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Effective Teaching Strategies:Case Studies from the Alphabetic

Braille and Contracted BrailleStudy

Lizbeth Barclay, Stephanie A. Herlich, and Sharon Zeil Sacks

Abstract: This article discusses some of the qualitative data that were docu-

mented during the Alphabetic Braille and Contracted Braille Study. Two case

studies of students are described, highlighting many effective teaching strategiesused by their teachers of students with visual impairments that resulted in the

students' successful academic progress.

D u r i n g the five years of the Alphabetic

Braille and Contracted Braille Study

(ABC Braille Study), researchers ob-

served the participants as they received

literacy instruction from teachers of stu-dents with visual impairments, classroom

teachers, and paraeducators. The re-

searchers noted that the participants en-

countered an array of teaching styles and

strategies as they worked with their var-

ious teachers. The results of the study

have been documented in other articles

and presentations (Emerson, Holbrook, &

D'Andrea, 2009); this article describes

some of the effective teaching strategies

that were successfully used in two spe-

cific case studies. The teacher-student dy-

ads were chosen because the students

demonstrated progress in their literacy

D LJ EARN CEUS ONLINE

skills throughout the study. An analysis of

the observational protocols revealed that

the teachers of students with visual im-

pairments used many effective teaching

strategies. When viewed within the con-

text of research that identifies high-

quality literacy instruction through a

"balanced" approach, many of the docu-

mented strategies reflected the teachers '

competence and resulted in the students '

progress.

Effective strategiesfor

teachingreadingWhat makes a teaching strategy effec-

tive? Within the realm of literacy, the

goal of an effective teaching strategy is to

implement high-quality literacy instruc-

tion that teaches students to read and

write. Teacher training and skills are es-

sential ingredients of this effort, as is an

understanding of what comprises such lit-

eracy instruction. High-quality literacy



CEU Article

position statement from the International

Reading Association (2000) stated that

excellent reading teachers understand the

definition of reading as a complex system

of deriving the meaning from print thatrequires all the following:

• development and maintenance of a mo-

tivation to read,

• development of appropriate active strat-

egies to construct meaning from print,

• sufficient background information

and vocabulary to foster readingcomprehension,

• ability to read fluently,

• ability to decode unfamiliar w ords, and

• skills and knowledge to understand

how phonemes or speech sounds are

connected to print (International Read-

ing Association, 2000, p. 2).

This description emphasizes motiva-

tion and comprehension in addition to

learning the code of reading. It em-

braces a balanced approach to literacy

instruction that includes both the teach-

ing of specific skills (such as phonics)

and providing experiences in holistic

reading and writing (Pressley, 2002).

Studies on effective classrooms in

which all students learn to read and

write have concluded that exceptional

teachers provide balance by teaching

skills and strategies and by giving chil-

dren ample time each day to read and

write (see, for example, Cunningham &

Allington, 2007). When children read,

they become better readers. As Rout-man (2003, p. 187) noted, "Readers

Effective s trategies for teachingreading to students w ith visualimpairments

The balanced approach to literacy instruc-

tion has also been described by educators

in the field of visual impairment. Braille

literacy instruction includes specific and

deliberate individual instruction in the

braille code, combined with the compo-

nents of reading instruction: phonemic

awareness, phonics, fluency , vocabulary,

and comprehension, placing special em-

phasis on the development of comprehen-sion (Koenig & Holbrook, 2000). In Be-

ginning with Braille, Swenson (1999)

noted that by using a balanced approach,

educators will be able to offer a broad

continuum of possibilities for meeting in-

dividual needs. She discussed the follow-

ing essential components of early braille

literacy instruction:

• immersing students in braille;

• integrating listening, speaking, reading,

and writing;

• focusing on meaning;

• modeling literacy behaviors;

• emphasizing process as well as product;

and• encouraging students' participation in

decision making.

These components again emphasize the

development and maintenance of motiva-

tion and meaning that are necessary in

effective braille literacy instruction. The

effective teaching strategies that were ob-

served in the following case studies illus-



CEU Article

visually impaired (that is, those who are

blind or have low vision) is the col lab-

oration that must take place between

teachers of students with visual impair-

ments and c lass room teachers . Worms-

ley (2008) articulated this point in her

article, "Literacy Instruction for Chil-

dren Who Are Blind or Visually Im-

paired," writing that teachers of stu-

dents with visual impairments

have experience with braille and low

vision devices, but may not be wellversed in providing instruction in

phonemic awareness, phonics, fiu-

ency building, comprehension and

vocabulary development. Regular .

classroom teachers may know how

to teach these areas of reading but

may not have expertise in teaching

those who use braille or low visiondevices, (p. 83)

She concluded that both types of teachers

need to work together to ensure that stu-

dents who are visually impaired receive

instruction in all aspects of learning how

to read. The teachers who are described in

the case studies presented here demon-

strated this important aspect of literacy

instruction.

Methods

PROCEDURE

A case study approach was used to de-

scribe effective teaching strategies that

were observed during the ABC Braille

Study. The students and teachers who are

to be "effective teaching strategies," as

described previously in the literature, and

selected two students with teachers who

applied many noteworthy strategies.

One case study illustrates a studentwho was not taught contractions during

his first three years of literacy instruction,

and the other case study describes a stu-

dent who was introduced to contractions

from the beginning of her braille instruc-

tion. The study design and consent docu-

ments for the ABC Braille Study were

approved by the Human Subjects ReviewBoards of the institutions of all the par-

ticipating researchers.

CASE STUDY 1

The first case study highlights Marco and

M s. Wilson, his teacher of students with

visual impairments. Ms. Wilson ex-

plained that she was not going to teach

contractions until Marco had started read-

ing alphabetic braille. Marco was a stu-

dent with many challenges, yet he dem-

onstrated steady growth throughout the

study and was considered to be perform-

ing at grade level.

Marco entered the study as a student in

kindergarten, at age 7, having missed

much school during his early educationbecause of a serious medical condition.

H e was blind ow ing to a retinal condition.

His parents were primarily Spanish

speakers at home, although they were

comfortable with conversational English.

Marco spoke English at school and Span-

ish at home.

Marco's parents graduated from high

school in Mexico and were able to read



CEU Article

braille materials for Marco to use with his

family. Marco had an older sister who

frequently read with him.

Throughout the study, Ms. Wilson

worked directly with Marco for 75 min-utes each day. She also consulted w ith his

classroom teacher three to four times per

week and spent one to two hours a day

preparing his materials in braille. All

Marco's braille literacy instruction took

place in a resource room.

M s. Wilson's background in general lit-

eracy instruction was apparent from the firstyear of observations, when Marco was in

kindergarten. A seasoned teacher, Ms. Wil-

son had been teaching students who are

visually impaired for 15 years; before that

time, she was a reading teacher. M s. Wilson

closely followed the school's reading cur-

riculum, producing all the materials in un-

contracted braille. She worked with Marco

individually in a resource room each morn-

ing while his classmates had reading and

writing activities. In addition, Marco partic-

ipated in other aspects of the class's literacy

instruction.

CASE STUDY 2

The second case study highlights Lin and

Mrs. Goodman, her teacher of studentswith visual impairments. Lin was taught

contractions from the beginning of her

reading instruction. Throughout the

study, she performed at or above grade

level, as shown in her assessment data.

Lin entered the ABC Braille Study as

a kindergarten student, and at the con-

clusion of the study, she was in thefourth grade. Lin had retinopathy of

Lin attended an elementary school with

a resource program for students with vi-

sual impairments. In kindergarten, Mrs

Goodm an saw Lin 45 minutes per day. By

the time Lin was in the fourth grade, hertime had been reduced to 90 minutes of

direct work per week with Mrs. Good-

man. At the beginning of the study, Lin

received help from a paraeducator for 2

hours each day. By the end of the study,

she did not receive any support from a

paraeducator. Throughout the study Mrs.

Goodman spent between 45 minutes to 2hours per week consulting with the class-

room teacher.

Both of Lin's parents had graduate de-

grees. Lin's father was an engineer and

her mother stayed at home. Lin's mother

had been taking classes to learn braille. At

the time of the interview, she knew the

alphabet and some contractions. At hom e,

Lin had access to a braillewriter and a

braille library. Her parents labeled objects

in their home with braille.

Mrs. Goodman, who had been teaching

students with visual impairments for 20

years, stated that she did not remember

being taught how to teach reading. When

she came to her current elementary

school, she was introduced to the Reading

Recovery Program, subsequently enroll-

ing in a one-ye ar college program abou t it

and strengthening her background in

reading instruction (Reading Recovery

Council of North America, 2010). She

had been the primary teacher of the re-

source room for 13 years, teaching many

students to read and write braille. In ad-dition to Patterns (Caton, Pestor, & Brad-



CEU Article

Table 1

Results of assessments for

Assessment

Marco and L in (2004-07).

Grade 2(2004-05)

Marco Lin

Grade 3(2005-06)

Marco Lin

Grade 4(2006-07)

Marco Lin

Speiiing (grade levéis; Brigance, 1991)

Vocabuiary (grade ievels; Brigance, 1991)

Basic Reading Inventory passages (Joiins, 2005)

Words per minute

Contractions (number introduced; Koenig &Farrenl<opf, 1995)

2.00 4.00

2.00 2.00

1.00 2.00

52 83

32 1 8 9

5.00

4.00

4.00

40

113

6.00

4.00

5.00

86

188

4.00 12.00

3.00 5.00

6.00 8.00

48 83

1 8 8 18 7

Assessments

The ABC Braille Study used a variety of

assessments and protocols to gather both

quantitative and qualitative data. Inter-

views were designed and administered to

gain information from the teachers and

family members about their attitudes and

involvement in the children's braille lit-

eracy instruction. Th e teachers of students

with visual impairments and the studentswere interviewed each year of the study,

the families were interviewed at least

once, and the paraeducators and class-

room teachers were interviewed once dur-

ing the course of the study. Twice each

year, the students were observed for an

entire school day. All their literacy in-

struction and involvement in literacy ac-tivities were documented.

The observational protocols contained

detailed accounts of the students' instruc-

tion in and use of braille throughout the

school day. They were evaluated by the

researchers with regard to the qualitative

aspects of the study. For the purpose of

this article, the observational protocols

were studied to identify teacher-student

dyads in which effective teaching strate-

S T U D E N T S ' ACHI EVEMENT

Data on assessments using the Revised

Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Early

Development (Brigance, 1991) and the

Basic Reading Inventory (Johns, 2005)

were collected for all four years of the

study. The results for reading fluency and

word s per minu te are available for the last

three years (2004-07) of the study.

Marco's grade-level scores in spellingand vocabulary decreased in Grade 4,

while his grade-level scores in oral read-

ing of continuous text increased each year

of the study. On the Basic Read ing In ven-

tory (Johns, 2005) in Grades 3 and 4,

Marco read at the Independent Level,

which is the level at which a student rea ds

fluently with excellent comprehension.As Table 1 shows, Marco was reading at

the fourth- and sixth-grade levels, respec-

tively, indicating a marked increase. As

his ability to read grade-level passages

with comprehension increased, his read-

ing speed decreased. Contractions were

first introduced to Marco at the end of

Grade 2, his third year in the study.

By G rade 2, Lin had been introduced to



CEU Article

and reading at the 8th-grade level. She

maintained a fairly consistent reading

speed throughout Grades 2-4.

ResultsEFFECTIVE STRATEGIES, CASE STUDY 1

Maintaining motivation and focusing

on meaning

M s. Wilson strongly believed that an im-

portant support for emergent readers was

the information provided by illustrations

in children's literature. A tremendous

amount of time and effort went into cre-ating illustrations and providing experi-

ences with objects; time and care were

given to the exploration process at the

beginning of each literacy activity. There

were many examples of tactile illustra-

tions noted throughout the observations;

M s. Wilson's creative and thoughtful use

of materials was a constant source of ex-

citement and wonder for Marco.

In kindergarten, at the beginning of the

lesson, M s. W ilson presented M arco w ith

cloth bags that contained objects that be-

gan with his new initial consonants. For

example, one bag had rice, rocks, feath-

ers, a fork, a napkin, a nail, and a nickel.

When Marco took out an object, after

tactilely exploring it, he named it and said

the initial sound of the word and its cor-

responding letter. The objects were

changed frequently, which helped to

maintain his anticipation and interest.

By the first grade, Ms. Wilson began to

illustrate Marco's books with textures and

objects that were more abstract and rep-

resentational. For example, a story enti-

tled The Costume Party had illustrations

him, Ms. Wilson had him explore the

book as she described and explained what

the illustrations represented. In this par-

ticular book, there were tactile represen-

tations of a badge, jacke t, baseball player,pirate, and policeman. Marco excitedly

explored each "picture" as Ms. Wilson

explained what it was and then guided

him to the new words that were repre-

sented. During the first read through,

Marco read slowly and hesitantly. On

each page, he first explored the picture

before reading. This exploration and hisknowledge of initial consonants helped

him read the new words. It was apparent

that the illustrations helped Marco re-

member his new words in a similar way

that pictures support new print readers as

they learn new vocabulary.

By the end of the second grade, Ms.

Wilson had put together a box of materialsso that M arco could illustrate the stories that

he was writing, both in the resource room

and in his classroom. The collection in-

cluded foam, pipe cleaners, feathers, mate-

rials, buttons, trims, and glue. The illustra-

tion box was a source of excitement not

only for M arco, but for his classmates, who

sometimes shared his materials as they col-

laborated while writing.

Integrating listening, speaking , reading ,

and writing

Throughout the study, Marco became a

writer. In kindergarten, Ms. Wilson and

Marco composed a story together, entitled

Ratty, about an imaginary rat that they

had begun writing about during his pre-

school home instruction. Together, Marco



CEU Article

illustrated for Marco, who took great de-

light in them.

In the first grade, Ms. Wilson made up a

sentence writing game in which she had

Marco choose his own favorite words forthe day and make word cards. Marco

brailled the words Max, Tigger, chickies,

and cat, asking for some assistance with

spelling. Ms. Wilson had four labeled cans

that contained subjects, verbs, adjectives,

and objects. She then asked M arco to pick a

word from each can and make a sentence.

His sentence was, "I see icky chickies,"

which, of course, caused much laughter.

After reading the sentence, Ms. Wilson

taped the cards to the table, which made it

easier for Marco to read while brailling it

himself.

By the second grade, Marco was in-

volved with classroom writing exp eriences,

which necessitated more of Ms. Wilson's

support during classroom activities. Mr.Moreno, Marco's classroom teacher, regu-

larly encouraged the students to participate

by using "partner responses" that required

each student to think and collaborate with a

partner. He would pose a question during

instruction, tell the children to discuss it

with a partner, and then ask them to form a

response together that would be shared withthe larger group. This time, Mr. Moreno

asked the students, "Think of a time that

was really spooky and dark, and you were

afraid. Share what happened with your part-

ner." All the students, including Marco and

his desk partner. Marguerite, began talking

excitedly. After a few minutes of discus-

sion, Mr. Moreno began to collect the stu-

dents' "spooky words" for the story wordbank. Marco's contribution to the word

word bank for Marco's later use as he par-

ticipated in the discussion. While Mr.

Moreno began illustrating a story map on

the white board, Ms. Wilson also created it

in braille for Marco. When it was time forall the students to begin writing, Ms. Wil-

son gave Ma rco his story map and the word

bank, and he independently began working

on his story. Mr. Moreno eventually made

his way over to Marco's desk and had

Marco read what he had written so far to

give him editorial feedback.

By the spring observation in the secondgrade, Marco's enthusiasm as a writer was

evident. As Marco worked on one writing

assignment in the resource room, a story

about a family camping trip, he and Ms.

Wilson brailled nouns {boat, trees, water,

and wind) and adjectives {wet, roaring,

cool, lapping, swooshing, whirling, rush-

ing, purring, and rustling) on cards to create

a word bank. With these cards, Marco ex-perimented with the vocabulary that he

would eventually use in his writing, com-

bining adjectives with nouns. Before he be-

gan the next installment of his story, he read

his previous chapter and then exclaimed,

"When I close my eyes, it's really quiet. I

can imagine it!" Marco then combined a

few of his adjective-noun combinations,such as lapping water and roaring wind,

before he began to write. Once he started,

he brailled w ith great concentration for sev-

eral minutes. Later he mentioned, "I'm ed-

iting as I write." He was being encouraged

to use a braille eraser.

Active strategies to construct meaning

from print



CEU Article

path of puffy paint as he read ag words,

such as lag, sag, rag, wag, gag, and tag.

In another one, when working on short o

and e, using poker chips and two cans

marked with o or e, Marco was to place a

chip into the correct can when Ms. Wil-

son said a word with these medial vow els.

Ms. Wilson used word cards for many

types of activit ies. As soon as Marco

was able, she had him make many of his

cards at the beginning of the activity.

New story vocabulary was often

brail led on cards, and a variety of gameswere played with them, including "Go

Eish." Eventual ly , word cards were

used to learn the meaning of new vo-

cabulary from content areas l ike science

and social studies.

By the third grade, Marco was leaming

contractions, and Ms. Wilson designed

many games and activities to make prac-tice more interesting and fun. In one ac-

tivity, Ms. Wilson dropped a paper clip

into a can each time Marco correctly read

his new contractions on fiash cards. W hen

Marco reached 100 paper clips, she gave

him a small prize.

EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES, CASE STUDY 2

Modeling literacy behaviors

Throughout the ABC Braille Study, Mrs.

Goodman stated her desire to "teach the

love of reading" to her students. During

each observation, it was evident that she

was teaching not only the braille code, but

how to make reading fun and enjoyable

by demonstrating and explaining how to

read with meaning and fiuency. During a

point, Lin asked Mrs. Goodm an abo ut her

prediction about the next part of the story.

Continuing in the first and second

grades, Mrs. Goodman and Lin's class-

room teacher emphasized Lin's readingfiuency, process, and product. By the

third grade, Lin received the majority of

her reading instruction with her class-

mates. The students were in leveled read-

ing groups for guided reading with the

classroom teacher, focusing on compre-

hension and vocabulary. Lin was in the

highest reading group.

Integrating listening, speaking, reading,

and writing

Writing was an important part of each

school day for all the students at the

school. Using the Writer 's Workshop

(2003) model, students are taught the pro-

cess of planning, drafting, and editing

written pieces involving peer feedback

and the eventual publication of their prod-

uct. At every grade level, including kin-

dergarten, Lin took part in the Writer's

Workshop and was expected to partici-

pate in the same writing program as her

peers. Mrs. Goodman introduced her to

the four types of writing: functional, nar-

rative, research, and informational. Dur-ing a kindergarten observation, Lin was

given a choice to write about the "earth"

(a kindergarten topic) or the story she had

just read. Lin chose to write about her

story. Mrs. Goodman explained to Lin

that she was going to sit at her own desk

while Lin was writing. Lin was able to sit

and independently write for 15 minutes us-

ing invenfive spelling.



CEU Article

was observed while proofreading a piece

of writing. During a first-grade observa-

tion, Lin continued to work on a story in

her general education class that she had

been writing in the resource room. As shebegan to rewrite her story, she was

prompted by one of the instructional as-

sistants to make her writing more de-

tailed. Later that day, Lin continued to

work on the same story during her one-

on-one session with Mrs. Goodm an. Mrs.

Goodman prompted Lin to take notes on

what she wanted to say so that her story

would be in chronological order. She re-

minded Lin not to use full sentences when

taking notes, once again teaching Lin h ow

to become a good writer.

At the end of the second grade, Lin w as

observed taking part in the districtwide

assessment writing sample. Students had

one hour to write. Lin's one question to

her teacher was, "Are we going to publishthe story?" She independently took out

her paper and braillewriter, double-

spacing her work and reading aloud as she

typed. It took her approximately 45 min-

utes to complete it. Lin's story contained

207 words in 17 sentences. All Lin's

words were recognizable, and there were

no punctuation errors. It was evident thatLin had much practice writing as she con-

fidently sat with her peers writing her

story. The following is an excerpt from

Lin's writing sample. The parentheses in-

dicate the contractions that she used. The

sentences are spaced exactly how they

were spaced in the writing sample.

All (About) Baseball

(work) (together). (It) takes a lot (of)

practice

(to)(do) (this) sport. Eat(ing)

h(ea)l(th)y foods (will)

help (you) play bett(er). (Before) agame I

(try) (to)eat fruits (and) (some)

ve(st)a(of)s. I

(also) ne(ed) vitam(in)s (to)help me

play. (The). . .

In the fourth grade, Lin's ability to sustain

independent writing continued to de-

velop. Lin was observed working on a

computer with speech output as she spent

approximately 30 minutes independently

reviewing a report that she had w ritten on

the computer.

Encouraging students ' participation

in decision making

Mrs . Goodman was always mindful ofLin's interests and, whenever possible,

allowed her to be part of the decision-

making process. In kindergarten, Lin

demonstrated an affinity for nonfiction

books. In addition to the materials in the

Patterns series, Mrs. Goodman brailled a

variety of trade books that reflected Lin's

interests, such as books about the earth,insect life cycles, and weather. At every

grade level, Lin had access to leveled

braille book s in her classroom . On sev eral

occasions, she was observed going to her

book bag or box to select a book that she

could read independently.

Immersing students in braille

Lin had access to braille both in her home



CEU Article

provide appropriate braille materials for Lin

because of her continual collaboration with

the classroom teachers. She made sure, as

best she could, that either she or an instruc-

tional assistant was in the classroom when-ever Lin was going to need assistance.

During a first-grade observation, Mrs.

Goodm an was in the general classroom dur-

ing a quick lesson on the words their,

they're, and there. She sat with Lin and

explained the braille equivalent of these

words, so that when instructed, Lin was

able to take part in the peer activity that

went with the lesson.

Discussion

In this article, we used case studies of two

participants in the ABC Braille Study to

illustrate effective teaching strategies that

were observed. We chose the teacher-

student dyads after we analyzed the data

from the students' assessments and obser-

vational reports. We highlighted high-

quality instruction resulting in the students'

progress. Both students made consistent

progress in their literacy skills throughout

the study, which demo nstrates that the strat-

egies that their teachers of students with

visual impairments used were effective for

teaching students to be successful readersand writers of braille. Both teachers used

many aspects of a "balanced" approach to

literacy to teach their students successfully.

Although the students were different and

their teachers ' styles and strategies of teach-

ing varied, there were also some strong sim-

ilarities. The students made steady progress

in their literacy skills, as was evident in the

results of the assessments. They were bothin programs that provided the opportunity

classroom instruction with their classmates

from their classroom teachers. In addition

both students demonstrated enthusiasm for

reading, as was indicated by their com-

ments that were recorded in the observational protocols. For instance, Marco dem-

onstrated enthusiasm when he exclaimed

"Oh! How many books do we have here?

Oh, man!" Lin's interest and enthusiasm in

a wide variety of topics were satiated by her

teacher's ability to expose her to a wide

range of books that were available to her in

the resource room , general education class-room, school library, and home.

Both teachers in these case studies re-

ported that they had training and instruction

in general literacy sk ills that supported their

efforts to provide effective teaching strate-

gies to their students. That they did not

regard braille instruction separately from

general literacy instruction resulted in a ho-listic and balanced approach to their teach-

ing. In addition, the teachers demonstrated

strong collaboration with the classroom

teachers, supporting a consistent approach

and follow-through in the development of

literacy skills.

The effective teaching strategies the

teachers used included many of the essen-tial components of early braille literacy in-

struction described by Swenson (1999), in-

cluding immersing students in braille;

modeling literacy behaviors; focusing on

meaning; integrating listening, speaking,

reading, and writing; and encouraging stu-

dents' participation in decision making. The

strategies supported the development and

maintenance of the motivation to read,



CEU Article

successfully supported decoding and en-

coding skills leading to reading fluency.

LIMITATIONS

The use of case studies to describe effec-

tive teaching strategies had limitations

because it relied on our and the observers'

accurate depictions of the intent of the

participants. Using this approach, we

sought to select from what was observed

the aspects of effective teaching strategies

that have been described by educators in

the fields of literacy for sighted childrenand those with visual impairments. It was

limited, in that it highlighted only two

cases, barely scratching the surface of

what wasobserved in the entire study and

of effective teaching strategies in general.

However, case studies offer opportunities

to explore and draw attention to many

facets of literacy instruction for childrenwho are visually impaired.

Conclusion

Although these observations provide

just a snapshot of literacy instruction

for two students with visual impair-

ments, they give a glimpse at what can

be accomplished when teachers of stu-

dents with visual impairments provide

rich literacy experiences for their stu-

dents. Both teachers knew that they

needed to look at the whole picture of

braille literacy, providing reading and

writing instruction that was integrated

with the aspects of high-quality literacy

instruction, emphasizing motivation

and comprehension in tandem with

learning the code of reading. This ap-

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Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

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sessment of braille literacy skills. Houston,

TX: Region IVEducation Service Center,

Special Education Department.

Koenig, A. J., & Holbrook, M. C. (2000).

Literacy skills. In A. J. Koenig & M. C.

Holbrook (Eds.), Foundations of educa-

tion, second edition: Vol. II. Instructional

strategies for teaching children and youthswith visual impairments (Chap. 8). New

York: AFB Fress.

Fressley, M. (2002). Reading instruction that

works: The case for balanced teaching

(2nd ed.). NewYork: Guilford Fress.

Reading Recovery Council of North America

(2010). Reading recovery: Basic facts.

W o r t h i n g t o n , OH: Author . Ava i l ab l e :

h t tp : / /www.readingrecovery .org / reading_

recovery/facts/index.aspRoutman, R. (2003). Reading essentials: The



CEU Article

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mary Reading Inventory. Austin: Author.

Wormsley, D. (2008) Literacy instruction

for children who are blind or visually

impaired. Journal of Balanced Reading

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trieved from http://www.teachersfirst.com/

lessons/writers/index.html

Lizbeth Barelay, M.Ed., coordinator. AssessmentProgram , California School for the Blind, 500Walnut Avenue, Fremont, CA 94536; e-mail:

<[email protected]>. Stephanie A. Her-lich, M.Ed., teacher of visually impaired students,orientation and mobility specialist, and privateconsultant,Northern California East Bay, 3839Stratford Court, Pleasanton, CA 94588; e-mail;

<[email protected]>. Sharon Zeil Saeks,Ph.D., director of curriculum, assessment, andstaff development, California School for the Blind;

e-mail; <[email protected]>.

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