustina I, by Martin BECKMANN

Coin fi nds from the Dutch province of North-Holland (Noord-Holland). Chronological and geographical distribution and function of Roman coins from the Dutch part of Barbaricum, by Paul BELIËN

The key to the Varus defeat: the Roman coin fi nds from Kalkriese, by Frank BERGER

Monetary circulation in the Bosporan Kingdom in the Roman period c. fi rst - fourth century AD, by Line BJERG

The Roman coin hoards of the second century AD found on the territory of present-day Serbia: the reasons for their burial, by Bojana BORIĆ-BREŠKOVIĆ

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538

CONTENTS 5

Die Münzprägung des Thessalischen Bundes von Marcus Aurelius bis Gallienus (161-268 n. Chr.), by Friedrich BURRER

The denarius in the fi rst century, by K. BUTCHER & M. PONTING

Coinage and coin circulation in Nicopolis of Epirus: a preliminary report, by Dario CALOMINO

La piazza porticata di Egnazia: la documentazione numismatica, by Raffaella CASSANO, Adriana TRAVAGLINI & Alessandro CRISPINO

Dallo scavo al museo: un ripostiglio monetale di età antonina del IV municipio di Roma (Italia), by Francesca CECI

I rinvenimenti dal Tevere: la monetazione della Diva Faustina, by Alessia CHIAPPINI

Analytical evidence for the organization of the Alexandrian mint during the Tetrarchy (III-IV centuries AD), by J.M.COMPANA, L. LEÓN-REINA, F.J. FORTES, L.M. CABALÍN, J.J. LASERNA, & M.A.G. ARANDA

L’Oriente Ligoriano: fonti, luoghi, mirabilia, by Arianna D’OTTONE

Le emissioni isiache: quale rapporto con il navigium Isidis?, by Sabrina DE PACE

A centre of aes rude production in southern Etruria : La Castellina (Civitavecchia, Roma), by Almudena DOMÍNGUEZ-ARRANZ & Jean GRAN-AYMERICH

Perseus and Andromeda in Alexandria: explaining the popularity of the myth in the culture of the Roman Empire, by Melissa Barden DOWLING

Les fractions du nummus frappées à Rome et à Ostie sous le règne de Maxence (306-312 ap. J.C.), by V. DROST

Monuments on the move: architectural coin types and audience targeting in the Flavian and Trajanic periods, by Nathan T. ELKINS

‘The restoration of memory: Minucius and his monument’ by Jane DeRose EVANS

La circulation monétaire à Lyon de la fondation de la colonie à la mort de Septime Sévère (43 av. – 211 apr. J.C.): premiers résultats, by Jonas FLUCK

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CONTENTS6

Le monnayage en orichalque romain: apport des expérimentations aux études numismatiques, by Arwen GAFFIERO, Arnaud SUSPÈNE, Florian TÉREYGEOL & Bernard GRATUZE

New coins of pre- and denarial system minted outside Italy, by Paz GARCÍA-BELLIDO

Les bronzes d’Octave à la proue et à la tête de bélier (RPC 533) attribués à Toulouse-Tolosa: nouvelles découvertes, by Vincent GENEVIÈVE

Crustumerium, Cisterna Grande (Rome, Italy): textile traces from a Roman coins hoard, by Maria Rita GIULIANI, Ida Anna RAPINESI, Francesco DI GENNARO, Daniela FERRO, Heli ARIMA, Ulla RAJANA & Francesca CECI

Deux médaillons d’Antonin le Pieux du territoire de Pautalia (Thrace), by Valentina GRIGOROVA-GENCHEVA

Mars and Venus on Roman imperial coinage in the time of Marcus Aurelius: iconological considerations with special reference to the emperor’s correspondence with Marcus Cornelius Fronto, by Jürgen HAMER

The silver coins of Aegeae in the light of Hadrian’s eastern silver coinages, by F. HAYMANN

The coin-images of the later soldier-emperors and the creation of a Roman empire of late antiquity, by Ragnar HEDLUND

Coinage and currency in ancient Pompeii, by Richard HOBBS

Imitations in gold, by Helle W. HORSNÆS

Un geste de Caracalla sur une monnaie frappée à Pergame, by Antony HOSTEIN

New data on monetary circulation in northern Illyricum in the fi fth century, by Vujadin IVANIŠEVIĆ & Sonja STAMENKOVIĆ

Die augusteischen Münzmeisterprägungen: IIIviri monetales im Spannungsfeld zwischen Republik und Kaiserzeit, by Alexa KÜTER

Imperial representation during the reign of Valentinian III, by Aládar KUUN

The Nome coins: some remarks on the state of research, by Katarzyna LACH

Le monnayage de Brutus et Cassius après la mort de César, by Raphaëlle LAIGNOUX

668

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742

749

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785

CONTENTS 7

L’ultima emissione di Cesare Ottaviano: alcune considerazioni sulle recenti proposte cronologiche, by Fabiana LANNA

Claudius’s issue of silver drachmas in Alexandria: Serapis Anastole, by Barbara LICHOCKA

La chronologie des émissions monétaires de Claude II: ateliers de Milan et Siscia, by Jérôme MAIRAT

La circulation monétaire à Strasbourg (France) et sur le Rhin supérieur au premier siècle après J.-C., by Stéphane MARTIN

The double solidus of Magnentius, by Alenka MIŠKEC

A hoard of bronze coins of the third century BC found at Pratica di Mare (Rome), by Maria Cristina MOLINARI

Un conjunto de plomos monetiformes de procendencia hispana de la colección antigua del Museo Arqueológico Nacional (Madrid), by Bartolomé MORA SERRANO

Monete e ritualitá funeraria in epoca romana imperiale: il sepolcreto dei Fadieni (Ferrara – Italia), by Anna Lina MORELLI

Il database Monete al femminile, by Anna Lina MORELLI & Erica FILIPPINI

La trouvaille monétaire de Bex-Sous-Vent (VD, Suisse): une nouvelle analyse, by Yves MUHLEMANN

Die Sammlung von Lokalmythen griechischer Städte des Ostens: ein Projekt der Kommission für alte Geschichte und Epigraphik, by Johannes NOLLÉ

Plomos monetiformes con leyenda ibérica Baitolo, hallados en la ciudad romana de Baetulo (Hispania Tarraconensis), by Pepita PADRÓS MARTÍ, Daniel VÁZQUEZ & Francesc ANTEQUERA

I denari serrati della repubblica romana: alcune considerazioni, by Andrea PANCOTTI & Patrizia CALABRIA

Monetary circulation in late antique Rome: a fi fth-century context coming from the N.E. slope of the Palatine Hill. A preliminary report, by Giacomo PARDINI

Securitas e suoi attributi: lo sviluppo di una iconografi a, by Rossella PERA

Could the unoffi cial mint called ‘Atelier II’ be identifi ed with the offi cinae of Châteaubleau (France)?, by Fabien PILON

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CONTENTS8

Coin fi nds from Elaiussa Sebaste (Cilicia Tracheia), by Annalisa POLOSA

El poblamiento romano en el área del Mar Menor (Ager Carthaginensis): una aproximación a partir de los recientes hallazgos numismáticos, by Alfredo PORRÚA MARTÍNEZ & Elvira NAVARRO SANTA-CRUZ

The presence of local deities on Roman Palestinian coins: refl ections on cultural and religious interaction between Romans and local elites, by Vagner Carvalheiro PORTO

The male couple: iconography and semantics, by Mariangela PUGLISI

Countermarks on the Republican and Augustan brass coins in the south-eastern Alps, by Andrej RANT

A stone thesaurus with a votive coin deposit found in the sanctuary of Campo della Fiera, Orvieto (Volsinii), by Samuele RANUCCI

L’image du pouvoir impériale de Trajan et son évolution idéologique: étude des frappes monétaires aux types d’Hercule, Jupiter et Soleil, by Laurent RICCARDI

The infl ow of Roman coins to the east-of-the-Vistula Mazovia (Mazowsze) and Podlachia (Podlasie), by Andrzej ROMANOWSKI

Numismatics and archaeology in Rome: the fi nds from the Basilica Hilariana, by Alessia ROVELLI

Communicating a consecratio: the deifi cation coinage of Faustina I, by Clare ROWAN

An alleged hoard of third-century Alexandrian tetradrachms, by Adriano SAVIO & Alessandro CAVAGNA

Some notes on religious embodiments in the coinage of Roman Syria and Mesopotamia, by Philipp SCHWINGHAMMER

Roman provincial coins in the money circulation of the south-eastern Alpine area and western Pannonia, by Andrej ŠEMROV

Recenti rinvenimenti dal Tevere (1): introduzione, by Patrizia SERAFIN

Recenti rinvenimenti dal Tevere (2): la moneta di Vespasiano tra tradizione ed innovazione, by Alessandra SERRA

A hoard of denarii and early Roman Messene, by Kleanthis SIDIROPOULOS

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CONTENTS 9

La ‘corona radiata’ sui ritratti dei bronzi imperiali alessandrini, by Giovanni Maria STAFFIERI

The iconography of two groups of struck lead from Central Italy and Baetica in the second and fi rst centuries BC, by Clive STANNARD

Monete della zecca di Frentrum, Larinum e Pallanum, by Napoleone STELLUTI

Personalized victory on coins: the Year of the Four Emperors – Greek imperial issues, by Yannis STOYAS

Les monnaies d’or d’Auguste: l’apport des analyses élémentaires et le problème de l’atelier de Nîmes, by Arnaud SUSPÈNE, Maryse BLET-LEMARQUAND & Michel AMANDRY

The popularity of the enthroned type of Asclepius on Peloponnesian coins of imperial times, by Christina TSAGKALIA

Gold and silver fi rst tetrarchic issues from the mint of Alexandria, by D. Scott VANHORN

Note sulla circolazione monetaria in Etruria meridionale nel III secolo a.C., by Daniela WILLIAMS

Roman coins from the western part of West Balt territory, by Anna ZAPOLSKA

Antiquity: Celtic

La moneda ibérica del nordeste de la Hispania Citerior: consideraciones sobre su cronología y función, by Marta CAMPO

Les bronzes à la gueule de loup du Berry: essai de typochronologie, by Philippe CHARNOTET

Les imitations de l’obole de Marseille de LTD1/LTD2A (IIe s. / Ier s. av. J.C.) entre les massifs des Alpes et du Jura, by Anne GEISER

Le monnayage à la légende TOGIRIX: une nouvelle approche, by Anne GEISER & Julia GENECHESI

Trading with silver bullion during the third century BC: the hoard of Armuña de Tajuña, by Manuel GOZALBES, Gonzalo CORES & Pere Pau RIPOLLÈS

Données expérimentales sur la fabrication de quinaires gaulois fourrés, by Katherine GRUEL, Dominique LACOSTE, Carole FRARESSO, Michel PERNOT & François ALLIER

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CONTENTS10

Pre-Roman coins from Sotin, by Mato ILKIĆ

Les monnaies gauloises trouvées à Paris, by Stéphane MARTIN

Die keltischen Münzen vom Oberleiserberg (Niederösterreich), by Jiři MILITKÝ

New coin fi nds from the two late Iron Age settlements of Altenburg (Germany) and Rheinau (Switzerland) – a military coin series on the German-Swiss border?, by Michael NICK

Le dépôt monétaire gaulois de Laniscat (Côtes-d’Armor): 547 monnaies de ba s titre. Étude préliminaire, by Sylvia NIETO-PELLETIER, Bernard GRATUZE & Gérard AUBIN

Antiquity: general

La moneda en el mundo funerario-ritual de Gadir-Gades, by A. ARÉVALO GONZÁLEZ

Neues Licht auf eine alte Frage? Die Verwandschaft von Münzen und Gemmen, by Angela BERTHOLD

Tipi del cane e del lupo sulle monete del Mediterraneo antico, by Alessandra BOTTARI

Not all these things are easy to read, much less to understand: new approaches to reading images on ancient coins, by Geraldine CHIMIRRI-RUSSELL

The collection of ancient coins in the Ossoliński National Institute in Lvov (1828-1944), by Adam DEGLER

Preliminary notes on Phoenician and Punic coins kept in the Pushkin Museum, by S. KOVALENKO & L.I. MANFREDI

Greek coins from the National Historical Museum of Rio de Janeiro: SNG project, by Marici Martins MAGALHÃES

La catalogazione delle emissioni di Commodo nel Codice Ligoriano, by Rosa Maria NICOLAI

The sacred life of coins: cult fees, sacred law and numismatic evidence, by Isabelle A. PAFFORD

Anton Prokesch-Osten and the Greek coins of the coin collection at the Universalmuseum Joanneum in Graz, Austria, by Karl PEITLER

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CONTENTS 11

Monete ed anelli: cronologia, tipologie, fruitori, by Claudia PERASSI

Il volume 21 delle Antichitá Romane di Pirro Ligorio ‘Libri delle Medaglie da Cesare a Marco Aurelio Commodo’, by Patrizia SERAFIN

Greek and Roman coins in the collection of the Çorum Museum, by D. Özlem YALCIN

Mediaeval and modern western (mediaeval)

The exchanges in the city of London, 1344-1358, by Martin ALLEN

Fribourg en Nuithonie: faciès monétaire d’une petite ville au centre de l’Europe, by Anne-Francine AUBERSON

Die Pegauer Brakteatenprägung Abt Siegfrieds von Rekkin (1185-1223): Kriterien zu deren chronologischer Einordnung, by Jan-Erik BECKER

Die recutting in the eleventh-century Polish coinage, by Mateusz BOGUCKI

Le retour à l’or au treizième siècle: le cas de Montpellier (...1244-1246...), by Marc BOMPAIRE & Pierre-Joan BERNARD

Le monete a leggenda ΠAN e le emissioni arabo-bizantine. I dati dello scavo di Antinoupolis / El Sheikh Abada, by Daniele CASTRIZIO

Scavi di Privernum e Fossanova (Latina, Italia): monete tardoantiche, medioevale e moderne, by Francesca CECI & Margherita CANCELLIERI

La aportación de los hallazgos monetarios a ‘la crisis del siglo XIV’ en Cataluña, by Maria CLUA I MERCADAL

Norwegian bracteates during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, by Linn EIKJE

Donative pennies in Viking-age Scandinavia?, by Frédéric ELFVER

Carolingian capitularies as a source for the monetary history of the Frankish empire, by Hubert EMMERIG

Ulf Candidatus, by G. EMSØY

Münzen des Moskauer Grossfürstentums. Das Geld von Dmitrij Ivanowitsch Donskoj (1359-1389) (über die Veröffentlichung der ersten Ausgabe des ‘Korpus der russischen Münzen des 14-15. Jhs.’), by P. GAIDUKOV & I. GRISHIN

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CONTENTS12

Brakteatenprägungen in Mähren in der zweiten Hälfte des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts, by Dagmar GROSSMANNOVÁ Monetisation in medieval Scandinavia, by Svein H. GULLBEKK

A mancus apparently marked on behalf of King Offa: genuine or fake?, by Wolfgang HAHN

Among farmers and city people: coin use in early medieval Denmark, c. 1000-1250, by Gitte Tarnow INGVARDSON

Was pseudo-Byzantine coinage primarily of municipal origin?, by Charlie KARUKSTIS

Interpreting single fi nds in medieval England – the secondary lives of coins, by Richard KELLEHER

Byzantine coins from the area of Belarus, by Krystyna LAVYSH & Marcin WOŁOSZYN

Die früheste Darstellung des Richters auf einer mittelalterlicher Münze?, by Ivar LEIMUS

Coinage and money in the ‘years of insecurity’: the case of late Byzantine Chalkidiki (thirteenth - fourteenth century), by Vangelis MALADAKIS

Nota sulla circolazione monetaria tardoantica nel Lazio meridionale: i reperti di S. Ilario ad bivium, by Flavia MARANI

The money of the First Crusade: the evidence of a new parcel and its implications, by Michael MATZKE

Überlegungen zum ‘Habsburger Urbar’ als Quelle für Währungsgeschichte, by Samuel NUSSBAUM

Schilling Kennisbergisch slages of Grand Master Louis of Ehrlichshausen, by Borys PASZKIEWICZ

Un diner de Jaime I el conquistador en el Mar Menor: evidencias de presencia aragonesa en el Campo de Cartagena durante la Baja Edad Media, by Alfredo PORRÚA MARTÍNEZ & Alfonso ROBLES FERNÁNDEZ

L’atelier de faux-monnayeur de Rovray (VD, Suisse), by Carine RAEMY TOURNELLE

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CONTENTS 13

La ubicación de las casas de moneda en le Europa medieval. El caso del reino de León, by Antonio ROMA VALDÉS

New perspectives on Norwegian Viking-age hoards c. 1000: the Bore hoard revisited, by Elina SCREEN

The discovery of a hoard of coins dated to the fi fth and sixth centuries in Klapavice in the hinterland of ancient Salona, by Tomislav ŠEPAROVIĆ

A model for the analysis of coins lost in Norwegian churches, by Christian J. SIMENSEN

A clippe from Femern, by Jørgen SØMOD

The convergence of coinages in the late medieval Low Countries, by Peter SPUFFORD

A perplexing hoard of Lusignan coins from Polis, Cyprus, by Alan M. STAHL, Gerald POIRIER & Nan YAO

OTTO / ODDO and ADELHEIDA / ATHALHET - onomatological aspects of German coin types of the tenth and eleventh centuries, by Sebastian STEINBACH

Bulles de plomb et les monnaies en Pologne au XIIe siècle, by Stanislaw SUCHODOLSKI

Palaeologian coin fi ndings of Kusadasi, Kadikalesi/Anaia and their refl ections. by Ceren ÜNAL

The hoard of Tetín (Czech Republic) in the light of currency conditions in thirteenth-century Bohemia, by Roman ZAORAL & Jiři MILITKÝ

The circulation of foreign coins in Poland in the fi fteenth century, by Michal ZAWADZKI

Mediaeval and modern Western (modern)

Die neuzeitliche Münzstätte im Schloss Haldenstein bei Chur Gr, Schweiz, by Rahel C. ACKERMANN

The money box system for savings in Amsterdam, 1907-1935, by G.N. BORST

Four ducats coins of Franz Joseph I (1848-1916) of Austria: their use in jewellery and some hitherto unpublished imitations, by Aleksandar N. BRZIC

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1614

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CONTENTS14

A king as Hercules in the modern Polish coinage, by Witold GARBAZCEWSKI

The monetary areas in Piedmont during the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries: a starting point for new investigations, by Luca GIANAZZA

Coin hoards in the United States, by John M. KLEEBERG

The transfer of minting techniques to Denmark in the nineteenth century, by Michael MÄRCHER

Patrimonio Numismático Iberoamericano: un proyecto del Museo Arqueológico Nacional, by Carmen MARCOS ALONSO & Paloma OTERO MORÁN

Moneda local durante la guerra civil española: billete emitido por el ayuntamiento de San Pedro del Pinatar, Murcia, by Federico MARTÍNEZ PASTOR & Alfredo PORRÚA MARTÍNEZ

Coins and monetary circulation in the Legnica-Brzeg duchy: rudimentary problems, by Robert PIEŃKOWSKI

Representaciones del café en el acervo de numismática del Museu Paulista - USP, by Angela Maria Gianeze RIBEIRO

Freiburg im Üechtland und die Münzreformen der französischen Könige (1689-1726), by Nicole SCHACHER

La aparición de la marca de valor en la moneda valenciana, ¿1618 o 1640? Una nueva hipótesis de trabajo, by Juan Antonio SENDRA IBÁÑEZ

Devotion and coin-relics in early modern Italy, by Lucia TRAVAINI

The political context of the origin and the exportation of thaler-coins from Jáchymov (Joachimsthal) in the fi rst half of the sixteenth century, by Petr VOREL

The late sixteenth-century Russian forged kopecks, which were ascribed to the English Muscovy Company, by Serguei ZVEREV

Oriental and African coinages

The meaning of the character 寳 bao in the legends of Chinese cash coins, by Vladimir A. BELYAEV & Sergey V. SIDOROVICH

Three unpublished Indo-Sasanian coin hoards, Government Museum, Mathura, by Pratipal BHATIA

1704

1713

1719

1725

1734

1744

1748

1752

1758

1765

1774

1778

1783

1789

1796

CONTENTS 15

Oriental coins in the Capitoline Museums (Rome): further researches on Stanzani Collection history, by Arianna D’OTTONE

The king, the princes and the Raj, by Sanjay GARG

The fi rst evidence of a mint at Miknāsa: two unpublished Almoravid coins, a dirham and a dinar, of the year 494H/1100, by Tawfi q IBRAHIM

L’âge d’or de la numismatique en Chine: l’exemple du Catalogue des Monnaies Anciennes de Li Zuoxian, by Lyce JANKOWSKI

Numismatic research in Japan today: coins, paper monies and patterns of usage. Paper money in early modern Japan: economic and folkloristic aspects, by Keiichiro KATO

The gold reform of Ghazan Khan, by Judith KOLBAS

A study of medieval Chinese coins from Karur and Madurai in Tamil Nadu, by KRISHNAMURTHY RAMASUBBAIYER

Latest contributions to the numismatic history of Central Asia (late eighteenth – nineteenth century), by Vladimir NASTICH

Silver fragments of unique Būyid and Ḥamdānid coins and their role in the Kelč hoard (Czech Republic), by Vlastimil NOVÁK

Numismatic evidence for the location of Saray, the capital of the Golden Horde, by A.V. PACHKALOV

Le regard des voyageurs sur les monnaies africaines du XVIe au XIXe siècles, by Josette RIVALLAIN

Les imitations des dirhems carrés almohades: apport des analyses élémentaires, by A. TEBOULBI, M. BOMPAIRE & M. BLET-LEMARQUAND

À propos du monnayage de Kiến Phúc (1883-1884), by François THIERRY

Glass jetons from Sicily: new fi nd evidence from the excavations at Monte Iato, by Christian WEISS

Medals

Joseph Kowarzik (1860-1911): ein Medailleur der Jahrhundertwende, by Kathleen ADLER

1807

1813

1821

1826

1832

1841

1847

1852

1862

1869

1874

1884

1890

1897

1907

CONTENTS16

Numismatic memorials of breeding trotting horses (based on the collection of the numismatic department of the Hermitage), by L.I. DOBROVOLSKAYA

De retrato a arquetipo: anotaciones sobre la difusión de la efi gie de Juan VIII Paleólogo en la peninsula Ibérica, by Albert ESTRADA-RIUS

Titon du Tillet e le medaglie del Parnasse François, by Paola GIOVETTI

Bedrohung und Schutz der Erde: Positionen zur Umweltproblematik in der deutschen Medaillenkunst der Gegenwart, by Rainer GRUND

The rediscovery of the oldest private medal collection of the Netherlands, by Jan PELSDONK

Twentieth-century British campaign medals: a continuation of the nineteenth century?, by Phyllis STODDART and Keith SUGDEN

‘Shines with unblemished honour’: some thoughts on an early nineteenth-century medal, by Tuukka TALVIO

General numismatics

Dall’iconografi a delle monete antiche all’ideologia della nazione future. Proiezioni della numismatica grecista di D’Annunzio sulla nuova monetazione Sabauda, by Giuseppe ALONZO

Didaktisch-methodische Aspekte der Numismatik in der Schule, by Szymon BERESKA

The Count of Caylus (1692-1765) and the study of ancient coins, by François de CALLATAŸ

Le monete di Lorenzo il Magnifi co in un manoscritto di Angelo Poliziano, by Fiorenzo CATALLI

Coinage and mapping, by Thomas FAUCHER

Classicism and coin collections in Brazil, by Maria Beatriz Borba FLORENZANO

A prosopography of the mint offi cials: the Eligivs database and its evolution, by Luca GIANAZZA

Elementary statistical methods in numismatic metrology, by Dagmar GROSSMANNOVÁ & Jan T. STEFAN

1920

1931

1937

1945

1959

1965

1978

1985

1993

1999

2004

2012

2017

2022

2027

CONTENTS 17

Les collections numismatiques du Musée archéologique de Dijon (France), by Jacques MEISSONNIER

Bank of Greece: the numismatic collections, by Eleni PAPAEFTHYMIOU

Foundation of the Hellenic World. A new private collection open to the public, by Eleni PAPAEFTHYMIOU

Re-discovering coins: publication of the numismatic collections in Bulgarian museums – a new project, by Evgeni PAUNOV, Ilya PROKOPOV & Svetoslava FILIPOVA

„Census of Ancient Coins Known in the Renaissance“, by Ulrike PETER

Le sel a servi de moyen d’échange, by J.A. SCHOONHEYT

The international numismatic library situation and the foundation of the International Numismatic Libraries’ Network (INLN), by Ans TER WOERDS

The Golden Fleece in Britain, by R.H. THOMPSON

Das Museum August Kestner in Hannover: Neues aus der Münzsammlung, by Simone VOGT

From the electrum to the Euro: a journey into the history of coins. A multimedia presentation by the Bank of Cyprus Cultural Foundation, by Eleni ZAPITI

Highlights from the Museum of the George and Nefeli Giabra Pierides Collection, donated by Clio and Solon Triantafyllides: coins and artefacts, by Eleni ZAPITI & Evangeline MARKOU

Index of Contributors

2036

2044

2046

2047

2058

2072

2082

2089

2100

2102

2112

2118

THE MEANING OF THE CHARACTER 寳 BAO IN THE LEGENDS OF CHINESE CASH COINS

VLADIMIR A. BELYAEV & SERGEY V. SIDOROVICH

In the course of the previously surveyed study of the reasons of placing the Chinese character寳bao in the legends of some Mongol coins,1 the authors have showed that its lexical meaning in this context should relate to the power regalia of Mongol khans. The present paper is an attempt to look at the more general practice of usage of the character bao in the legends of Chinese cast coins in general.

The appearance of the character bao in the legends of Chinese cast coins is related to the mon-etary reform of the early Tang dynasty. The pre-Tang coins belonging to the so-called ban-liang and wu-zhu currency systems, which were in most cases denominated in weight units, although their actual weight would seldom fi t with the declared value. The innovative character of the Tang monetary reform, underlined by all researchers, lies not only in rejecting the weight designations, but also in the declaration of the Emperor’s power in the coin legends, viz. the ‘reign title’ in the course of gradual evolution from weight defi nitions to symbolic designations.2 However, in our opinion, Chinese numismatic concepts lead to an incomplete understanding of the power regalia placed on the Chinese coins.

In the seventh month of the fourth year of the Wu De period (621 AD), the Tang Emperor Gao Zu by his decree abandoned the motley mixture of circulating coins and issued kai-yuan tong-bao, thus created the new monetary system. This system existed in China until the begin-ning of the twentieth century and formed the basis of the monetary system of Far East countries. The historical source Tang-hui-yao3 points out that for its legend new coin was obliged to Ouyang Xun,4 scholar and censor at the Imperial court, who implemented and calligraphically presented its legend’s inscription.5 The monetary reform of 621 AD approved the type and metric parameters of the cast coin and established the standard of the obverse legend for the following epochs.6 Of course, in any rule there are exclusions, but the above-mentioned type was the basis for coins that were being cast for more than thirteen centuries.

There are two variants of reading of the legend of the new coin – ‘cross’ reading in the direc-tion top-bottom-right-left (kai-yuan tong-bao) and ‘round the clock’ reading, starting from the top character (kai-tong yuan-bao). Discussions on this matter still exist in China, but it is generally agreed that the fi rst version is the correct one, in which the original sense of the expression kai-yuan points to the inauguration of the new historical stage, new era, foundation of state and so on.7 In the following coin issues the fi rst two characters of the legend usually represented the reign

1 Belyaev / Sidorovich 2009.2 Wang Jian 2001, p.37.3 Tang Hui Yao, juan 89, chapter ‘Quan Huo’.4 Ouyang Xun, 557-641 A.D.5 Wang Jian 2001, p. 36.6 Key components of this type – round shape, central square hole, outer

in internal rims on both sides of the coin, 4-characters legend by sides of the central hole. The round shape with square hole was known from 4th -3rd C. BC, however, during certain periods variants were issued with missed internal and/or outer rims on obverse and reverse. The diameter of the new

coins was equal to 8 fen, weight – 2 zhu 4 lei, weight of 10 coins was 1 liang, one thousand coins weigh 6 jin (斤) 4 liang (jin = 16 liang). (Jiu Tang Shu ‘Old History of Tang’. Section Zhi ‘Descriptions’, Ch.28 Shi Huo ‘Food and goods’. Part 1 (ch. 52 by sequential numeration). In fact, in modern units metric data of new post-reform issues were equal to 24 mm and 4.18 g (Wang Jian 2001, p. 36.). The obverse legend in most cases consists of four characters. First two characters – reign title (nian-hao), second pair – one of the few standard combinations (coin names) - tong-bao, yuan-bao, zhong-bao and some others. See Ivochkina 2005, p. 17.

7 Wang Jian 2001, p. 36.

VLADIMIR A. BELYAEV & SERGEY V. SIDOROVICH1790

8 The reign title appeared for the fi rst time in 338 AD on coins with legend han-xing of Kingdom Shu (Period of 16 Kingdoms), however only from the period qian-feng (666-668 A.D.) of the Tang dynasty did the presence of the reign title become a rule. Exclusions from this rule are very few; mainly they relates to such types, where fi rst two characters defi nes the name of the state or dynasty. As examples can be noted coins tang guo tong bao (‘State Tang’ of the Five Dynasties period), da shu tong bao (‘Great [kingdom] Shu’ of the Ten Kingdoms period), da song tong bao (‘Great Song’, Northern Song and Southern Song dynasties), da yuan tong bao (‘Great Yuan’, Yuan dynasty), da zhong tong bao (‘Great China’, insurrectional coin of the period of anti-Mongol movements), da ming tong bao (‘Great Ming’, issued by Prince Lu, rebel of the beginning of the Qing dynasty).

9 Wang 1994, pp. 167-68.10 Schjöth 1929, p. 21.

11 Bykov 1969, p. 18.12 Oshanin (ed.) 1984. Character #11187. p.126.13 Wang Jian 2001, p. 36.14 On the bronze vessels of the Zhou dynasty can be found hieroglyphical

inscriptions zi zi sun sun yong bao yong, which can be approximately translated as ‘let generation by generation eternally use this treasure’. See, for example, Butz 1993. Butz offers three variants of translation on different pages of his book – p.1: ‘For sons and grandsons as eternal treasure’; p. 4: ‘May sons and grandsons regard [this ritual vessel] forever as precious treasure and make use of it [for offerings]’; p.73: ‘May the children of the children and grandchildren of the grandchildren continue to use it as treasure’.

15 Jiu Tang Shu. Section Ben Ji ‘Main annals’. Ch. 1 Gao Zu.

title,8 corresponding to the period of the coin casting.Traditionally in Chinese numismatics the declaration of the regalia of an Emperor’s power is

considered to be the placement of the current reign title – that is, the fi rst two characters in the legend. For example, Helen Wang writes:9 ‘The inscription on Chinese cash coins usually included the name of the imperial reign period, and when rebels rose against the imperial authority they were often quick to issue coins with an inscription relating to their own cause. This can be seen in the coins of the Ming rebels, the coins of the Taiping rebels and the coins of the secret societies. A number of the secret societies issued membership tokens in the form of coins and banknotes, which were not intended for circulation. The rebels’ choice of using a money form may in itself symbolize their aspiration to hold the Mandate of Heaven in their own name’.

Two other characters in the legend, according to the generally approved understanding, are different expressions somehow connected with the meaning of ‘coin’ or ‘treasure’. For example, Norwegian numismatist Frederik Schjöth, whose book was for more than 70 years the standard reference for Chinese numismatics in the West, translated the legend of the fi rst post-reform coin as ‘The Currency of the K’ai-yüan Period’,10 regarding the term tong-bao as ‘money’.

The translation of the character bao as ‘money’ or ‘coin’ can be found in publications of most authors who wrote about Chinese coins. Soviet numismatist A.Bykov wrote the following about the coin kai-yuan tong-bao:11 ‘On the obverse side of qians of fi rst issues are four Chinese characters, one at each side of the hole. The inscription as a whole means “circulating coin of the beginning of the reign”.’ The Large Chinese-Russian dictionary gives tong-bao as ‘money in cir-culation, circulating coin’.12

Such understanding is not an exclusive prerogative of Western authors. Chinese scholar Wang Jian writes next:13 ‘The character tong means “unlimited circulation”. During the Southern and Northern dynasties a coin with the legend yong-tong-wan-guo was known, which had the same meaning. The character bao in ancient times meant “hoard” or “treasure”.14 After the start of the use of coins they began to be considered as “precious goods”, “treasures”, thus the character bao initially had the meaning of “ancient coins”.’

In ancient and medieval Chinese sources the word bao is not used in the meaning ‘coin’, but rather the words bi, huo bi, or qian were used. When the text speaks about the coin legend, the word qian is always added - wu-zhu qian, kai-yuan tong-bao qian, kai-yuan qian. Here is a typical quote from the ‘Old History of Tang’:15 ‘To stop [usage] of coins 5 zhu, [to begin] usage of coins kai-yuan tong-bao’. Generally, in the ‘Old History of Tang’ the expression tong-bao (‘currency coin’, according to the traditional point of view) can be met nine times only, always in the legend of the coin kai-yuan tong-bao, but the word qian (‘coin’) - 990 times.

THE MEANING OF THE CHARACTER 寳 BAO IN THE LEGENDS OF CHINESE CASH COINS 1791

Thus the translation of the word bao in the Chinese coin legend as ‘coin’ makes the expres-sion somewhat distorted, sounding like ‘to begin to use coin “currency coin of the beginning of the reign”’. It convinces us that bao did not mean ‘coin’, at least in medieval times. The meaning ‘coin’, which can be found in dictionaries, seems to be of later centuries, established during the active usage of this character in coin legends for more than thirteen centuries.

Some authors, while discussing the legends of Chinese coins, translate bao as ‘precious items’, ‘treasure’.16 This is one more meaning of the character which can be found in dictionaries.17 The article in the Chinese numismatic dictionary reads:18 ‘Tong-bao “circulating coin”: the name of coins, which has meaning “precious goods in circulation”. Money, which were considered as “state treasure in circulation”, exactly by that reason has received the name tong-bao.’

As has already been mentioned, the author of the expression tong-bao, which fi rst appeared in the legend of the fi rst coins of Tang, was the scholar Ouyang Xun. Wang Jian, analyzing the work of Sima Qian and Ban Gu, noted19 that ‘tong pointed out the role of money in the process of com-modity circulation. When, during the Southern and Northern dynasties, there appeared a coin with the legend yong-tong-wan-guo the term tong started to be used for descriptive title of the monetary circulation. The contribution made by Ouyang Xun to the history of money is the fact that he, us-ing his wealth of scientifi c knowledge, introduced the character tong in the very name of money, refl ecting the views of people of that era about the role of money.’

It is logical to assume that the Tang scholar did not pass over the second character in the expression tong-pao, and that the original meaning of the phrase was more profound than ‘the treasures in circulation’. In this regard it is worth noting that, on one hand, a single copper coin had much too insignifi cant a value to be called a ‘treasure’ or ‘jewel’ in the truest sense of the word, but on the other hand analysis of sources shows that the same character bao, at least from the Sui dynasty, was used for things related to the regalia of monarchs. There are grounds for believing that the coin legends are not just about the treasures in normal view, and not about money, but rather as ‘state treasure’. Most likely, bao here is an indication of the Imperial seal (see values of the character in footnote 17) as a regalia, the owner of which is noted in the fi rst part of the coin’s legend indicating the reign of the ruler.

In the dynastical history of the Sui dynasty there is the following description of Imperial seals:20 ‘Eight Emperor’s seals xi are sacred seals, they are inheritable seals, all are treasures and are not in use.’

Imperial seals, together with the Emperor’s throne, were the regalia of power, refl ecting the fact of ownership of the Heavenly Mandate. The history of recognition of the Emperor’s seal as a legal certifi cate of the Heavenly Mandate, granted to the Emperor, took its origin during the Qin dynasty (221-206 BC). A legendary jade seal was carved by the order of Emperor Qin Shihuang. Its inscription claimed: shouming yu tian ji shou yongchang (‘Having received the Mandate from Heaven, may (the emperor) lead a long and prosperous life’). This most famous and symbolic seal in Chinese history was inherited from dynasty to dynasty, but fi nally its traces were lost in medieval times.21

Each Emperor owned several seals, inherited or newly produced. The expression ‘to receive

16 Peng Xinwei 1994, Vol.1, p. 246; Munro 1904, pp. 251-52.17 Main meanings of the character bao are: 1) precious items; jewelry

stone ... 2) treasure, wealth, valuables ... 3) coin, money. 4) Imperial seal. 5) regalia. 6) game of chance. Oshanin (ed.) 1984, Vol. 4. Character

#13855. pp. 679-80. 18 He Lin (ed.) 1999, С.279.

19 Wang Jian 2001, p. 37.20 Sui Shu. Section Zhi ‘Descriptions’, Ch.6 Li Yi ‘Ceremonial’. Part. 6

(ch. 11 by sequential numeration).21 Feng Hui. The Imperial Jade Seal. / China Culture, online project by

Ministry of Culture, P.R.C. <http://www.chinaculture.org/classics/2007-12/19/content_125944.htm>

VLADIMIR A. BELYAEV & SERGEY V. SIDOROVICH1792

seals’ became the synonym of the expression ‘to occupy the throne’. It’s not uncommon that the expression da-bao (literally ‘great treasure’) means the Emperor’s throne.22 There are a few char-acters in the Chinese dictionary which designated and designate the seal. And exactly in the Tang period the character bao received its new meaning – ‘Emperor’s seal, seal of ruler’. The meaning, which in the above quote from the Sui history was only suggested, in the Tang records sounds very concrete:23 ‘During the Empress Wu24 imperial seals [xi] began to be named bao; when Zhong Zong has sat on the throne,25 began to be named xi; from 6th year kai-yuan26 again became bao’.

During her reign the Empress Wu Zetian implemented, by decrees, about 20 new characters, prohibited usage of some of old characters, including the character xi (Emperor’s seal), and re-placed it by the character bao. It was de-jure decreeing of the usage of the character bao which de-facto already was used in seals. As we see, fi nally from the beginning of the eighth century imperial seals were designated by the character bao.

Thus we must consider bao as certifi cate of legality of the concrete currency, as declaration of the monetary regalia – the monopoly of state on the issue of coins,27 declaration in the form of reference on the Imperial seal which itself is a state regalia.

Now we can again look at the legend of the fi rst Tang coin. Taking into account the above considerations, we have come to the conclusion that the character tong in the legend of the coin kai-yuan tong-bao is a short form of tong-xing (‘to circulate, to be in circulation’). The whole legend can be reconstructed as kai-yuan tong[-xing]-bao [qian] – ‘[universally] circulating legal [coin] kai-yuan’.

It worth noting that we do not call for the inclusion of one more meaning of the character bao in dictionaries. The literary meaning remains the same - ‘treasure’ - but in the case of a coin leg-end, implying that it consists of six characters, under the ‘treasure’ meant not the coin itself, but regalia, which indicate that the issuer owns the Imperial seal and the throne, and hence owns the exclusive right of the monarch to issue money. So, if we speak about the literal translation of the legend of the fi rst Tang coin, it should sound like ‘circulating [marked by the state] treasure [coin of the period] kai-yuan’, while semantically it means ‘[universally] circulating legal [coin of the period28] kai-yuan’.

At the beginning of the Tang the technology of coin casting was already developed at a high enough level. The round shape with square central hole was adopted during the centuries of the existence of cash coins. Thus it was logically approved to shorten the six-character formula of the legend kai-yuan tong-xing-bao qian, and to place four characters by the sides of the central hole. In such a legend there is written the reign title, which in conjunction with the character bao represents the monetary regalia. Additionally the character tong refl ects the universal nature of this money. These four characters also fi t with the cosmogony conception about the shape of Chinese cash coin29 and turns coin of the new type into powerful means of state propaganda, which was used by all the following Emperors, as well as different throne pretenders.

During the whole period of the existence of the monetary system kai-yuan tong-bao coin leg-end underwent some changes, which did not affect, however, the character bao - all this time it has remained an integral part.

The next type after the kai-yuan tong-bao was the short-term issued (June 666 – February 667 22 Oshanin (ed.) 1984, Vol. 3, Character #8414, p. 630.23 Xin Tang Shu ‘New History of Tang’. Section Zhi ‘Descriptions’,

Ch.14 Che Fu ‘[Front] Carriages and dresses’ (ch. 25 by sequential numeration).

24 Empress Wu Zetian, 690-705 AD25 705 AD

26 718 AD27 Monetary regalia – see Fengler et al. 1976, p. 242.28 In this case, it is not a term defi ned by the reign title (nien-hao), and

the period of reforms, which in the legend of the coin is known as kai-yuan, which sounds like ‘Implementation principles’ or ‘A gaping beginning’.

29 Ivochkina 2002, p. 119; Ivochkina 2005, p. 18.

THE MEANING OF THE CHARACTER 寳 BAO IN THE LEGENDS OF CHINESE CASH COINS 1793

30 Schjöth 1929, p. 22.31 Ibid.32 During the Tang dynasty 1 qun = 31.1 mm, 1 qun 2 fen were equal to

37.3 mm (Krol / Romanovskiy 1982, p. 227.33 Xin Tang Shu. Section Zhi ‘Descriptions’. Ch.44 Shi Huo ‘Food and

Goods’. Part 4. (ch. 60 by sequential numeration).34 Song Shi, juan 40. The detailed description of activities associated

with the procedure of return of imperial seals, however, based on other sources, see in Munkuev 1975, pp. 196-98.

AD) coin with legend qian-feng quan-bao. Given that their weight was just about 1.5 - 1.6 times higher than that of the coins kai-yuan, the value of qian-feng quan-bao, as announced by the state, was ten times the value of those. According to Schjöth, the legend sounds like ‘The currency of the period qian-feng’.30 The term quan-bao is translated as ‘currency’. Taking into account that the vocabulary meaning of quan is the term ‘money’, Schjöth’s translation has lost the character bao. As was mentioned above, coins of the new issue had metric data and value, which differed from currently circulating coins kai-yuan tong-bao. Hence the Imperial edict, which legalised innova-tions, has preceded casting of new coins. This fact should be refl ected in the legend. Now we can offer a more precise translation: ‘Legal money [of the period] qian-feng’.

The new coin legend appeared about a hundred years later in 758 A.D. - qian-yuan zhong-bao, translated by Schjöth as ‘Heavy currency of the period qian-yuan’.31 The fi rst coins with this leg-end had the declared value of 10 kai-yuan tong-bao coins, with diameter 1 cun. At the end of the year 759 was issued a coin with the same legend, but with the value of 50 kai-yuan coins, with a diameter of 1 cun 2 feng.32 The state tried to provide warranty for the declared value, claiming in the coin legend that it is, according to our understanding, ‘full-weight legal [coin of the period] qian-yuan’. However, for obvious reasons such overvalued coins had no popularity among the population.33

Finally, in the middle of the eighth century the Tang rebel Shi Siming issued coins with leg-ends de-yi yuan-bao and shun-tian yuan-bao. The new term yuan-bao Schjöth has translated again as ‘currency’, missing the main meaning of the character yuan – ‘new, fi rst, prime’. Taking into account the new understanding of the nature of the character bao, we suggest that a more precise translation of yuan-bao will be as ‘basic legal [coin]’. Thus with a new expression in the coin leg-ends Shi Siming has claimed himself as possessor of the Heavenly Mandate. Coin legends of his issues underlined the legality the legal tender of new ‘Emperor’.

During the next eleven and a half centuries the legend of offi cial Chinese cast coins, with minor exclusions, adhered to the standard. The fi rst two characters (top and bottom or top and right) designated the reign title, while two other characters represented one of the terms - tong-bao ‘circulating legal [coin]’, yuan-bao ‘basic legal [coin]’ and zhong-bao ‘full-weight legal [coin]’.

It is noteworthy that during the reign period jia-ding of the Southern Song dynasty (1208–1224 AD) was issued a whole coin series which without doubt can be named innovative – with 17 new expressions with the character bao. Currently the reasons for the appearance of such a series remain unexplained in Far Eastern numismatics. We will not consider this series in detail in the current report; it is the subject of a separate future publication. At the same time it’s worth noting the next interesting fact. In the fourteenth year of the period jia-ding (1221 AD) Mongols had returned to the Southern Song dynasty two imperial seals, from those fourteen which were earlier looted by Jurchens (Jin dynasty). In the fi rst month of the next year this event was widely celebrated; amnesties were issued and so on. We do not exclude that such a series of coins could be related to those celebrations.34 Additional material for thought is provided by the following:

Most of these ‘unusual’ characters (unusual in coin legends) can be found in the texts of impe-rial seals.

Dated copper coins with value 1 and 2 cash were issued from the fi rst to the fourteenth year of the period jia-ding (1208-1221 AD). After 1221 AD their issue was abandoned.

VLADIMIR A. BELYAEV & SERGEY V. SIDOROVICH1794

Multiple examples can be continued, but the frame of the report doesn’t allow for presenting them in detail. These examples prove the suggested hypothesis that the character bao on Chinese coins and paper money refl ected the legality of currency, via the reference on the Emperor’s seal, and such conception was clear and understandable in medieval China. The usage of coins as widely circulating media of state propaganda is known from Ancient Greek and Roman times. Chinese coins are no exception in such matters – they have the character bao in the legend, which has certifi ed the rights of the Emperor – owner of the Heavenly Mandate. Fixation of monetary regalia on Chinese coins became law only after the reform of 621 AD. The question about what prompted this idea to the Chinese reformers remains open. Perhaps the reasons should be sought in the expanding ties between China and the outside world, primarily in western territories.

However, by the beginning of the twentieth century such understanding was lost, and now any numismatist on the question of the meaning of the character bao answers – ‘coin’ or ‘treasure’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Belyaev V.A. / Sidorovich S.V. (2009), ‘A new interpretation of the character Bao on coins of Mongol uluses’, Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society 199 (Spring 2009), pp.11-17.

Butz, H. (1993), Frühe Chinesische Bronzen aus der Sammlung Klingenberg, SMPK, Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst, Berlin.

Bykov AA. (1969), Monety Kitaia (Coins of China), ‘Sovetskii hudozhnik’, Leningrad.

Fengler, H. / Gierow, G. / Unger, W. (1976), Lexikon der Numismatik, Berlin.

He Lin (ed.) (1999), Qianbi xue ci hui jian shi (Glossary of numismatic terms), Beijing, Dazhong Wenyi Chubanshe.

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