Terminology Sheet #1: Persuasion & Argumentatio n.
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Transcript of Terminology Sheet #1: Persuasion & Argumentatio n.
![Page 1: Terminology Sheet #1: Persuasion & Argumentatio n.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022081515/56649ef25503460f94c040c3/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Terminology Sheet #1:
Persuasion
& Argumentation
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Persuasion:
Presentation of ideas or information in order to compel action (emotional)
ie. mayoral candidate urging voters to vote for an initiative
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Argumentation:
Presentation of ideas or information in order to present a common understanding (rational)
ie. columnist who defends a presidential foreign policy
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Purposes of Persuasion/Argumentation:
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Audience Types:
*** Types of support used often depends on the target audience
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Audience Types:
1. Those who have formed opinions, and hold them tightly (Atticus to the jury, Michael Moore, Ann Coulter)
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Audience Types:
2. Those who have formed opinions, but recognize another reasonable view (Reagan Democrats, independent voters)
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Audience Types:
3. Those who have not formed opinions, and are interested in the issue (undecided voters in the 2012 Presidential election)
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Audience Types:
4. Those who have not formed opinions, and are uninterested in the issue (non-registered citizens)
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I. Elements of Classical Argumentation
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Claim/Assertion/Proposition/Position/Thesis:
That which the writer wants the reader to accept as reasonable or true
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Sub-claims:
That which the writer wants the reader to consider a reasonable point that helps prove the claim
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Support/Evidence:
Material used to prove a claim/sub-claim
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Concession:
Acknowledging reasonable opposing arguments
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Refutation:
Proving those opposing arguments wrong
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II. Types of Support/Evidence:
***Material used to prove or explain a claim/opinion
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Fact:
Information that can be proven objectively to be true
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Statistic:
Information that is an interpretation of numerical data
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Interview/Survey/Questionnaire:
Information gathered first hand from people; a primary source
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Experience/Example/Anecdote:
Information from personal experience supposedly representative of a general pattern
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Opinion:
Information based on personal interpretation of facts
Ideally, a position reached after being knowledgeable about all arguments & weighing factors from both sidesPrejudice: position reached after
gathering limited information or ignoring one side of an issue
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Analogy:
Information comparing easily accepted examples with unfamiliar subjects
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Authority:
Information from a person whom the writer attributes expertise on a given subject
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Shared Beliefs/Values:
Information readers share and accept as true (allusions to history, Bible)
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Causal Relationship:
Writer asserts one thing results from another event or action
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Primary Source:
Materials on which other research is based
Created by one with direct personal knowledge of the events being described
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Secondary Source:
A work created from primary sources
Performs the function of generalization, analysis, or synthesis of events
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III. Argumentative Appeals
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Pathos (emotional):
Appeal to audience’s emotions --- (connotative language, manipulation of tone, and figurative language are the best tools)
Weakest form of proof, but often necessary for the audience
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Logos (logical):
Appeal to reader’s reason/logic/intelligence --- (statistics, authorities, facts)
Strongest form of proof, but often not very interesting or compelling
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Ethos (ethical/credible):
Appeal based on credibility of author ---(image, integrity, expertise, honesty, knowledge, character)
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VI. Argumentative Organization/Arrangement
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Inductive Reasoning:
Begins with empirical evidence, then works to a claim
Is not proof, but leads to a testable hypothesis
Specific to general; evidence to conclusion; instance to theory; particular to universal (Netflix recommendations)
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Inductive Reasoning:
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Examples of Inductive Reasoning:
RED SHIFT: I have noticed that every star I observe is moving away from the earth. Therefore, the universe must be expanding.
Every time I ask to borrow the car a day in advance, my parents let me. Therefore, I should ask today if I need to use the car tomorrow.
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Deductive Reasoning:
The process of concluding that something must be true because it is an instance of a general principle that is known to be true
Begins with a claim, then works toward evidence, going from general to specific; from conclusion to evidence; theory to instance (Declaration of Independence; prejudice; rational market [invisible hand])
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Deductive Reasoning:
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Why are these important?
Many arguments in the social sciences are deductive, but the main premise was not created through induction. In deductive arguments, we should always check the validity of the main premise.Challenges to The Declaration – all men
are created equal(?).
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Inductive or Deductive?
A red-eyed fruit fly has RNA.A white-eyed fruit fly has RNA.A Hawaiian fruit fly has RNA.Therefore, all fruit flies have RNA.
All organisms have RNA.This fruit fly is an organism.Therefore, this fruit fly has RNA.
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V. Forms of Logic
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Syllogism:
A form of deductive reasoning consisting of: a major premise (a general
statement of fact),
a minor premise (a particular instance of the major premise),
and a conclusion
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Syllogism Example:
All humans are mortal, the major premise;
I am a human, the minor premise;
Therefore, I am mortal, the conclusion.
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Enthymeme:A syllogism with one premise (usually the
major premise) left unstatede.g., Ms. Haxton didn’t eat her hash
browns; she must hate potatoes.
Major: ???Minor: Ms. Haxton was absent today.Conclusion: Ms. Haxton must be sick.
Major:???Minor: The Sumerians invented written
language.Conclusion: The Sumerians created the
modern world.
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Here’s one way to turn an enthymeme into a syllogism:Create a “because” statement
Because Ms. Haxton didn’t eat her hash browns (minor premise), Ms. Haxton doesn’t like potatoes (conclusion).
Because the Sumerians invented written language, they created the modern world
Change the noun to an indefinite pronounAnyone who doesn’t eat hash browns must not
like potatoes (major premise).Whoever invented written language invented
the modern world (major premise).
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Now you try!
Mr. Woodard heard this the other day - turn it into a syllogism.50% of all schools in Detroit are
still heated with coal. No wonder they have had such an exodus from their public schools.