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Improving traditionaltechniques: India3

GENERAL INFORMATION

❖ Implementing institution:

Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI)

❖ Head:Dr. Pratap Narain (director)

❖ Details of institution:

Address: Central Arid Zone Research Institute,

Jodhpur-342003, Rajasthan, India

Tel.: (+91) 291 2740584

Fax: (+91) 291 2740706

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Web site: cazri.raj.nic.in

❖ Implementation period: 1988-2003.

❖ Costs:

Research and development costs amount to some

1.6 million Indian rupees (US$35,000). Financial andadministrative support was provided by the Rajiv Gandhi

National Drinking Water Mission, Government of India.

37

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38 V O L U M E 11 : S A F E D R I N K I N G WA T E R

S U M M A R Y

The Thar or Indian Desert is centred in

the northwest Indian state of Rajasthan,which borders Pakistan. The region is

characterized by a hot climate with low

and erratic rainfall and recurring

droughts. Not surprisingly, more than 60

per cent of Rajasthan is classed as arid

and access to safe drinking water is a

prime concern.

Available groundwater often containshigh concentrations of such salts as sodium

chloride (common salt), fluorides and

nitrates, rendering it unsafe for drinking.

The indigenous people, therefore, depend

largely on unreliable rains to supply their

drinking water requirements. Over the

years, traditional systems such as bawari,

jhalra, khadin, nadi and tanka have been devel-oped to collect, store and use rainwater for

the benefit of people,

animals and crops. Surveys carried out in

Rajasthan reveal that 43 per cent of the

rural drinking water supply is sourced from

nadi, 35 per cent from tanka, 15 per cent

from wells and tube wells and 8 per cent

from other sources. Scientists from the

Central Arid Zone Research Institute

(CAZRl), Jodhpur, have taken some of

these traditional structures, improved their

design and disseminated the new designs to

village communities throughout the region.

In other areas, depleted freshwater

aquifers have led to an acute shortage of

drinking water. Artificial recharge struc-

tures composed of ponds linked to infil-

tration wells (where the rocks are hard),

percolation tanks (in alluvial formations)

and sub-surface barriers across ephemeral

streams (in sandy beds) have been

designed and constructed in six villages.

Following the construction of these

aquifer-recharging structures, the avail-

ability of safe drinking water in these vil-

lages improved dramatically. One imme-

diate impact is that the requirement to

fetch drinking water from sources far

from the village, often under the scorch-

ing sun and over difficult sandy terrain (a

job usually carried out by women), has

been removed, resulting in perceptible

health improvements.

B A C K R O U N D A N D

J U S T I F A C T I O N

Rainfall is the main source of potable

water on Earth. In a country the size ofIndia, however, the amount of rain that

falls varies widely. Cherrapunji in

Meghalaya, northeast India, for example,

receives 10,000 millimetres of rain a year

compared to just 100 millimetres for

Jaisalmer in Rajasthan.

Safe drinking water has always been a

major concern in the arid zones of India,

which cover some 12 per cent of the

country. The 75,000-square kilometre

Thar Desert, which covers 62 per cent of

the State of Rajasthan, is characterized by

low, erratic rainfall, varying from more

than 400 millimetres a year in the east to

less than 100 millimetres in the extreme

west of the region. In addition, the errat-ic distribution of rainfall between seasons

often leads to protracted droughts.

Recently, for example, western Rajasthan

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Improving traditional techniques: India 39

experienced two periods of drought, each

lasting four years (1984-1987 and 1999-

2002), while droughts lasting two years

are a frequent phenomenon in the region.Highly permeable soils and warm

temperatures, linked to the fact that large

parts of the area also lack a drainage

network that could supply surface water,

add to the area’s water shortage prob-

lems. The region’s drinking water situa-

tion is further complicated by the

groundwater, which is often deep-lyingand typically of poor quality. An increas-

ing reliance on groundwater for irrigation

and other uses, however, means that the

resource is being over-exploited. Against

a net annual availability of 3,400 million

cubic metres of water, the amount

extracted is more than 4,200 million

cubic metres, a negative balance of more

than 750 million cubic metres a year.

The actual rate of exploitation ranges

from 59 to 195 per cent, depending on

the area. The marginal quality of ground-

water is also causing the degradation of

agricultural land and affecting the health

of both humans and animals in someareas. In addition, scant rainfall and

recurring droughts mean that aquifers are

not being recharged, making groundwa-

ter resources temporally and spatially

highly vulnerable.

Despite these problems, the demand

for water in the region is increasing steadi-

ly and is projected to continue rising ashuman and livestock populations expand

and new industries are created (table 1).

Given such conditions, local people

depend largely on rainwater to supply

their drinking water requirements and,

over the centuries, have developed several

indigenous techniques for harvesting, con-

serving and protecting this “free” resourcefrom contamination. Even so, these sys-

tems have their limitations or have fallen

out of use. There is a need, therefore, to

Table 1. Estimated water demand for the arid areas of Rajasthan(values given in millions of cubic metres).

DEMAND YEAR

1981 1991 2001 2011

Human consumption 197 236 289 359

(at 40 LPD1)

Livestock consumption 249 290 332 415

(at 30 LPD)

Irrigation 5,178 5,696 6,265 6,892

(at 30 cm ha-1)

Industry 16 17 18 22

1 LPD = litres per capita per day.

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develop new technologies, using the exist-

ing traditions of rainwater management as

a starting point but adding innovative and

appropriate improvements.

To this end, in 1987, the Government

of India launched its Technology Mission

on Drinking Water, which has since been

renamed the Rajiv Gandhi National

Drinking Water Mission. It was recog-

nized that the dunes and shifting sands of

the Thar Desert made it unfeasible to

develop an organized water infrastructurethat would meet the demands of the

area’s scattered settlements. Under the

Mission, therefore, the Central Arid

Zone Research Institute (CAZRI),

Jodhpur, was given the responsibility for

identifying, improving and popularizing

rainwater harvesting systems for the sup-

ply of safe drinking water in rural areas on

a sustainable basis. Based on scientific

research, CAZRI has perfected the

structural design of several rainwater

harvesting systems. Modern methods of

rainwater harvesting and groundwater

recharge such as the use of percolation

tanks, sub-surface barriers and ponds

with infiltration wells have also been

developed to aid the rejuvenation ofdepleted freshwater aquifers.

D E S C R I P T I O N

Recently, in an age of high technology

and a preference for large engineering

projects, traditional water harvestingpractices have often been overlooked

by the planning authorities. However,

historical evidence testifies to their

ability to support thriving societies in

many situations where there was no per-

manent source of water such as streams or

springs. For centuries, rainwater has been

collected and stored in ponds, cisterns,

sub-surface tanks and in soil to support

human settlements in Africa, Asia and

Europe. Today, however, in the wake of

increasing demands for safe drinking

water, the art and science of rainwater

harvesting are gaining in momentum in

both developed and developing nations.

In western Rajasthan, several kinds of

rainwater harvesting systems have been in

use for many centuries, including bawari and

jhalara (step wells), khadin (the use of run-off

water to recharge groundwater aquifers),

kund (small underground tanks), nadi

(ponds), talab (medium-sized reservoirs),

tanka (underground cisterns) and roof water

harvesting. Of these traditional systems,

bawari and jhalara depend on groundwater

aquifers, while khadin, kund, nadi, talab and

tanka rely on collecting surface run-off.

Data on drinking water sources col-

lected from sample villages in western

Rajasthan revealed that 42 per cent of the

people depend on nadi, 35 per cent on

tanka, 15 per cent on open wells and tube

wells, and 8 per cent on other sources

(fig. 1). It was also observed that during

the monsoon period (July to September),

people generally use nadi water, reserving

other sources of water for later use. In

May and June, when the stored water in

nadi and tanka is often exhausted, the local

people depend heavily on sources of

water such as open wells and tube wells.

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B AWA R I A N D J H A L A R A

Bawari and jhalara are local names given

to step wells constructed mainly in urban

and semi-urban areas for the community

water supply. In the bawari system, steps

leading down to the water level are pro-

vided on one side only, whereas a jhalara

is made with steps on all four sides. This

reflects the fact that the jhalara is given

much more importance with reference to

religion, art, culture and economics. As

well as the financial investment required

to make the extra steps, the stones of

a jhalara are often delicately carved, giving

the well the look of a temple. Historically,many of these step wells are also named

after important people or holy sites.

Typically, the groundwater aquifers

that feed bawari and jhalara contain potable

water and tend not to be saline. The selec-

tion of additional sites for these systems

must therefore be based on the sound sci-

entific exploration of potable groundwater

with a regular and large recharge source,

thus allowing the needs of the local com-

munity to be met on a sustainable basis.

N A D I

A nadi, or dug-out village pond, is con-

structed for storing water that falls on

adjoining natural catchment areas during

the rainy season. In arid Rajasthan, the

nadi system of water harvesting is one of

the oldest practices and still provides the

most common source of drinking water

in rural areas. Across Rajasthan, most

nadis have a capacity of between 1,200

cubic metres and 15,000 cubic metres.

Nadis also help to recharge ground-

water aquifers although their effect varies

depending on the underlying soils androcks. Where the substrate is rocky, it is

estimated that they contribute a depth of

0.06 metres of water a year compared to

1.58 metres in sandy plains. A study of a

2.25-hectare nadi with a storage capacity

of 15,000 cubic metres in the north

Gujarat alluvial area calculated that the

pond contributed as much as 10,000

cubic metres of water to the groundwater

aquifer in one rainy season.

However, most nadis constructed in

Other sources

7.83%

Tanka

34.66%

Nadi

42.45%

Waxxxxbewell

15.04%

Figure 1. Pie chart showing the

relative dependency of the people

of western Rajasthan on different

sources of water.

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the traditional manner are poorly main-

tained and suffer from high water loss

through evaporation and seepage, result-

ing in rapid siltation. Interference from

animals also pollutes the water and can

cause health hazards. Water-borne dis-

eases and parasites such as the guinea

worm are more commonly associated

with villages that use polluted water from

nadis for domestic consumption.

To overcome these problems, CAZRI

has prepared a design package of nadis indifferent capacity ranges that permits the

better storage and more judicious use of

drinking water under different condi-

tions. The improved nadis are lined with

low-density polyethylene (LDPE) sheets

to prevent seepage and have an opti-

mized surface area-to-volume ratio of

0.25:0.28 that helps to minimize water

loss through evaporation. In addition, a

silt trap at the inlet reduces the likelihood

of silt entering the pond with run-off

water and fencing prevents animals from

accessing the area bordering the nadi. A

hand pump is also provided, which

improves the efficiency of water with-

drawal from the pond. In addition, plant-

ing suitable tree species around the nadicreates an oasis in the desert and

improves the local environment. An

improved nadi constructed in Barmer dis-

trict was sufficient to serve the water

needs of 500 people throughout the year.

Improved nadi designs are widely accepted

and have been replicated at different

locations in the region. Today, some 30 nadis are benefiting more than 24,000 peo-

ple in the region on a year-round basis.

TA N K A

The tanka, or underground cistern con-

structed with lime mortar or cement plas-

ter, is another major source of drinkingwater in Rajasthan. Tankas are constructed

in circular or rectangular shapes,

normally on fallow ground where surface

run-off can be diverted into the tank by

creating a clean catchment area.

Traditional tankas, constructed with

lime plaster, typically have a life span of

three to four years. They suffer fromseepage and evaporation losses (they are

usually covered only with branches cut

from a local thorny tree) and, in the

absence of proper silt traps and pollutant-

free inlets, the quality of the conserved

water deteriorates over time, making it

unsafe for drinking. Also, in many situa-

tions, degradation of the catchment areameans that it does not yield the quantity

of water required to continuously replen-

ish the structure.

To overcome the problems encoun-

tered with the traditional tanka, CAZRI

has designed tankas with capacities of

10,000 to 600,000 litres. The re-designed

tankas include suitably sized silt traps atthe inlets that prevent pollutants from

entering the cistern and ensure that the

harvested water is free of contaminating

soil particles. The improved designs have

a lifespan of more than 20 years.

The successful installation of a tanka

depends on the characteristics of the

selected site, particularly the size, shape,topography, soil type and vegetation

cover of the catchment area. The criteria

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for calculating the storage capacity

required for the tanka are governed by the

actual water demand of the family or

community to be served, the local rainfall

pattern and the catchment characteris-

tics. As with nadis, the planting of suitable

tree species around the periphery of the

catchment area of a tanka has helped to

improve the local environment.

R O O F T O P R A I N W AT E R

H A R V E S T I N G

Rooftop rainwater harvesting (fig. 2) is a

traditional practice for collecting safedrinking water in many parts of the

world. For centuries, houses in western

Rajasthan constructed with stone and

lime were designed to include a self-con-

tained rooftop rainwater harvesting

system with an underground cistern.

However, in the last few decades, cities,

towns and villages have expanded rapid-

ly and rooftop rainwater harvesting prac-

tices have largely been neglected. If

precious rainwater is collected and stored

in a cistern or used to replenish under-

ground aquifers by adopting rooftop

rainwater harvesting techniques, prob-

lems relating to the scarcity of safe drink-

ing water can be minimized.

Studies on the run-off efficiency ofdifferent catchment surfaces revealed

that uncovered areas generated a run-off

of 18 to 37 per cent, depending on the

slope. Among covered catchments, the

highest run-off efficiency of 94 per cent

was achieved from surfaces covered with

plastic sheeting. Roofs made of, corrugat-

ed galvanized iron sheet were next (85

per cent), followed by stone slab roofs

(81 per cent), paved surfaces (68 per

cent), clay tile roofs (56 per cent), met-

alled roads (52 per cent) and thatched

straw roofs (39 per cent).

Using these and other data, CAZRI has

now initiated work on the revival and mod-

ernization of rooftop rainwater harvestingtechniques in both cities and villages, sig-

nificantly improving the availability of safe

drinking water in the region.

Figure 2. A typical rooftop

rainwater harvesting system.

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K H A D I N

Khadin, a run-off farming and groundwater

recharge system, is popular in the hyper-

arid parts of Rajasthan. In this system, run-off from upland and rocky surfaces is col-

lected in the adjoining valley by enclosing

a section of the valley with an earthen

bund. A weir constructed from masonry

waste allows surplus water to flow on

down the valley (fig. 3). The ratio of the

catchment area to the storage area for a

khadin depends on both the catchmentcharacteristics and the rainfall pattern. It

has been found to range between 8:1 and

15:1 for hills with slopes of more than 30

per cent to hills with slopes of 5 per cent,

and up to 1:20 for the gently sloping land

typically found at the bottom of valleys.

Collecting water in a khadin aids the

continuous recharge of groundwateraquifers. Studies of groundwater recharge

through khadins in different morphologi-

cal settings suggest that 11 to 48 per cent

of the stored water contributed to

groundwater in a single season. This

replenishment of aquifers means that sub-

surface water can be extracted through

bore wells dug downstream from the

khadin. The average water-level rise in

wells bored into sandstone and deep allu-

vium was 0.8 metres and 2.2 metres,

respectively. In recent years, 550 khadin

farms have been developed in watersheds

throughout the region and have benefit-

ed the large rural population, proving

their worth for recharging local wells and

aiding crop production during drought

years. Thus, a khadin not only contributes

to safe drinking water but it also helps to

ensure the availability of food, fodder and

fuel on a sustainable basis.

WAT E R H A RV E S T I N G D A M S

In ravines or heavily gullied lands, small

earthen dams are often constructed.

These create areas that store a small

amount of water that, nevertheless, helps

to increase groundwater recharge, pro-

motes better plant growth and provides

water for irrigation during the monsoon

and winter seasons. The optimum size of

these small dams with regard to their

catchment areas and potential submerged

areas varies greatly depending on the

characteristics of the individual site. Water

harvesting dams across ephemeral streams

have been constructed at several locations

in western Rajasthan. These dams enable

Figure 3. A khadin system of water harvesting. (1. catchment

area; 2. khadin bed; 3. earthen bund;

4. spillway; 5. pipe sluice).

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local people to retain some 40,000 to

800,000 cubic metres of flash flow water to

use as drinking water or for agriculture.

A N I C U T

Similar in concept to khadins and small

earthen dams is the anicut, composed of

an earth-filled section constructed across

a stream with a spillway that allows

excess water to flow downstream. Anicuts

are designed to hold sufficient water to

submerge a substantial upstream area dur-ing the rainy season. The retained water

sinks into the soil profile and then seeps

down to recharge groundwater that can

be extracted from wells and used to sup-

ply safe drinking water in nearby villages.

A study conducted by CAZRI in the

Ujalian watershed area of Rajasthan

showed an increase in water level of 1.8 to2.2 metres in wells located close to anicuts

compared to 0.5 metres in wells located

away from the zone of influence. A similar

study in the Pali district showed that anicuts

helped to recharge aquifer levels up to 68.5

per cent compared to other areas.

P E R C O L A T I O N T A N K

Technological developments in pumping

methods and well construction and high

water demands for domestic and crop hus-

bandry uses have resulted in the large-scale

exploitation of groundwater. In arid and

semi-arid regions, where rainfall is scanty,

the rate of replenishment of groundwater is

frequently not in proportion to its utiliza-tion. In such situations, artificial groundwa-

ter recharge through percolation tanks is a

highly useful strategy to sustain the supply

of safe drinking water on a long-term basis.

Percolation tanks are recharge structures

constructed on small streams or rivulets

with adequate catchment that are designed

to collect surface run-off. These tanks are

used solely for recharging groundwater

aquifers through percolation.

Compared to ponds, percolation

tanks conserve more water because filling

Table 2. Percolation and evaporation losses from percolation tanks.

LOCATION BASIN FORMATION TANK AVERAGE PERCENTAGE PERCENTAGE

OF TANK CAPACITY PERCOLATION PERCOLATION EVAPORATION

(M3) RATE (MM PER DAY)

Sablipura Guriya Hard rock 35,400 18 77 23

Dhaneri Lilri Hard rock 25,700 14 65 35

Sojat Sukri Alluvium 380,000 52 88 12

Sheopura Sukri Alluvium 64,300 38 83 17

Dhabar Phunphe-riya Alluvium 29,500 33 89 11

Mev Guhiya Hard rock 67,000 27 81 19

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and recharge occur mostly during the

monsoon period when the evaporation

rate is about half of the rate that it is in the

summer when ponds usually contain water.

Selection of a suitable site for the con-

struction of a percolation tank and its sub-

sequent maintenance are crucial for its

effective functioning. In addition, where

hydrogeological conditions are favourable,

percolation rates may be increased by con-

structing recharge or intake wells within

percolation tanks. Studies conducted onartificial recharge through percolation

tanks constructed in both hard rock and

alluvium formations revealed that the rate

of percolation ranged from 14 to 52 mil-

limetres per day (table 2), with percolation

accounting for 65 to 89 per cent of the

water loss from the tanks compared to 11

to 35 per cent attributable to evaporation.

The results also indicated that tanks built in

hard rock (at Dhaneri, Mev and Sablipura)

retained water for longer periods.

The rate of percolation from a newly

constructed percolation tank in a deep allu-

vium formation near the city of Sojat, Pali

district, was 77 millimetres per day in July

when the water in the tank was 5.4 metres

deep but fell to 4.8 millimetres per day in

December when the water column in the

tank contained just 0.27 metres of water.

Despite this slow rate at certain times of

the year, 88 per cent of the water stored in

a percolation tank built in an alluvial sub-

strate went to recharge the aquifer, where-

as evaporation losses accounted for only 12

per cent of the stored water (table 2).

WAT E R P O N D A G E

In the Thar Desert and other arid and semi-

arid regions, some 50 to 70 per cent of any

rainwater that falls rejoins the atmospherewithin a few days owing to evaporation.

Analyses show that if this water is saved by

recharging aquifers, water scarcity prob-

lems can be alleviated to a large extent.

Induced recharge through water pondage

improves both the quantity and drinking

quality of groundwater.

Data on the induced recharge throughponds built with four infiltration galleries

indicate that the rate of deep percolation

could be as high as 276 millimetres per

day during the first seasonal inflow of run-

off. However, this situation lasted only for

two or three days and thereafter there was

a decrease in percolation owing to the

deposition of fine silt. On average, the rateof deep percolation ranged from 38 to 76

millimetres per day depending on the type

of rock substrate.

S U B - S U R F A C E B A R R I E R S

In deserts, groundwater recharge is dis-

continuous, reflecting the variable nature

of the rainfall and run-off. However, therecharge achieved during run-off periods

is often insufficient to sustain wells

through long periods of water scarcity.

The yield of such wells could be improved

by abstracting the sub-surface flow of

streams with sandy beds by constructing

sub-surface barriers across the beds.

Sub-surface barriers are composed of a

30- to 60-centimetre-wide concrete or

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brick wall that extends down to the imper-

meable basement or compact foundation of

the stream bed. They may also be con-

structed using rock pieces without mortar

or concrete arranged to form a 1-metre-

thick wall, or with 250-micron-thick poly-

ethylene sheeting properly embedded in

the soil. Construction of sub-surface barri-

ers within 300 metres of the supply well will

store enough water for a village of 500 peo-

ple. As domestic wells are located in the vil-

lage, sub-surface barriers need only be con-

structed close to the village. One barrier

should be built upstream and a second

should be built downstream. During the

dry season, when the water level in the well

is low, the downstream barrier means that

the hydraulic gradient is reversed so that

water enters the well from downstream.

Sub-surface barriers are suitable struc-

tures in many areas where there is surface

water available for much of the year as

they are protected from flood damage

and do not need periodic de-silting. Any

silt that does collect at the upstream side

of the first barrier is flushed away during

flash floods. Also, as the water is stored

underground, evaporation losses are low.

PAT E N T I N G A N D

C O M M E R C I A L I Z A T I O N

Improved technologies developed by

CAZRI are innovations of traditional sys-

tems that are in the public domain. The dis-

semination and popularization of theseinnovations have been achieved through

the contributions of local farmers and com-

munities, mostly in the form of labour, while

the Government has provided the required

materials. The uptake of these innovations,

therefore, has been achieved mainly

through aid rather than commercialization.

PA R T N E R S H I P S

Safe drinking water is a major concern for

central and State governments, research

institutions, non-governmental organiza-

tions (NGOs), voluntary organizations, vil-

lage councils or panchayats and other

stakeholders. The technological innova-

tions in water sciences made and demon-

strated by CAZRI have been adopted

and replicated on a large scale by different

development agencies of the Government

of India as well as NGOs. The Institute hasalso developed links with several national

and international institutions and organiza-

tions to share knowledge and information

for the benefit of a large number of people.

R E P L I C A B I L I T Y

Water harvesting and safe drinking water

management technologies developed by

CAZRI have the potential to be widely

accepted and adopted in the arid regions

of south Asian countries, Africa,

Australia, Latin America and the Middle

East. Indeed, large numbers of experts

both from India and elsewhere are being

trained by CAZRI staff in the manage-

ment and utilization of water resources.

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P O L I C Y I M P L I C A T I O N S

Based on CAZRI recommendations, the

Government of Rajasthan has passed leg-islation requiring the inclusion of rooftop

rainwater harvesting systems in all new

buildings with a covered area of more

than 1,500 square metres. Even the offi-

cial residence of the President of India

has been provided with structures for

rooftop rainwater harvesting.

L E S S O N S L E A R N E D

During the initial stages of the project,

many people were skeptical about

adopting the improved technology

designed by CAZRI, owing to its higher

cost. However, with practical demon-

strations and through awareness pro-

grammes, people soon realized the merit

of using the improved technology and

saw its effectiveness in the long term.

Now, CAZRI technology is in great

demand by both development organiza-

tions and local people. Indeed, the con-

struction of improved rainwater harvest-

ing structures has been seen to give asense of community pride of ownership

to local people.

I M P A C T

The technologies developed by CAZRI

have improved the availability of safe drink-ing water in western Rajasthan. Improved

designs of tanka, nadi, khadin and other sys-

tems designed to harvest rainwater and

replenish aquifers have been constructed

throughout the region. For example, more

than 12,000 improved tankas with the com-

bined ability to store up to 475 million litres

of water a year have been constructed, suf-

ficient to meet the drinking and cooking

requirements of more than 130,000 people

throughout the year on a sustainable basis.

Also, compared to carrying water over

long distances, the tanka system of water

harvesting is highly economical. In gener-

al, villagers (usually women) spend a min-

imum of half a day collecting 20 litres ofwater from a source located several kilo-

metres from their settlement. In monetary

terms, a litre of water collected in this way

costs 75 paisa (about 1.5 US cents), which

is high compared to only 2 to 5 paisa per

litre of water extracted from a tanka locat-

ed near the settlement. In addition, carry-

ing water long distances over sandy ter-

rain, especially during hot summer days,

can cause severe health problems. The

construction of tankas on a large scale in

this region has not only saved labour,

which can then be put to productive use,

but has also provided direct employment

for the villagers, thus improving the eco-

nomic status of the local people.

Similar results have been obtained

with other improved rainwater harvesting

technologies.

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F U T U R E P L A N S

CAZRI will continue to focus on research

and development in the water sector.Collaboration with national and interna-

tional organizations and institutions will

be further strengthened in the near future

to increase the sharing of knowledge.

The Institute has also recently entered

into an agreement with the International

Water Management Institute, Colombo,

Sri Lanka, on the project, “Potential of

water conservation and water harvesting

against drought in Rajasthan”.

P U B L I C A T I O N S

CAZRI. (1990). Water: 2000. The Scenario

for Arid Rajasthan. Central Arid Zone

Research Institute, Jodhpur. 49 pp.Khan, M.A. (1989). Upgraded village

pond-nadi to ensure improved water

supplies in arid zone. Water and Irrigation Review, Israel, 19:20-23.

_____. (1995). Importance of water

resources management in arid Rajasthan.

Journal of Natural Heritage, United States,

pp. 53-59.

_____. (1995). Traditional water manage-

ment systems of western Rajasthan. In:

Proceedings of the 2nd Congress on TraditionalScience and Technology of India. Anna

University, Madras, India. 220 pp.

_____. (1996). Sustainable development

of water resources to augment rural water

supply and to improve biomass production

in arid ecosystem of Rajasthan. In: Proceedingsof the 3rd Water Congress, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India, 136 pp.

_____. (1996). Water harvesting for

sustainability. In: Water Harvestingin Desert (S.D. Singh, ed.), Manak

Publication, New Delhi, pp. 109-158.

_____. (1998). Rain water management.

In: Fifty Years of Arid Zone Research in India(A.S. Faroda and M. Singh, eds.). Central

Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur,

India, pp. 167-174.

_____. (2000). Hydrological characteristics

of arid zone drainage basin. Ph.D. Thesis,

J.N. Vyas University, Jodhpur, 390 pp.

Khan, M.A. and Narain, P. (2000).

Traditional water harvesting systems

and their relevance in the present

context. In: Proceedings of the NationalSeminar on Ground Water ManagementStrategies in Arid and Semi Arid Regions,Ground Water Department, Government

of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India, pp. 19-27.

Narain, P. and Khan, M.A. (2000).Water resources development and

utilization for drinking and plant

management in Indian arid regions.

In: Proceedings of Advances in Land Resources Management for 21st Century, InternationalConference on Land Resources Management for

Food, Employment and Environmental Security.Organized by Soil Conservation Society

of India, New Delhi, India, pp. 404-414.

_____. (2002). Water for food security in

arid zone of India. Indian Farming, 52:35-39.

Singh, R.P. and Khan, M.A. (1999).

Rainwater management: water harvesting

and its efficient utilization. In: Fifty Yearsof Dryland Research in India (H.P. Singh,

Y.S. Ramakrishna, K.L. Sharma and B.

Venkateshwarlu, eds.). Central ResearchInstitute for Dryland Agriculture,

Hyderabad, India, pp. 301-313.

7/23/2019 SIE.v11_CH3



Prepared by

Pratap Narain, director, and M.A. Khan,

principal scientist and head, Division

of Integrated Land Use Managementand Farming Systems.

Address: Central Arid Zone Research

Institute, Jodhpur-342003, Rajasthan, India

Tel.: +(91) 291 2740584

Fax: (+91) 291 2740706

E-mail: [email protected],

[email protected]

7/23/2019 SIE.v11_CH3


Rooftop rainharvesting: India4

GENERAL INFORMATION

❖ Implementing institution:Global Rain Water Harvesting Collective (GRWHC),

Barefoot College

❖ Head:Sanjit (Bunker) Roy (Director)

❖ Details of institution:Address: Barefoot College, Village Tilonia, via Madanganj,

Ajmer District, Rajasthan 305816, India

Tel.: (+91) 1463 288205

Fax: (+91) 1463 288206

E-mail: [email protected]

Web site: www.globalrainwaterharvesting.org,

www.barefootcollege.org

❖ Implementation period: The Barefoot College began its initiative of rooftop

rainwater harvesting in schools in 1986.

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