Principles of Interpretation

Discuss facts

Appeal to the imagination and reason

Give flesh and blood to cold facts

Make life stories of inanimate objects

Deal with principles rather than isolated information

Give biographies rather than classifications

Principles of Interpretation Appeal to the visitors first interestInformation is the raw material of interpretationThrough interpretation, understanding; through understanding, appreciation; through appreciation, protectionWisdom is not knowledge of many things, but the perception of the underlying unity of seemingly unrelated things.Children absorb facts and instances, not abstract processes

Principles of Interpretation

Interpretation sometimes uses “judicious silence”

In other words allow the beauty of the item to speak for itself

The process of interpretation

Communication:Unidirectional

• Usually one-way communication via stories, images, or ideas

• Common form of communication in interpretation

Multidirectional• High level of exchange among the participants

• They share their experiences, knowledge or discoveries.

• Usually less formally structured

Group structures

Didactic StructureInterpreter informs the listeners

• Speeches, film etc.

Interpreter

Visitor

Visitor

Visitor Visitor

Visitor

Group structures

Tutorial StructureLet me see how you are coming and help you over any barriers

Interpreter

Visitor

Visitor

Visitor

Interpreter

Task

Task

Task

Visitor

Visitor

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Individual Task Structure

Individual Task StructureInterpreter assigns tasks to individuals

Small Group task structure

Interpreter assigns tasks to groups check on progress

Compare when you are finished

InterpreterTask Task

Visitor

Visitor

Visitor

VisitorVisitor

Visitor

Visitor

Visitor

Small Group Task Structure

Conference Structure

Interpreter allows free discussion among visitors, then stays out of the way

Visitor

Visitor

Visitor Visitor

Visitor

Visitor

Visitor

Conference Structure

Group Meeting Structure

Interpreter enters as a member of the conference structure, raises problem, but remains nonjudgmental

The Problem

Visitor

Visitor

Visitor

Visitor

Visitor

Visitor

Interpreter

Group Meeting Structure

Socratic structure

Interpreter poses questions, promotes discussion/dialogue

http://www.nps.gov/search/query-meta?q=interpretation&v%3Aproject=NPS&as_sitesearch=

How do we learn?

Give a man a fish, you feed him for a day

Teach a man to fish, you feed him for a lifetime

But!!!!!

Teach a man to learn, he doesn’t have to eat fish all of the time.

How do we learn?

How do we absorb general information

5 sensesSight 75%

Hearing 13%

Touch 6%

Taste 3%

Smell 3%

How do we learn?

Modalities for learningVisual

Auditory

Kinesthetic

Symbolic/abstract

Learning Theories

Learning DomainsCognitive Domain

• Deals with rational mind and processing information

• Classifications, concepts etc

Affective Domain• Emotional/feelings

Learning Theories

Learning DomainsKinesthetic Domain

• Involves motor skills

Cognitive Development Theory

PiagetStage I Sensorimotor (0-2 years of age)

Develops organized patterns of behaviorUses sensory and motor activities as a primary means of learning

Stage II Preoperational (2-7 years of age)Masters symbols (words)Centers attention on one thing at a time

Cognitive Development Theory

Stage III Concrete Operations (7-11 years)Generalizes from concrete experiences

Unable to mentally manipulate conditions not yet experienced

Stage IV Formal Operations (>11 years)Able to form hypothesis

Deals with abstractions

Cognitive Development Theory

Finalistic or functionalWhat is the purpose of the plant

Causal or logical

Anthropomorphic

Purposive or utilitarian

Social Cognition Theory

Egocentric (3-6)

Subjective (5-9)Look at things from own perspective

Self-reflective (7-12)Can look at things from others perspectives

Mutual (10-15)Can look at things from a third person perspective

In-depth and societal

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom’s Taxonomy

KnowledgeFacts

ComprehensionUnderstands information and can translate it

ApplicationTakes information from several sources and relates them to new situations

Bloom’s Taxonomy

AnalysisBreaking down ideas into components

SynthesisCreating new ideas from old components

EvaluationAppraises or judges information

Moral Development TheoryPreconventional morality

Fear on punishmentMaximizing pleasure/minimizing pain

Conventional MoralityWhat significant others thinkWhat society thinks

Postconventional MoralityJustice and fairnessSelf-respect

Learning styles

Action oriented (Dionysian)Existential approach to lifeActual-spontaneousThey like to experience thingsLectures are boring

Epimethean temperament (Actual routine)Doesn't like to be rushedLikes lectures & traditional learning

Learning styles

Promethean temperament (conceptual-specific)

Enjoys thinking and learning

Like to collect, organize and classify

Research oriented

Can focus on a specific topic/point for long periods of time

Doesn’t like routine and structure

Learning styles

Appollonian temperament (conceptual-global)Seek significance of events and try to discover meanings and relationships

Breakdown (pg 138)Actual spontaneous (38%)

Actual routine (38%)

Conceptual-Specific Learners (12%)

Conceptual-Global Learners (12%)

Cognitive Map Theory

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Learning Theories

Constructivist How people make meanings

Everyone has a “construct” of information and attitudes that they bring to any learning process

“visitors make meaning in the museum; they learn by constructing their own understandings.”

Learning Theories

Stage Purpose Quality Benefits

1 Awaken Enthusiasm

Playfulness and alertness

Builds child’s love of play

Creates involvement

Provides direction and structure

2 Focus Attention

Receptivity Increases attention span

Calms the mind

Develops observation skills

3 Direct Experience

Absorption People learn best by personal discovery

Foster wonder, empathy, love

4 Share inspiration

Idealism Clarifies & strengthens personal experiences

Gives reinforcement

So what do we need to know about learning theories? Common sense reminders

1. Learning is an act of structuring and relating information and experiences

2. People process information differently, at different ages, and among different individuals and cultural groups

3. A sense of comfort and security affects a person’s readiness to learn

4. When people feel good about the person facilitating the learning experience, they care about and remember the information presented

So what do we need to know about learning theories?5. Most people learn more easily when they use many of

their senses6. Many people tend to remember most what they do, and

less of what they see or read, and least of what they hear.7. A variety of approaches to a subject enhances the learning

process by making it more interesting and by meeting then needs of the learners

8. Self-discovery is a powerful motivator9. An organized presentation of information and activities

helps many people learn10. Repetition can effectively facilitate learning.

Writing for Interpretation

Writing is the hardest work in the world not involving heavy lifting

Writing is an essential skill for interpreters It allows you to put into writing key elements It also allows you to get your point across

Writing for Interpretation

All writing is communication Creative writing is communication through revelation

--- it is the self escaping into the open

Keys to good writing (communication) Never put more than one idea in a sentence Use short words Use short sentences Use short paragraphs

Writing for Interpretation

Keys to good writing (communication) Write action verbs (avoid to be etc) Appeal to the five senses when appropriate Use accurate colorful words Think rhythmically when combining and

choosing words

Preparing to Write Know the purpose

What are your objectives? Define them before you start Avoid tangents

Know the audience Target the audience If you have children, write in a language they will understand If you have a learned group, write accordingly

Know the subject Do you homework Get beyond the basic facts Interpreter should be able to shape and mold the message (comes

with knowledge

Writing (Structure) Structure

Very important in writing since it directs the reader toward where the writer intends them to go

Lead Captures the readers attention, indicates the general

theme Transition

Tells the reader about the subject and its relevance Moves the reader smoothly from the lead into the body

Writing (Structure) Development

The body of the work Key points are addressed or discussed Chronological order is important if discussing

historical events Deductive order takers the reader from the familiar to

the unfamiliar Inductive order draws general conclusions from

specific facts Strong ending

Summarize the article in a thematic, colorful way.

Print Media Brochures, flyers, newsletters, signs, booklets Brochures

Most commonly used form of written interpretation Estimated that 4,000 brochures come from federal

agencies Advantages

Easy to distribute Low cost comparatively

Disadvantages Reading issues Cold, impersonal

Print Media

Here is a nice formula that I don’t expect you to remembger

Fraction of selection=

Expectation of reward/effort required

Print Media

Tips for brochures Title Color Layout Composition Margins Font

Print Media

Tips for Signs and Labels Contrast Lighting Lettering

Museums and Visitor Centers

American Association of Museums (1998) 7,700 museums in the united states

Visitor Center Visitor center, interpretive center, nature

center, trailside museum, history center

Museums and Visitor Centers

They are often used interchangeably Museums

Contains original objects, brought in for display in a convenient place

Visitor Centers also have original objects, but they come from

right outside the door. In other words, the visitor center is near the genus

loci

Museums and Visitor Centers

Both serve as orientation and education instructions to the greater world around them.

Their intention is to make the visitor more aware of the historic phenomenon, or items being presented

Historic building or site Often located right on site and serve as a visitor center

or museum of the site.

Museums & Visitor Centers

Chapter 10 Stuff

MuseumsAAM (American Association of Museums)- 7,700 museums in US in 1998AAM-15,800 members in 20012,300 museums in CanadaSeveral hundred in Mexico5,000 museums in Europe

2,000 in Britain

Africa has some of the oldest & newest museums.Many on Tourism

The former USSR and eastern Europe made museums out of churches & castles.

Visitor Centers

AAM lists only a few of the US interpretive centers.

These facilities occur throughout forests, parks, zoos, refuges, and communities.

Most feature interpretive programs & exhibits.

The names visitor center, interpretive center, trailside museum, history center, & orientation center are use interchangeable.

Visitor Centers

482 “Federal Visitor Centers” in the US in 2001.

Operated by BLM, NPS, Army Corps of Engineers, Fish & Wildlife Services, & Forest Service.

State agencies & Canada’s Provinces operate hundreds of centers within state/provincial historic sites, state parks, forest, & wildlife areas.

Private nonprofit, industrial, & other groups maintain interpretive centers at their facilities.

DifferencesMuseums

The approach toward the matterContain original objects, brought in for display & study in a convenient place.Displays the artifacts and messages indoorsServes as the destination for the visitor

Visitor Centers or interpretive center

Present original objects and concepts that come from just outside.Located at or near the resourcesServes as an orientation, an invitation to the living museum.At a natural or historical resource area serves to make the visit more meaningful.A center may keep collections

Museums or Visitor Centers?

Both can interpret

Both serve as orientation & educational institution

Another kind of interpretive structure, is the historical building or site.

Located wherever history put it, often accompanied by a separate visitor center or museum.

Battlefield or building itself serves as a form of museum.

Museums or Visitor Centers?

A related facility is the tourist information center.Often accommodations & attraction information, as well as orienting visitor to recreational & interpretive opportunities.

Location relates to travel patterns• At portals of a state or providence

• Major road junction of a local area

Use historical structure as their venues

Many contain interpretive exhibits & organized interpretive programs.

Types of Museums Simplest classification divided into 4 types-- art- historical- science- generalSome examples of museum types- zoos- art museums/ galleries- history museums- sports halls of fame- military museums- science & tech. museums

History of Museums

The word museum stems form a Greek word meaning temple of the Muses

To collect, conserve, & exhibit "things" seems to be human nature; Although modern museums may be somewhat new, the basic idea o exhibiting collections of things goes back to ancient times

History of Museums

European colonization of Africa produced numerous natural, mineral, &cultural specimens for the growing number of show places in Europe

History of Museums

Most early museums had little or no educational function.Modern museum and exhibit center traditions have mostly developed since the late 1700's & 1800's.Interpretive or educational museums in the US trace back to painter/collector/public educator Charles Wilson Peale in Philadelphia

History of Museums

The Wagner Free Institute of Science in Philadelphia pioneered as a strongly educational museum; William Wagner sponsored its construction

A list of early major museums is on page 183

History of Museums

Some nations have used museums as political & social tools

Today, most North American states, provinces, counties, & cities have 1 or more public museums to offer interpretation about the area

US Government Museum Development

Many early government interpretive museums & visitor centers started with private impetus & funding, often with individual benefactors, curators, or rangers taking the initiative.Congress acted slowly to fund the National Park Service's early efforts, although agency officials believed in the idea of park interpretive museums

US Government Museum Development

Among the notable early contributors, besides park rangers and superintendents, were the Yosemite Museum Association, the American Association of Museums, the Carnegie family, & the Rockefeller family

Table 10.2 on P.186 lists National Park Museum Starts and their funding sources

What A Museum DoesThe American Association of Museums defines interpretation as:

The activities through which a museum carries out its mission and educational role.

In 1895, George Brown Goode defines a museum as:An institution for the preservation of those objects which best illustrate the phenomena of nature and the works of man.

Museum staff try to make objects meaningful to people.A museum takes objects out of context and then tries to restore context to allow them to speak directly to visitors

The Nature of MuseumsMuseums function primarily as places for people, not just places for storing artifacts and collections

Functions and ObjectivesThe functions that characterize a museum, according to National Park Services Museum expert Ralph Lewis include:

Assembling and preserving objectsProviding opportunities for objects- centered research Interpreting through contact with the real things in it

Museums special roles include:To explainTo reflect what humans have and valueTo examine the ways people describe the universe, existence, and themselvesTo evaluate the consequences of choices past, current and future

Museum Facilities and ServicesServices and facilities offered by museums range widely:LibraryBookstore/Gift ShopBooks, brochures and research reports printed by the museumsMember reception rooms Restaurant and lunch roomsMobile exhibit vansGuided tours of museums and grounds Field excursions and travel club programs

Types of Museums

Historical Museums

Philosophy of Historical Museums: Preserving facts and giving perspective to memory.

Museums

Rural and Agricultural Museums

Skansen Folk Museum(1891): 1st open air museum exhibiting old structures, farm implements, and appropriately dressed people to tell the story of rural Swedish life styles.

Benefits

Benefits for the Visitor:

First hand experience with that specific time era

Gives a realistic sense of the farm life

Allows the visitor to be immersed physically and emotionally

Art Museums

“Art museums present all types of artistic accomplishments, from the great masters to the work of very young beginners.”

Philosophy of Art Museums: Allowing the art to interpret itself and allowing the individual to develop skills.

Art Museums Con’d

Benefits for the Visitor:

Allowing common experiences between the artist and the patron.

Allowing the patron to leave with a new perception and understanding of the exhibit.

Specialized Museums

Specialized museums focus on certain topicsThe history of an individual, group of people, business, or industry

• Tribal groups like the Malki Museum in California or the Mashantucket Pequot Museum and Research Center in Connecticut

The museums use films, videos, interactive programs, exhibits, archival material, and other interpretive methods.

Museums can be virtual, or online.

Museum Philosophy

There was once tension between curators and educators in museums, but that has mostly changed.

Museum responsibilities includeCollecting and preserving the past.

Recording and educating the present.

Providing perspective and inspiration for the future.

Museum Philosophy

Defining the ClienteleMost museums now allow the entire public to see and study the exhibits, rather than just the upper class.There should be a balance between adding knowledge (research) and extending knowledge (education and interpretation).There are various books about subjects like methods of outreach and different influences on programming.

Museum Programming

Depends on resources of managed areas, artifact dig sites, well persevered objects of a past culture within a museum that requires a visitor to be more involved .

These museums can provide smelling, touching, tasting, hearing, & seeing.

Museums/ Visitor Center Design

Look to serve the visitor by being accessible to all energy efficient constructed at all cost & having low physical & visual impact on the site.

The design helps to express the message of the museum.

Entry & Theme

Sense of place or genius should be the main focus of the museum's entrance.

The Wright Brother’s memorial near Kitty Hawk theme simply states, “Here man first flew”.

Character & Components

A developed center may include entry or gathering area, parking, information desk, ect.

Open centers that are exposed to the public all the time may present problems for an actual interpreter to function as normally as they would in a developed center on the site.

Projection

In a mulit-purpose room with a white wall give the most flexible and attractiveness.

Slideshows

Are cheep, flexible, & easily edited without high tech equipment.

Video Type Presentations

Video projection & production equipment makes a major contribution to museums orientation programs.

Video laser disks, PowerPoint & new devise are becoming a favorite in museums.

These devises offer great assistance for interpreters.

Administrators Face

Policy & Management decisions

Structure & development

Monetary support & problems

Membership

Space & housing

Security of collections & exhibits

Marketing & Developing

Publicity for programs

Development of funding resources

Who Owns & Influences Museums & Centers

Private Donors

Public Agencies

Visitor Centers in Public Agencies

They look at:Staffing

Budgeting

Fee collection

Design & value engineering review

Estimates long-term costs

Collections

Major task:Acquiring, preserving, restoring, & cataloging

Decide to show or not, & how to show/interpret

Collections Accessions & Management:Controlled accession requires acquisitions policy that guides staff in selecting or declining donations.

An accession helps with complex cases.

Conservation

Museums should have a conservation workshop & a contract with a professional conservator & restorer, because restoration, etc requires special skills.

Exhibit Rotation Policy

Exhibits need to be rotated to keep visitors interested, & some exhibits lose their value it they stay up too long.

Hours of Operation

Weekend draws visitors more than 9 to 5 hours.

But a few places don’t employ people able to open on weekends & evenings- when most people can visit.

Interpretation As An Administrative Priority

With these combinations of things museums make their programs known, which opens changes for learning, & lets museums know what public likes/wants.

Education & research

Publications & other media

Marketing & public relations

Exhibitions

Public programs

Interactive & emerging technology use