The First Civilizations and Empires

12

eriod in Perspective

The First Civilizations

and EmpiresPrehistory–A.D. 500

For hundreds of thousands of years, human beings lived insmall communities, seeking to survive by hunting, fishing,

and gathering food and supplies in an often hostile envi-ronment. Then, in the space of a few thousand years,

there was an abrupt change of direction. Human beings ina few widely scattered areas of the globe began to master

the art of growing food crops. As more food was pro-duced, the population in these areas grew, and people

began to live in cities, form governments, and developwriting and art. Historians call this process the beginnings

of civilization. It occurred at about the same time in theriver valleys of Western Asia, Egypt, India, and China.

Primary Sources LibrarySee pages 990–991 for primary source readings to

accompany Unit 1.

Use The World History Primary Source Document Library CD-ROM to find additional

primary sources about The First Civilizations and Empires.

The

� Grecian urns and potterywere often used to portraymythological scenes.

� The temple at Delphi was built to honor the Greek god Apollo.

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“...let no day pass withoutdiscussing goodness...”

—Socrates, The Apology

13

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451–450 B.C.Twelve Tables posted in Rome

A.D. 120Roman law governs the Mediterranean world

A.D. 533–534Justinian Code established

Justinian Code

➊➌

➋

Systems of LawLaw is a code of conduct and rights recognized by a society. It pro-vides social control, order, and justice, and it enables people toknow their rights and responsibilities. Law is also the cornerstone ofa constitutional government, helping to ensure justice and fair treat-ment of all citizens. “Where law ends, tyranny begins,” said WilliamPitt, an English leader in 1770.

➊ Roman Republic

Laying the FoundationAround 451–450 B.C., a group of judges posted 12 tablets in Rome’s main

forum, or marketplace. According to legend, the common people of Romehad demanded that the laws be written down for all to see, so that theywould then know their rights.

The Twelve Tables, as they were called, remained in effect for almost1,000 years. When Roman armies conquered other nations, they broughttheir laws with them. By A.D. 120, the entire Mediterranean world was governed by Roman law.

The Romans developed important legal principles: the law applied toall people regardless of wealth or power, and people should be ruled bylaw rather than the whims of their leaders. In A.D. 533–534, the Byzantineemperor Justinian consolidated all Roman law into a single written code.The Justinian Code, The Body of Civil Law as it is properly named, became the foundation of today’s civil law system.

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The Romans developed the principle that people should be ruled by lawrather than by the whims of leaders. How did the United States ensure thatleaders would not place themselves above the law?

Why It Matters

15

A.D. 1787United States Constitution adopted

A.D. 1804Napoleonic Code established in France

Preamble to the United States Constitution

Napoleon Bonaparte

UNIT 1 The First Civilizations and Empires

➋ The United States

A Model for Constitutional GovernmentThe founders of the United States knew about and admired the Romans

and their belief in limiting the power of government. When it came time todraw up a plan of government, the Framers wrote a constitution that bal-anced the powers of government among three branches.

To ensure that elected leaders did not place themselves above the law,the Framers included a provision that made the Constitution “the supremelaw of the land.” The Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787.

➌ France

Unifying the LawIn 1799, a French general named Napoleon Bonaparte set out to build

an empire even larger than Rome’s. To rule this empire, Napoleon followed the Roman example. He appointed a commission to write a uniform code of laws. This code, known as the Napoleonic Code, wascompleted in 1804.

Although Napoleon ruled as emperor, he drew upon many of thelegal precedents first introduced by the Romans. This included theprinciple that the same laws should be used to govern all people.Under Napoleon, this code was adopted in areas across the globe,such as present-day Belgium, Spain, and Latin America.

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16

The First HumansPrehistory–3500 B.C.

Key EventsAs you read, look for the key events in the history of early humans and the beginnings

of civilization.• Paleolithic peoples learned how to adapt to their nomadic lifestyle, improve on their

primitive tools, and use fire to their advantage, thus enabling them to create a more sophisticated human culture.

• The agricultural revolution of the Neolithic Age gave rise to more complex human societies that became known as the first civilizations.

The Impact TodayThe events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today.

• Scientists continue to search for the remains of early humans, and their discoveries are changing the way we view the first humans.

• Paleolithic peoples used technological inventions to change their physical environment, just as humans do today.

World History Video The Chapter 1 video, “Before History,” chroni-cles the spread of humans and the emergence of the first cities and civilizations.

3,600,000 B.C. 2,000,000 B.C. 200,000 B.C.

3,000,000 B.C.Australopithecinesflourish in Africa

2,500,000 B.C. Paleolithic Agebegins

1,500,000 B.C. Homo erectusappears

250,000 B.C.Homo sapiensspecies emerges

Paleolithic Era stone tools

Archaeologists reconstructing a human skeleton

16

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100,000 B.C.Neanderthals livein Germany

8000 B.C.Neolithic Agebegins

8000 B.C.Systematic agriculturedevelops

1200 B.C.Bronze Age ends

150,000 B.C. 10,000 B.C. 1000 B.C.

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at wh.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 1–ChapterOverview to preview chapter information.

17

Archaeologists excavate a cave used by Neanderthals more than 60,000 years ago.

Neanderthal tomb

Reconstruction of Çatal Hüyük

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http://wh.glencoe.com

18

ouis B. Leakey and his wife, Mary Nicol Leakey, spentmost of their lives searching for clues about early

human life. Much of their time wasspent at Olduvai Gorge in East Africa,where they dug up many stone toolsand a variety of fossils. However, theirultimate goal—finding the skeleton ofan early human being—had eludedthem for many years.

Then, one morning, while her hus-band was back at camp recovering fromthe flu, Mary Leakey made a remark-able discovery. She jumped into herLand Rover and raced across the African plain back to camp,where she shouted to her startled husband, “I’ve got him!I’ve got him!”

Despite his illness, Louis jumped into the car, and theLeakeys headed back to where Mary had made her discov-ery. At the site, they looked at the bones Mary had found.Louis later described the scene: “I turned to look at Mary andwe almost cried for sheer joy, each seized by the terrific emo-tion that comes early in life. After all our hoping and hard-ship and sacrifice, at last we had reached our goal—we haddiscovered the world’s earliest known human.”

LA Remarkable Discovery

A F R I C A

ATLANTICOCEAN

OlduvaiGorge

Mary Leakey

Louis Leakey

Why It MattersThe Leakeys and many other scien-tists have labored to form a pictureof early human development.Thanks to their efforts, we know thatearly humans struggled to surviveby hunting, fishing, and gathering,and eventually turned to regularfarming. This dramatic step gradu-ally led to larger and more complexhuman communities. This chapterpresents the story of that process.

History and You Scientists con-tinue to work throughout the worldto discover and analyze the remainsof humans. Find, read, and analyzefour primary source documents thatdiscuss the work of anthropologistsor archaeologists. Compare themost recent findings with those dis-cussed in the chapter. Have anynew findings changed the way inwhich we view early humans?

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CHAPTER 1 The First Humans 19CHAPTER 1 The First Humans

Early HumansGuide to Reading

✦3,000,000 B.C. ✦1,500,000 B.C. ✦250,000 B.C. ✦100,000 B.C. ✦30,000 B.C.

3,000,000 B.C.Australopithecines makesimple stone tools

1,500,000 B.C.Homo erectus useslarger, more varied tools

250,000 B.C.Species Homosapiens emerges

100,000 B.C.Homo sapiens sapiensand Neanderthals appear

30,000 B.C.Neanderthalsare extinct

Preview of Events

CHAPTER 1 The First Humans 19

In 1879, a Spanish landowner, who was an amateur archaeologist, took his 12-year-old daughter Maria with him to examine a cave on their farm in northern Spain. Whileher father busied himself digging for artifacts at the entrance to the cave, Maria wandered inside, holding a lantern. She was startled by what she discovered:

“Ahead was a big dark hole like a doorway. Beyond it was a huge long room. I heldmy lantern high for a better look. Then, suddenly, I saw big red-and-black animals allover the ceiling. I stood amazed, looking at them.”

—Secrets from the Past, Gene S. Stuart, 1979

Ten thousand years before, Stone Age artists had painted an entire herd of animals—horses, boars, bison, and deer—on the ceiling of the cave. Today, these simple paintings provide historians with clues to the lives of early humans.

Before HistoryHistorians rely mostly on documents, or written records, to create their pictures

of the past. However, no written records exist for the prehistory of humankind. Infact, prehistory means the period before writing was developed.

The story of early humans depends on archaeological and, more recently, bio-logical information. Archaeologists and anthropologists use this information tocreate theories about our early past. What are archaeologists and anthropologists,and what kinds of information do they provide?

Archaeology and Anthropology Archaeology is the study of past societiesthrough an analysis of what people have left behind. Archaeologists dig up and

Voices from the Past

Tool Effect

Main Ideas• By 10,000 B.C., Homo sapiens sapiens

had spread throughout the world.• Paleolithic peoples used technology.

Key Termsprehistory, archaeology, artifact, anthro-pology, fossil, australopithecine, hominid,Homo erectus, Homo sapiens, Neander-thal, Homo sapiens sapiens, PaleolithicAge, nomad

People to Identify Louis B. Leakey, Mary Nicol Leakey, Donald Johanson

Places to Locate Olduvai Gorge, Lascaux

Preview Questions1. What methods do scientists use to

uncover the story of early humans?2. What important and dramatic

developments took place during the Paleolithic Age?

Reading StrategyCategorizing Information As you readthis section, complete a chart like the onebelow showing the effects of three toolson the lifestyle of early humankind.

The following is the major Sunshine StateStandard coveredin this section.

SS.A.2.4.1:Understand theearly physical andcultural developmentof humans.

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CHAPTER 1 The First Humans

examine artifacts—tools, pottery, paintings, weap-ons, buildings, and household items—of early peo-ples. Anthropology is the study of human life and culture. Anthropologists use artifacts and theremains of humans—human fossils—to determinehow people lived their lives.

Archaeologists and anthropologists have devel-oped scientific methods to carry out their work. Exca-vations of sites around the globe have uncoveredfossil remains of early humans, ancient cities, burialgrounds, and other objects. The examination andanalysis of these remains give archaeologists a betterunderstanding of ancient societies. By examiningartifacts such as pottery, tools, and weapons, forexample, these scientists learn about the social andmilitary structures of a society. By analyzing bones,skins, and plant seeds, they are able to piece togetherthe diet and activities of early people.

Dating Artifacts and Fossils One of the mostimportant and difficult jobs of both archaeologistsand anthropologists is dating their finds. Determin-ing the age of human fossils makes it possible to

understand when and where the first humansemerged. Likewise, the dating of artifacts left byhumans helps scientists understand the growth ofearly societies.

How, then, do archaeologists and anthropologistsdetermine the ages of the artifacts and fossils theyfind? One valuable method is radiocarbon dating. Allliving things absorb a small amount of radioactivecarbon (C-14) from the atmosphere. After a livingthing dies, it slowly loses C-14. Using radiocarbondating, a scientist can calculate the age of an object bymeasuring the amount of C-14 left in it.

Radiocarbon dating, however, is only accurate fordating objects that are no more than about 50,000years old. Another method—thermoluminescencedating—enables scientists to make relatively precisemeasurements back to 200,000 years. This method ofanalysis dates an object by measuring the light givenoff by electrons trapped in the soil surrounding fos-sils and artifacts.

Microscopic and biological analyses of organicremains—such as blood, hairs, and plant tissues lefton rocks, tools, and weapons—give scientists still

Radiocarbon Dating

20

Radiocarbon dating is considered to be accurate toabout 40,000 to 60,000 years ago. One-half of the carbon 14 atoms disappear from a sample in about5,730 years.

1. Making Generalizations Why is radiocarbondating only accurate to around 50,000 years ago?

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more information. Such analysis has shown thatblood molecules may survive millions of years. Thisrecent scientific discovery is especially useful intelling us more about humans, their use of tools, andthe animals they killed. Ancient deoxyribonucleicacid (DNA) is providing new information on humanevolution. The analysis of plant remains on stonetools yields evidence on the history of farming. All ofthese techniques give us insight into the lives ofearly peoples.

Describing How do archaeologistsand anthropologists determine the ages of fossils and artifacts?

Early Stages of DevelopmentAlthough modern science has given us more pre-

cise methods for examining the prehistory ofhumankind than we have ever had before, much ofour understanding of early humans still depends onguesswork. Given the rate of new discoveries, thecurrent theory of early human life might well bechanged in a few years.

From Hominids to Homo Sapiens The earliesthumanlike creatures lived in Africa as long as threeto four million years ago. Called australopithecines(aw•STRAY•loh•PIH•thuh•SYNS), or “southernapes,” by their discoverer, Donald Johanson, theyflourished in eastern and southern Africa. They were

Reading Check

the first hominids (humans and other creatures thatwalk upright) to make simple stone tools.

Recently, however, archaeologists in Kenya havediscovered a skull that they believe is from yet anotherform of hominid. They have called it Kenyanthropusplatyops—the flat-faced man of Kenya—and thinkthat it is about 3.5 million years old.

A second stage in early human developmentoccurred with the appearance of Homo erectus(“upright human being”), a species that emergedaround 1.5 million years ago. Homo erectus made useof larger and more varied tools. These hominids werethe first to leave Africa and move into both Europeand Asia. They were able to do so in part becausethey learned to use fire to keep warm in colder areas.

Around 250,000 years ago, a third—and cru-cial—stage in human development began with theemergence of a new species, Homo sapiens (“wisehuman being”). Two distinct subgroups, Nean-derthals and Homo sapiens sapiens, both developedfrom Homo sapiens.

Neanderthals were first found in the Neander Val-ley in Germany. Their remains have been datedbetween 100,000 and 30,000 B.C. and have been foundin Europe and Southwest Asia. Neanderthals reliedon a variety of stone tools and seem to be the firstearly people to bury their dead. Some scientists main-tain that burial of the dead indicates a belief in anafterlife. Neanderthals in Europe made clothes fromthe skins of animals that they had killed for food.

Heinrich Schliemann1822–1890German archaeologist

Heinrich Schliemann was anarchaeologist from Germany. Schlie-mann had always been fascinated bythe story of the Greek siege of Troy, acity in Asia Minor. Most people, includingSchliemann’s father, believed that the writer ofthe story, an ancient Greek poet named Homer, hadmade up his account. Schliemann, though, believedHomer’s story was true. He told his father: “If such wallsonce existed, they cannot possibly have been completelydestroyed: vast ruins of them must still remain.” Schlie-mann became a wealthy businessman, learned Greek,and went to Asia Minor. After years of digging, he foundhis beloved Troy and proved that Homer’s account was true.

History and ScienceHuman Origins: Different Points of View

People have different interpretations of the available dataon human origins. Two sources of such data are the fossilrecord and fossil dating.

Fossil record Fossils provide insight into human originsbut do not give a complete or conclusive history ofhuman development. Fossils showing changes from onelife-form to another are sometimes absent, producinggaps in the record.

Fossil dating Scientists analyze many different samples,using as many different methods as possible, becauseindividual results may vary. Dating methods are constantly being refined to provide more accurate data.

Various ideas exist about the source of life. Many religionsclaim that a supreme being or a supernatural force createdhumans and other life-forms. Meanwhile, current scientifictheories focus on chemical reactions in which organic materials have come together to form complex life-forms.

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22 CHAPTER 1 The First Humans

0°

60°N

30°N

30°S

60°S

0°

30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E 180° 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W

25,000years ago

15,000years ago

12,000years ago

4,500years ago

40,000years ago

100,000years ago

50,000years ago

150,000–200,000years ago 10,000

years ago

ANTARCTIC CIRCLE

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

TROPIC OF CANCER

EQUATOR

Atlantic

Ocean

Atlantic

Ocean

Pacific

Ocean

Indian

Ocean

ASIA

EUROPE

AFRICA

AUSTRALIA

ANTARCTICA

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

4,000 kilometers0Winkel Tripel projection

4,000 miles0

N

S

EW

Movement of Homo sapiens sapiens

The search for food eventually took members of the Homosapiens sapiens species to every habitable continent.1. Interpreting Maps Across which two continents did

Homo sapiens sapiens spread the most quickly?2. Applying Geography Skills Into which area did

Homo sapiens sapiens arrive most recently?

The first anatomically modern humans (peoplewho looked like us), known as Homo sapiens sapiens(“wise, wise human being”), appeared in Africabetween 150,000 and 200,000 years ago. Recent evi-dence indicates that they began to spread outsideAfrica around 100,000 years ago.

The Spread of Homo Sapiens Sapiens By 30,000B.C., Homo sapiens sapiens had replaced the Nean-derthals, who had largely died out, possibly as aresult of conflict between the two groups.

The spread of these first modern humans was aslow process. Groups of people, probably in search offood, moved beyond their old hunting grounds at arate of only two to three miles per generation. Thiswas enough, however, to populate the world overtens of thousands of years.

By 10,000 B.C., members of the Homo sapiens sapienssubgroup of the species Homo sapiens could befound throughout the world. All humans today,whether they are Europeans, Australian Aborigines(A•buh•RIJ•NEES), or Africans, belong to the samesubgroups of human beings.

Summarizing Identify and describethe three stages of early human development.

Reading Check

The Hunter-Gatherers of the Old Stone Age

Just as people do today, Paleolithicpeoples used technological innovations, including stonetools, to change their physical environment.

One of the basic distinguishing features of thehuman species is the ability to make tools. The earli-est tools were made of stone. The term PaleolithicAge is used to designate the early period of humanhistory (approximately 2,500,000 to 10,000 B.C.) inwhich humans used simple stone tools. Paleolithic isGreek for “old stone,” and the Paleolithic Age issometimes called the Old Stone Age.

The Paleolithic Way of Life For hundreds of thou-sands of years, humans relied on hunting and

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gathering for their daily food. Paleolithic peoples had a close relationship with the world around them.They came to know what animals to hunt and whatplants to eat. They gathered wild nuts, berries, fruits,wild grains, and green plants. Around the world,they hunted and ate various animals, including buf-falo, horses, bison, and reindeer. In coastal areas, fishprovided a rich source of food.

Over the years, Paleolithic hunters developed bet-ter tools. The invention of the spear, and later thebow and arrow, made hunting much easier. Har-poons and fishhooks made of bone increased thecatch of fish.

The hunting of animals and the gathering of wildfood no doubt led to certain patterns of living. Paleo-lithic people were nomads (people who moved fromplace to place), because they had no choice but to

follow animal migrations and vegetation cycles.Archaeologists and anthropologists have speculatedthat nomads lived in small groups of twenty or thirty.Hunting depended on careful observation of animalbehavior patterns and demanded group effort forany real chance of success.

The Roles of Men and Women It is probable thatboth men and women were responsible for findingfood—the chief work of Paleolithic peoples. Becausewomen bore and raised the children, they were likelyto have stayed close to their camps. There, theyplayed an important role in acquiring food by gather-ing berries, nuts, and grains. Men did most of thehunting of large animals, which might take place farfrom camp. Still, both the men and the women wereresponsible for finding and acquiring the food needed

Making stone tools waslaborious, but the toolswere effective and durable.


Tools

T he word technology refers to the ability of humanbeings to make things that sustain them and give

them some control over their environment. The tech-nology available at the beginning of human historywas quite simple. It consisted primarily of the ability to make stone tools.

To make such tools, early people used very hardstones, such as flint. They used one stone to chip awayparts of another, creating an edge. Hand axes of variouskinds—pointed tools with one or more cutting edges—were the most common. Eventually, axes were set intowooden handles, making them easier to use. By attach-ing wooden poles to spear points and hardening the tipsin fire, humans created spears to kill large animals.

Over time, tool technology evolved and ever-smallerstone points and blades were made. Near the end of thePaleolithic period, there is evidence of such refined toolsas bone needles. Needles formed from animal bonescould be used for making nets and baskets and evensewing hides together for clothing.

The first tools served a variety of purposes. Humans used stone weaponsto kill animals and butcher their meat. Other sharp-edged tools were usedfor cutting up plants, digging up roots, and cutting branches to build simpleshelters. Scraping tools were used to clean animal hides for clothing andshelter.

Analyzing How did the ability to make simple tools change human life?

hammer

punch

prepared core

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to sustain life. By passing on their practices, skills,and tools to their children, Paleolithic peoples helpedto ensure that later generations could survive.

Because both men and women played importantroles in providing for the group’s survival, some sci-entists have argued that a rough equality existedbetween men and women. It is likely that both menand women made decisions that affected the activi-ties of the Paleolithic group.

Adapting to Survive Paleolithic peoples, espe-cially those who lived in cold climates, found shelterin caves. Over time, they created new types of shel-ter. Perhaps most common was a simple structure ofwood poles or sticks covered with animal hides.Where wood was scarce, they might use the bones of large animals to build frames, which were thencovered by hides.

The Use of Fire As early hominids moved from thetropics into colder regions, they needed to adjust tonew, often harsh, conditions. Perhaps most impor-tant to their ability to adapt was the use of fire. It wasHomo erectus who first learned to make fires deliber-ately. Archaeologists have discovered the piledremains of ashes in caves that prove that Paleolithicpeople used fire systematically as long ago as fivehundred thousand years. At a Homo erectus site innorthern China, archaeologists have discoveredhearths, ashes, charcoal, and charred bones. All ofthese were about four hundred thousand years old.

Fire gave warmth and undoubtedly fostered asense of community for the groups of people gath-ered around it. Fire also protected early humans by


Although he was found in a glacier in the Alps,this Iceman actually died more than 5,000years after the Ice Age. Recent discoveriesprove that he was killed by an arrow. The coldmummified his remains. What tools andtechniques might scientists have used todetermine the Iceman’s age?

History

enabling them to scare away wild animals. Firemight also have enabled early humans to flush ani-mals out of wooded areas or caves and then killthem. In addition, food could be cooked with fire,making it better tasting, longer lasting, and easier tochew and digest (in the case of some plants, such aswild grains).

Scholars believe that different groups of early people discovered ways to start fires independentlythroughout the world. After examining methodsused by traditional peoples, even into the twentiethcentury, archaeologists assume that the earliest methods for starting fires were probably based onfriction, such as rubbing two pieces of woodtogether. Dry grass and leaves could be added as thewood began to smoke. Eventually, Paleolithic peo-ples devised sturdy, drill-like wooden devices to startfires. Other early humans discovered that a certainstone (iron pyrites), when struck against a hard rock,gave off a spark that could be used to ignite dry grassor leaves.

The Ice Ages Having fire to create a source of heatwas especially important when Ice Age conditionsdescended on the Paleolithic world. The most recentIce Age began about 100,000 B.C. and ended in about8000 B.C. During this time, sheets of thick ice coveredlarge parts of Europe, Asia, and North America.

Ice Age conditions posed a serious threat tohuman life, and the ability to adapt was crucial tohuman survival. The use of fire, for example,reminds us that early humans sometimes adaptednot by changing themselves to better fit their envi-ronment but by changing the environment.

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Creating Art The importance of art to human lifeis evident in one basic fact: art existed even in pre-history among the hunters and gatherers of the Paleolithic Age. The cave paintings of large animalsfound at Lascaux (la•SKOH) in southwestern Franceand at Altamira in northern Spain are evidence of this

cultural activity. Onecave discovered insouthern France in1994 contained morethan three hundredpaintings of lions,oxen, owls, panthers,and other animals.

Recent discoveries in other areas of the world haveadded yet more examples of the artistic achievementsof early human beings. According to archaeologists,these cave paintings were done between 25,000 and12,000 B.C.

All of the caves were underground and in com-plete darkness, but Paleolithic artists used stonelamps filled with animal fat to light their surround-ings. By crushing mineral ores and combining themwith animal fat, they could paint in red, yellow, andblack. Apparently they used their fingertips, crushedtwigs, and even brushes made with animal hairs toapply these paints to the walls. They also used hol-low reeds to blow thin lines of paint on the walls.

25CHAPTER 1 The First Humans

Checking for Understanding1. Define prehistory, archaeology, arti-

fact, anthropology, fossil, australo-pithecine, hominid, Homo erectus,Homo sapiens, Neanderthal, Homosapiens sapiens, Paleolithic Age,nomad.

2. Identify Louis B. Leakey, Mary NicolLeakey, Donald Johanson.

3. Locate Olduvai Gorge, Lascaux.

4. Explain why obtaining food by huntingand gathering is characteristic of anomadic lifestyle.

5. List the types of evidence archaeolo-gists and anthropologists rely on toreconstruct prehistory.

Critical Thinking6. Compare and Contrast Distinguish

between the roles of Paleolithic menand women in finding food. Explainwhy finding food was the principalwork of Paleolithic peoples.

7. Compare and Contrast Create a Venndiagram like the one shown below tocompare and contrast the lifestyles ofaustralopithecines and Neanderthals.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photographs of the Ice-

man on page 24 and the stone toolsshown on page 23. How do archaeolo-gists and anthropologists analyze lim-ited evidence such as this skeleton andthe stone tools to draw conclusionsabout the past?

Australopithecines Neanderthals

F R A N C E

S P A I N

Bay of Biscay

Mediterranean Sea

Altamira

Lascaux

Cave painting, Lascaux, France

Many of these cave paintings show animals inremarkably realistic forms. Few humans appear inthese paintings, and when they do appear, they arenot realistic but rather crude, sticklike figures. Theprecise rendering of the animal forms has led manyhistorians to believe that they were painted as part ofa magical or religious ritual intended to ensure suc-cess in hunting. Some believe, however, that thepaintings may have been made for their own sake.They beautified caves and must have been pleasingto the eyes of early humans.

Identifying What are the two mostimportant technological innovations of Paleolithic peoples?

Reading Check

9. Descriptive Writing Pretend youare part of an archaeological teamuncovering artifacts and fossils at arecently dicovered site. Describe theconditions of the site, the sorts ofartifacts and fossils you have beenworking with, and what you hope tofind. Read articles or books in yourschool library to increase yourunderstanding.

FCAT You can prepare for the FCAT-assessed standards by completing the correlated item(s) below.PRACTICE

FCAT LA.B.1.4.2

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26

Understanding Map ProjectionsWhy Learn This Skill?

On some maps, Greenland appears to be larger thanAustralia. Australia, however, actually has a larger land-mass than Greenland. Have you ever wondered how thishappens? Why do flat maps distort the size of landmassesand bodies of water? The answer lies in understandingthe ways that flat maps are constructed.

Learning the SkillTo make flat maps, mapmakers project the

curved surface of Earth onto a piece of paper. This is called a map projection. Unfortunately, theprocess is not exact. Different kinds of projectionscan accurately show either area, shape, distance, or direction. No one map, however, can show allfour of these qualities with equal accuracy at thesame time.

Mapmakers try to limit the amount of distortionby using different kinds of map projections. A con-formal map shows land areas in their true shapes, buttheir actual size is distorted. An equal-area mapshows land areas in correct proportion to oneanother but distorts the shapes of the landmasses.

The map on this page is a Cylindrical Projection(Mercator). Imagine wrapping a paper cylinderaround the globe. A light from within the globeprojects its surface onto the paper. The resultingconformal projection makes Alaska appear largerthan Mexico. Distortion is greatest near the Northand South Poles.

A Conic Projection is formed by placing a cone ofpaper over a lighted globe. This produces a crossbetween a conformal and an equal-area map. Thisprojection is best for showing the middle latitudesof Earth.

To understand map projections:• Compare the map to a globe.• Determine the type of projection used.• Identify the purpose of the projection.

0°

20°N

40°N

60°N

20°S

40°S

60°S

Cylindrical Projection(Mercator)

Practicing the SkillTurn to the map of the world in the Atlas in your

textbook. Compare the sizes and shapes of the fea-tures on the map to those on a globe. Based on thiscomparison, answer the following questions:1 What is the map’s projection?2 How does the map distort Earth’s features?3 In what way does the map accurately present

Earth’s features?4 Why do you think the mapmaker used this

projection?

Applying the Skill

Compare the size of Antarctica as it appears on a mapwith Antarctica on a globe. Determine the type of projection used on the map and then predict why thatprojection was chosen for the map. Share your findingsin class.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 2, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.

FCATPRACTICE

Completing the activity

below will help you prepare for the FCAT Mathematics test.

FCAT MA.B.1.4.3

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CHAPTER # Chapter Title 27

5000 B.C.Rice is grown inSoutheast Asia

Guide to Reading

The Neolithic Revolutionand the Rise of Civilization

Preview of Events✦11,000 B.C. ✦9000 B.C. ✦7000 B.C. ✦5000 B.C. ✦3000 B.C. ✦1000 B.C.

CHAPTER 1 The First Humans

6700 B.C.Regular farming gives rise to Neolithicvillages such as Çatal Hüyük

8000 B.C.Neolithic Agebegins

1200 B.C.Bronze Ageends

8000 B.C.Systematic agriculturedevelops

Main Idea• Systematic agriculture brought about

major economic, political, and socialchanges for early humans.

Key TermsNeolithic Revolution, systematic agricul-ture, domestication, artisan, Bronze Age,culture, civilization, monarch

People to IdentifyMesoamericans, priest

Places to LocateJericho, Çatal Hüyük

Preview Questions1. What changes occurred during the

Neolithic Revolution that made thedevelopment of cities possible?

2. How did systematic agriculture spreadin different areas of the world?

Reading StrategySummarizing Information As you readthis section, fill in a chart like the onebelow listing the six major characteristicsof a civilization.

Around 3000 B.C., cities began to emerge around what had been only farming villages.The first city dwellers were amazed by their new environment. The Epic of Gilgamesh,the most famous piece of literature from the ancient Near East, reveals this amazement:

“Look at the walls of Uruk: the outer wall shines with the brilliance of copper; andthe inner wall, it has no equal! Climb upon the wall of Uruk; walk along it, I say; regardthe foundation terrace and examine the masonry: is it not burned brick and good? Theseven sages laid the foundations.”

—The Epic of Gilgamesh, N.K. Sandars, ed., 1972

The cities that emerged in the river valleys of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and Chinagave rise to the first civilizations. However, it was the agricultural revolution of theNeolithic Age that made these cities possible.

The Neolithic RevolutionDespite all of our technological progress, human survival still

depends on the systematic growing and storing of food, an accomplishment of peoplein the Neolithic Age.The end of the last Ice Age, around 8000 B.C., was followed by what is called the

Neolithic Revolution—that is, the revolution that occurred in the Neolithic Age,the period of human history from 8000 to 4000 B.C. The word neolithic is Greek for

Voices from the Past

1. 4.2. 5.3. 6.

The following are the majorSunshine StateStandards coveredin this section.

SS.A.2.4.1: Understand the earlyphysical and culturaldevelopment ofhumans.

SS.B.2.4.5:Know how humansovercome “limits togrowth” imposed byphysical systems.

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,

00 B.C.

5000 B.C.

8000 B.C.

5500 B.C.

4000 B.C.

ANTARCTIC CIRCLE

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

TROPIC OF CANCER

ARCTIC CIRCLE

EQUATOR

0°30°W60°W90°W120°W150°W

60°N

30°N

30°S

60°S

0°

30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E

Atlantic

Ocean

Pacific

Ocean

Pacific

Ocean

Indian

Ocean

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

ASIA

EUROPE

AUSTRALIA


3,000 miles0

N

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EW

Spread of Farming to 1 B.C.

Development of systematic agriculture:

Before 5000 B.C.

Before 2000 B.C.

Before 1 B.C.

BarleyBeansMaize

RiceWheat

“new stone.” The name New Stone Age, however, issomewhat misleading. The real change in theNeolithic Revolution was the shift from the huntingof animals and the gathering of food to the keepingof animals and the growing of food on a regularbasis—what we call systematic agriculture.

The planting of grains and vegetables provided aregular supply of food. The domestication (adapta-tion for human use) of animals added a steady sourceof meat, milk, and wool. Animals could also be usedto do work. The growing of crops and the taming offood-producing animals created what historians callan agricultural revolution. Some believe this revolu-tion was the single most important development inhuman history.

Change is revolutionary when it is dramatic andrequires great effort. The Neolithic Revolutionmarked a revolutionary change. The ability toacquire food on a regular basis gave humans greatercontrol over their environment. It also meant theycould give up their nomadic ways of life and begin tolive in settled communities.

The Growing of Crops Between 8000 and 5000 B.C.,systematic agriculture developed in different areas ofthe world. People in Southwest Asia had begungrowing wheat and barley and domesticating pigs,cows, goats, and sheep by 8000 B.C. From Southwest

Asia, farming spread into southeastern Europe. By4000 B.C., farming was well established in centralEurope and the coastal regions of the Mediterra-nean Sea.

The cultivation of wheat and barley had spreadfrom southwestern Asia into the Nile Valley of Egyptby 6000 B.C. These crops soon spread up the Nile toother areas of Africa, especially the Sudan andEthiopia. In the woodlands and tropical forests ofcentral Africa, a separate farming system emergedwith the growing of tubers (root crops), such asyams, and tree crops, such as bananas. The farmingof wheat and barley also moved eastward into thehighlands of northwestern and central India between7000 and 5000 B.C.

By 5000 B.C., rice was being grown in SoutheastAsia. From there, it spread into southern China. Innorthern China, the farming of millet and the domes-ticating of pigs and dogs seem to have been well

Agriculture developed independently in different regions of the world.

1. Interpreting Maps Between what latitudes did the earliest farming develop?

2. Applying Geography Skills What geologic, geo-graphic, and climatic factors influenced the developmentof farming?

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Consequences of the Neolithic Revolution TheNeolithic agricultural revolution had far-reachingconsequences. The dramatic changes that took placeduring this period led to further changes, affectingthe way that people would live for thousands ofyears. For example, once people began settling in vil-lages or towns, they saw the need to build houses forprotection and other structures for the storage ofgoods. The organized communities stored food andother material goods, which encouraged the devel-opment of trade. The trading of goods caused peopleto begin specializing in certain crafts, and a divisionof labor developed. Stone tools became more refinedas flint blades were used to make sickles and hoes foruse in the fields. Eventually, many of the food plantsstill in use today began to be cultivated. In addition,fibers from such plants as flax and cotton were usedto spin yarn that was woven into cloth.

The change to systematic agriculture in theNeolithic Age also had consequences for the relation-ship between men and women. Men became moreactive in farming and herding animals, jobs that tookthem away from the home settlement. Womenremained behind, caring for children and takingresponsibility for weaving cloth, turning milk intocheese, and performing other tasks that requiredmuch labor in one place. As men took on more andmore of the responsibility for obtaining food and pro-tecting the settlement, they came to play a more dom-inant role, a basic pattern that would remain untilour own times.

29

Ruins of the Great Bath, Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan

established by 6000 B.C. In the Western Hemisphere,Mesoamericans (inhabitants of present-day Mexicoand Central America) grew beans, squash, and maize(corn) between 7000 and 5000 B.C. They also domesti-cated dogs and fowl during this period.

Neolithic Farming Villages The growing of cropson a regular basis gave rise to more permanentsettlements. Historians refer to these settlements as Neolithic farming villages. Neolithic villagesappeared in Europe, India, Egypt, China, and Meso-america. The oldest and biggest ones, however, werelocated in Southwest Asia. For example, Jericho, inPalestine near the Dead Sea, was in existence by 8000 B.C.

Çatal Hüyük (CHAH•tuhl hoo•YOOK), located inmodern-day Turkey, was an even larger community.Its walls enclosed 32acres, and its popula-tion probably reachedsix thousand inhab-itants during its highpoint from 6700 to5700 B.C. People inÇatal Hüyük lived insimple mud brick houses built so close to one anotherthat there were few streets. To get to their homes, peo-ple had to walk along the rooftops and then enterthrough holes in the roofs.

Archaeologists have found 12 products that weregrown in this community, including fruits, nuts, andthree kinds of wheat. People grew their own foodand kept it in storerooms within their homes. Domes-ticated animals, especially cattle, yielded meat, milk,and hides. Hunting scenes on the walls of the ruins ofÇatal Hüyük indicate that the people also hunted.

As a result of this food production, people oftenhad more food than they needed right away. In turn,food surpluses made it possible for people to dothings other than farming. Some people becameartisans. These skilled workers made products suchas weapons and jewelry that were traded with neigh-boring peoples. Trade exposed the people of ÇatalHüyük to the wider world around them.

Special buildings in Çatal Hüyük were shrinescontaining figures of gods and goddesses. Femalestatues have also been found there, often of womengiving birth or nursing a child. These “earth moth-ers” may well have been connected with goddessfigures. Both the shrines and the statues point to thegrowing role of religion in the lives of Neolithicpeoples.

T U R K E Y

Mediterranean Sea

Çatal Hüyük

Black Sea

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The End of the Neolithic Age Between 4000 and3000 B.C., new developments began to affect Neo-lithic towns in some areas. The use of metals markeda new level of control over the environment.

Even before 4000 B.C., craftspeople had discoveredthat by heating metal-bearing rocks, they could turnthe metal to liquid. The liquid metal could then becast in molds to make tools and weapons.

Copper was the first metal to be used in makingtools. After 4000 B.C., craftspeople in western Asia dis-covered that a combination of copper and tin createdbronze, a metal far harder and more durable thancopper. Even after the introduction of bronze, peoplecontinued to use stone tools and weapons. Neverthe-less, the widespread use of bronze has led historiansto speak of a Bronze Age from around 3000 to 1200B.C. Historians sometimes refer to the period afterroughly 1000 B.C. as the Iron Age since the use of irontools and weapons became widespread.

The Neolithic Age set the stage for major changesto come. As the villagers mastered the art of farming,they gradually began to develop more complex andwealthier societies. These societies began to buildarmies and walled cities. By the beginning of theBronze Age, large numbers of people were concen-trated in the river valleys of Mesopotamia, Egypt,India, and China. This would lead to a whole newpattern for human life.

Identifying What changes resultedfrom the development of systematic agriculture?

Reading Check


The Emergence of CivilizationIn general terms, the culture of a people is the

way of life that they follow. As we have seen, earlyhuman beings formed small groups that developeda simple culture that enabled them to survive. Ashuman societies grew and became more complex, anew form of human existence—called civilization—came into being.

A civilization is a complex culture in which largenumbers of human beings share a number of commonelements. Historians have identified the basic charac-teristics of civilizations. Six of the most importantcharacteristics are cities, government, religion, socialstructure, writing, and art.

The Rise of Cities Cities are one of the chief fea-tures of civilizations. The first civilizations developedin river valleys, where people could carry on thelarge-scale farming that was needed to feed largepopulations. Although farming practices varied fromcivilization to civilization, in each civilization a sig-nificant part of the population lived in cities. Newpatterns of living soon emerged.

The Growth of Governments Growing numbersof people, the need to maintain the food supply, andthe need to build walls for defense soon led to thegrowth of governments. Governments organize andregulate human activity. They also provide forsmooth interaction between individuals andgroups. In the first civilizations, governments wereled by rulers—usually monarchs (kings or queenswho rule a kingdom)—who organized armies toprotect their populations and made laws to regulatetheir subjects’ lives.

The Role of Religion Important religious develop-ments also characterized the new urban civilizations.All of them developed religions to explain the work-ings of the forces of nature and the fact of their own existence. Gods andgoddesses were oftenbelieved to be crucial to acommunity’s success. Towin their favor, priestssupervised rituals aimedat pleasing them. Thisgave the priests specialpower and made themvery important people.Rulers also claimed thattheir power was based on

HISTORY

Web Activity Visitthe Glencoe WorldHistory Web site atwh.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 1–Student Web Activity to learn more aboutearly peoples.

The walled city of Skara Brae in Scotland was built about 5,000 years ago. Why didpeople start putting walls around their cities?

History

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divine approval, and some rulers claimed to bedivine.

A New Social Structure A new social structurebased on economic power also arose. Rulers and anupper class of priests, government officials, andwarriors dominated society. Below this upper classwas a large group of free people—farmers, artisans,and craftspeople. At the bottom was a slave class.

Abundant food supplies created new opportuni-ties, enabling some people to work in occupationsother than farming. The demand of the upper classfor luxury items encouraged artisans and craftspeo-ple to create new products. As urban populationsexported finished goods to neighboring populationsin exchange for raw materials, organized trade beganto grow. Because trade brought new civilizations intocontact with one another, it often led to the transfer ofnew technology from one region to another.

By and large, however, the early river valley civi-lizations developed independently. Each one wasbased on developments connected to the agriculturalrevolution of the Neolithic Age and the cities that thisrevolution helped to produce. Taken together, thecivilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, andChina constituted nothing less than a revolutionarystage in the growth of human society.

The Use of Writing Writing was an important fea-ture in the life of these new civilizations. Above all,rulers, priests, merchants, and artisans used writingto keep accurate records. Of course, not all civiliza-tions depended on writing to keep records. The Inca

in Peru (see Chapter 11), for example, relied on well-trained memory experts to keep track of their impor-tant matters. Eventually, all of the first civilizationsused writing as a means of creative expression aswell as for record keeping. This produced the world’sfirst works of literature.

Artistic Activity Significant artistic activity wasanother feature of the new civilizations. Temples andpyramids were built as places for worship or sacri-fice, or for the burial of kings and other importantpeople. Painting and sculpture were developed toportray gods and goddesses or natural forces.

Describing Describe the new socialstructure that arose in Neolithic cities.

Reading Check

31CHAPTER 1 The First Humans

The First RazorArchaeologists have unearthed evidence thatprehistoric men were shaving as early as18,000 B.C. Some cave paintings portraybeardless men, and early gravesites containsharpened shells that were the first razors.Later, people hammered razors out of bronzeand eventually out of iron.

Checking for Understanding1. Define Neolithic Revolution, systematic

agriculture, domestication, artisan,Bronze Age, culture, civilization,monarch.

2. Identify Mesoamerican, priest.

3. Locate Jericho, Çatal Hüyük.

4. Explain how some Neolithic peoplewere able to become artisans.

5. Compare the roles of men and womenin the Neolithic Age.

Critical Thinking6. Describe What was the relationship

among artistic activities, religion, and government during the rise of civilization?

7. Sequencing Information Create a diagram like the one below to showhow changes during the NeolithicRevolution led to the emergence ofcivilization.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photo of Skara Brae on

page 30. What does the village’s oceanlocation tell you about the way itsStone Age inhabitants lived?

civilization

FCAT LA.A.2.4.2

FCAT LA.E.2.2.1


9. Expository Writing Much disagree-ment exists about the interpretation of available data on the origins ofhumankind. Discuss and documentat least two different points of view besides the one presented in the text.

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32

Using Key Terms1. People who combined copper and tin to make tools are said

to have entered the .

2. The of animals provided humans with a steadysource of meat, milk, and wool.

3. The rise of cities, growth of governments, and developmentof religion are characteristics of .

4. The “modern” type of Homo sapiens is called .

5. focuses mainly on the study of human fossils.

6. The study of past societies by the analysis of the artifactsthey have left behind is called .

7. The period of time before writing was developed is called.

8. The appear to be the first early people to bury theirdead.

9. The designates the period when humans used sim-ple stone tools.

10. Humans and other creatures that walk upright are called.

11. Remains of human and animal bones preserved in theearth’s crust are .

12. Skilled workers and craftsmen who made jewelry andweapons were the first .

Chapter 1 emphasizes cultural change, movement, and technological innovations.

Early humans migrate to warmerclimates during the Ice Ages.

Early humans learn how tocontrol fire and make tools.

Caves are painted with religiousand decorative art.

Neanderthals inhabit Europeand Asia.

Neolithic peoples domesticateanimals.

Early agricultural villages evolveinto highly complex societies.

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

MovementCultural Change Technological InnovationEvent

Reviewing Key Facts13. Science and Technology Explain how radiocarbon dating

of fossils and artifacts differs from thermoluminescence dating.

14. History List the defining characteristics of the PaleolithicAge.

15. Culture What do the cave paintings found in both Lascaux,France, and Altamira, Spain, indicate about Paleolithichumans and their culture?

16. Society Give four outcomes, or results, of the settlement of humans in villages and towns.

17. History What is the Bronze Age and when did it occur?

18. Economics Discuss early trade among different groups of people.

19. Society Describe the types of shelter and housing that wereused by Paleolithic peoples.

20. History What is the most significant development of theNeolithic Age?

21. Science and Technology What factors would lead scientiststo choose DNA analysis, rather than carbon or thermolumi-nescence dating, to determine the age of fossils and otherarchaeological remains?

22. Culture What evidence has led historians to believe thatNeolithic peoples had religious beliefs?


FCAT SC.E.2.4.6, SC.G.1.4.2

FCAT SC.H.3.4.2

0016-0033 C01SE-860702 11/8/03 10:19 AM Page 32

Directions: Choose the best answer to thefollowing question.

The basic change that occurred with the Neolithic Revolution was

A an increase in human population.

B the cultivation of rice.

C the shift to raising animals as a regular source of food.

D an increase in the importance of hunting.

Test-Taking Tip: Always read the question and all theanswer choices. Do not simply choose the first answer thatseems to have something to do with the topic. In this ques-tion, you want the choice that comes closest to defining theNeolithic Revolution.


Self-Check QuizVisit the Glencoe World History Web site at

and click on Chapter 1–Self-CheckQuiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.wh.glencoe.com

HISTORY


4,000 miles0

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0°

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60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E

25,000years ago

40,000years ago

100,000years ago

50,000years ago

150,000–200,000years ago

EQUATOR

TROPIC OF

CANCER

TROPIC OF

CAPRICORN

Indian

Ocean

Pacific

Ocean

ASIA

EUROPE

AFRICA

AUSTRALIA

Movement of Homosapiens sapiens

StandardizedTest Practice

Critical Thinking23. Evaluating Explain the importance of cities, government,

and religion in the development of a civilization. How arethese three related?

24. Analyzing Analyze and explain why the development ofsystematic agriculture by Neolithic peoples deserves to becalled a revolution.

Writing About History25. Persuasive Writing Imagine that you are living in south-

eastern Europe at the beginning of the Neolithic Age.Pretend that you have just learned about the systematicagriculture people in Southwest Asia are practicing. Make an argument for or against the adoption of systematic agri-culture in your community.

Analyzing SourcesLouis B. Leakey reminded us years ago,

“Theories on prehistory and early man constantlychange as new evidence comes to light.”

26. How has history proven Leakey correct in his observation?

27. Why is it necessary for archaeologists and anthropologists tocontinually consider and assess new ideas, new approaches,and new findings?

Applying Technology Skills28. Using the Internet Use the Internet to explore the most

recent archaeological finds of prehistoric humans not men-tioned in the text. Present this information in a short essay.Be sure to use authoritative sources and be sure to cite yoursources in your bibliography.

Making Decisions29. Pretend you are a Çatal Hüyük trader who encounters

another group of people also interested in trade. Do youtrade with them? What steps would you take to reach thisdecision? Do not forget to take into consideration the possi-bility of both negative and positive outcomes from your con-tact with these new people.

Analyzing Maps and Charts30. Based on fossil evidence, did Homo sapiens sapiens migrate

first to Europe or Australia?

31. What factors would influence migration?

32. Approximately how many miles did Homo sapiens sapienstravel from the equator to Australia?

33. From where did Homo sapiens sapiens first migrate?

FCAT LA.B.1.4.2

FCAT SC.H.1.4.3

FCAT MA.B.1.4.3

0016-0033 C01SE-860702 11/18/03 10:04 PM Page 33


The First Civilizations and Empires

Documents

Transcript of The First Civilizations and Empires