1. 1OPTICSTIMELINE(1851 2000)SOLO HERMELINUpdated: 6.08.08 Run This

2. 2SOLO Optics Timeline(continue fromUp to 1850 ) 3. 3SOLO Spectroscopy 1851MA Masson introduced in 1851 the apparatus shown above. This is the first sparkemission spectrometer known. The set-up consists of a prism mounted on a Duboscqgoniometer with a rather complete sparking source. Underneath the set-up arerecords of the position of iron and copper emission lines in the visible domain.http://www.thespectroscopynet.com/educational/Masson.htm 4. 4SOLOColor TheoryHermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) championed Young's idea thatretinal particles varied in the light to which they were "maximallysensitive." As a result, the trichromatic theory of colour vision also cameto be known as Young-Helmholtz Theory. Influenced by his colourmixing experiments, however, Helmholtz could not accept the notion thatthere could be fewer than five colour primaries. Thus, he failed to acceptthe three retinal primaries proposed by Young.1851 5. 5PolarizationSOLOThe Stokes Polarization ParametersG.G. Stokes, On the Composition and Resolution of Streams ofPolarized Light from different Sources,Trans. Cambridge Phil. Soc., Vol.9, 1852, pp.399-416 E A cos t k z x x 1 x A cos t k z 1y y y 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 cos 2 sin x y x y x y x y A A A A A A A AStokes Parameters are defined asS I A Ax yS Q A Ax yS U A A2 cosx y S V A A2 sin232 212 20x y 23S 2 S 2 S 2 S0 12cos 0 A S x xyAsin 0 A S y AStokes Vector is defined as 2 2A Ax y2 2A A x yA A2 cosx yA A2 sin0SS123x yIQUVSSSStokes Parameters are observable using aproper experiment.1852George Gabriel Stokes(1819 1903)Return toPoincare 6. 6SOLO Ions 1853 - 1859Between 1853 and 1859, Johann Wilhelm Hittorf worked onion movement caused by electric current. In 1853 Hittorf pointedout that some ions traveled more rapidly than others. Thisobservation led to the concept of transport number, the fractionof the electric current carried by each ionic speciesJohann Wilhelm Hittorf1824 - 1919Hittorf was the first to compute the electricity-carryingcapacity of charged atoms and molecules (ions), animportant factor in understanding electrochemical reactions.He formulated ion transport numbers and the first methodfor their measurements 7. SOLO Optics History 1853Bausch & Lomb CompanyJohn Jacob Bausch opens his spectacle opticians businessimproting spectacles from his brother in Germany, and Borrowingfrom one friend or another and paying back each loan as it camedue. Henry Lomb, a cabinet maker and close friend who gaveLomb his first loan based on a gentlemens deal that should thebusiness become successful that Lomb would be a full partner.Lomb shortly decides to join Baush selling specticles.John Jacob Bausch1830 - 1928Henry Lomb19081848 -In 1853, Bausch opened a retail optical shop in Rochester, NewYork. Bausch sold spectacles, thermometers, field glasses,magnifiers and opera glasses. His friend Henry Lomb invested hissavings in Bausch's shop and in 1855 became his partner.Bausch and Lomb begans making photographic lenses, and fiveyears later, in 1888, they began to manufacture shutters. B & Ldominates the market and acquire a sole north Americanagreement with Zeiss lens. 8. SOLO Color Theory 1853Grassmann's Law in OpticsIn 1853, Grassmann published a theory of how colors mix; it and itsthree color laws are still taught, as Grassmann's law. Grassman'swork on this subject was inconsistent with that of Helmholtz.Hermann GntherGrassmann(1809,1877)In optics, Grassmann's law is an empirical result about humancolor perception: that chromatic sensation can be described interms of an effective stimulus consisting of linear combinationsof different light colors.Grassmann's law can be expressed in general form by stating that for a givencolor with a spectral power distribution I() the RGB coordinates are given by: R I r d 0G I g d0 B I b d0 Red requires somenegative values forthe function 9. 9SOLO Fiber Optics History 1854John TyndallIn 1854, John Tyndall demonstrated to the Royal Society that lightcould be conducted through a curved stream of water, proving that alight signal could be bent.In 1854, John Tyndall, a British physicist, demonstrated that lightcould travel through a curved stream of water thereby proving thata light signal could be bent. He proved this by setting up a tank ofwater with a pipe that ran out of one side. As water flowed fromthe pipe, he shone a light into the tank into the stream of water. Asthe water fell, an arc of light followed the water down.http://www.timbercon.com/History-of-Fiber-Optics/index.html 10. 10SOLO Microscope 1855Joseph Philip Amadios Compound microscopeCompound microscope built by Joseph Philip Amadio. Thecircular base supports from its middle a round pillar with compassjoint. The pillar holds the limb that carries the mirror, the stage,and the body-tube with an eyepiece consisting of two double-convexlenses. Focusing is by rackwork. The box contains someaccessories including three objectives.http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=408030Height 290 mm,Base diameter 75 mm;Box 182x153x83 mm 11. 11SOLO Vacuum Tubes 1855Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Geissler developed the mercuryvacuum pump, with this instrument he was able to create an highervacuum (2 Torr) than possible that time with standard equipment.This new developed vacuum pump enabled the production of highvacuum tubes which led to many discoveries of new physicsinstruments like the different Crookes, Hittorf, Goldstein and X-raytubesJohann Heinrich WilhelmGeissler1814 - 1879Geissler experimented with different gasses in vacuum tubes,together with Julius Plcker who worked with him and namedthem Geissler tubes. When he applied high tension to the tubesthey produced a bright luminous effect which was demonstratedfor public in 1864 together with his new mercury vacuum pump.This was the discovery of the first discharge light, in that time theGeissler tubes where sold for demonstrations at Universities,schools and later on even for home-entertainment use. In the timethat there was only electric carbon light, this was a rarephenomena. In 1874 Franz Mller joined his firm in Bonn 12. David Alter of Pittsburgh used spectroscopes of his own making to classify the spectra ofsparks and of flame. He began this work circa 1845 and published in 1854 [AmericanJournal of Science], on the spectra of metals, describing lines due to impurities and notingthat an alloy shows evidence of its fractions. In 1855, he published on the spectra of gases,speculating on the colors of the aurora and on whether the elements in meteors could befound by examining their spectra12SOLO Spectroscopy 1855David Alter (1807 1881), in Freeport, Pennsylvania, in 1855, described the spectrum ofhydrogen and other gases. In the 1840's, Alter had started the first commercial production ofbromine from brines. He also found a way to extract oil from coal, but that proved uneconomicafter the discovery of oil in Pennsylvania. His work was not widely recognized, either.Alter, D. Am. J. Sci. Arts 1854, 18, 5557Alter, D. Am. J. Sci. Arts 1855, 19, 213214Dr. Alter began studying the optical properties of matter ever since finding a piece of melted,prismatic glass in the debris of the great Pittsburgh fire of 1845. By 1855, Alter publishedanother article that expanded his original theory by including six gases, including the firstdiscovery of what came to be named the Balmer lines of hydrogen. The proof that elementalgases have spectra peculiar to themselves was an extremely important scientific advance.Alter's article contains a paragraph where he even visualized the application of spectrumanalysis to astronomy, mentioning the study and detection of elements in the combustion ofshooting-stars or luminous meteors, and daguerreotyped the dark lines of the solar spectrum.David's spectral discoveries were noted in various scientific publications in France, Germanyand Switzerland from 1854 to 1860http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum_analysis 13. 13SOLO Microscope 1855 1869Carl Kellner microscopesCarl Kellner was a German mechanic who founded in 1849 an "OpticalInstitute" that would later become the Leitz company, makers of theLeica cameras.Carl Kellner Simple microscope, dissectinghttp://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=408031Height 115 mm,Base diameter 69 mm;Case 165x94x95 mmSimple dissecting microscope signed by Carl Kellner (1826 1855). The circular iron base supports a pillar carrying the stageabove which is the lens. The mirror is hinged to the middle of thebase. The box, which also contains three objectives, carries theinitials Prof. T.T., in all likelihood those of the owner, AdolfoTargioni Tozzetti.Carl Kellner (1826 1855)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Kellner_(optician)After his early death in Wetzlar, his widow led the company, which hastwelve employees at that time. In 1856, she married her employeeFriederich Belthle (1829 1869), who from then on managed thecompany. In 1864, precision mechanic Ernst Leitz joined them; hebecame a partner on, 1865, took over the company in 1869 and re-foundedit as the Ernst Leitz GmbH. The company expanded quickly; itsnewly developed binocular microscope was a market success.Ernst Leitz I (1843-1920) 14. 14SOLO InterferenceJamins Interferometer1856J. Jamin, C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 42, p.482, 1856Jules Clestin Jamin1818 - 1886S1 T 1 C2 T2 CD1 C 2 CDE1 G2 G12Jamin's InterferometerIn the Jamins Interferometer a monochromaticlight from a broad source S is broken into twoparallel beams by two parallel faces of a tick plateof glass G1. These two rays pass through toanother identical plate of glass G2 to recombineafter reflection, forming interference fringes. Ifthe plates are parallel the paths are identical.To measure the refractive index of a gas asfunction of pressure and temperature, two identicalempty tubes T1 and T2 are placed in the twoparallel beams.The gas is slowly introduced in one of the tube.The number of fringes m is counted when thegas reaches the desired pressure and temperature.The compensating plates C1 and C2, of equalthickness are rotated by the single knob D. Onepath length is shorted the other lengthened tocompensate the difference between the paths. 15. Wilhelm Weber1804 - 189015SOLO ElectromagnetismWeber and Kohlraush Experiment1856In 1856 Wilhelm Weber and Rudolph Kohlraush experimentallydemonstrated that (00) -1 was, within experimental error, thesame as the speed of light.The magnetic force per unit length between two parallel wireswith currents I and I, in free space separated by a distance r is:I Ird Fd l2'0where 0 is a constant known as permeability of free space. 2chargedimension 0 timeThe electric force between two charges q and q, in free spaceseparated by a distance r is:'rq qF2 0 where 0 is a constant known as permitivity of free space. 2charge0 distancedimension distanceTherefore timedimension 1/ 20 0 Weber and Kohlraush experimentally found 1/ 2 3 10 8m / s c speed of light 0 0 Rudolph Kohlraush1809 - 1858 16. This classification was done in 1857 by Philipp Ludwig von Seidel (1821 1896)16SOLOReal Imaging Systems AberrationsDepartures from the idealized conditions of Gaussian Optics in a real Optical System arecalled AberrationsMonochromatic AberrationsChromatic Aberrations Monochromatic AberrationsDepartures from the first order theory are embodied in the five primary aberrations1. Spherical Aberrations2. Coma3. Astigmatism4. Field Curvature5. Distortion Chromatic Aberrations1. Axial Chromatic Aberration2. Lateral Chromatic Aberration1857Philipp Ludwig von Seidel(1821 1896)Optics History 17. 17SOLOSpeed of LightFizeau Experiment in Moving MediaIn 1859 Fizeau described an experiment performed todetermine the speed of light in moving medium.Water FlowWater FlowSource1 f1 fFringesDisplayFizeau Moving Water Apparatus 1851The light of source S placed at the focus of lens L1 passes trough a tube with flowingwater, focused by lens L2 to the mirror that reflects it to a second tube in which the waterflows with the same velocity u in opposite direction. The returning light is diverted by thehalf silvered mirror an interferes with the light from the source.Fizeau measured the shift between the fringes obtained when is no water flow and thoseobtained when the water flows. He fitted the following formula for the speed of light v inmoving media to the speed of light v0 in stationary media, with index of refraction n: 110 2nv v u1859 18. 18SOLOSpeed of LightFoucault Experiment1850 - 1862Foucault working with Fizeau improved the apparatus by replacingthe toothed wheel with a rotating mirror. In 1850 Foucault used theimproved apparatus to measure the speed of light in air and in water.In 1862 he used an improved version to give an accurate measurementof speed of light in air.Source1 f1 fDisplayFoucault Apparatus 1862ALA'SphericalMirror20 m RotatingMirrorHalfSilveredMirrorThe solar light passes trough half silvered mirror, through lens L. It is reflected by theRotating mirror to a Spherical Mirror at a distance of d = 20 m, back to rotating mirror,through L to half silvered mirror to the Display. When the rotting mirror is stationary theray reaches the point A on the Display. When the rotting mirror is rotating at angular rate, the ray to the spherical mirror will change direction by an angle = ( = d/c)and the displayed ray by an angle 2 , reaching point A on the Display. 19. 19SOLOSpeed of LightFoucault Experiment (continue 1)Source1 f1 fDisplayFoucault Apparatus 1862ALA'SphericalMirror20 m RotatingMirrorHalfSilveredMirrorhttp://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/lightandcolor/speedoflight.htmlThe Spherical Mirror was at a distance d = 20 m from the Rotating Mirror, that rotatedat 1,000 revolutions per second, given a displacement of AA of 1 mm.The speed of light obtained by Foucault was 298,000 km/sec.In 1850 Foucault completed the measurement of speed of light in water.Newtons corpuscular light model required that the speed of light in optically densemedia be greater than in air, whereas the wave theory, as initiated by Huyghens,correctly predicted that the speed of light must be smaller in optically dense media,and this was verified by Foucault experiments. 20. 20ElectromagnetismSOLO 1859Julius Plcker and Johann Hittorf (Germany) discover that cathode raysbend under the influence of a magnet.Julius Plucker1801 - 1868Johann Wilhelm Hittorf1824 - 1914http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1834-1866.html 21. SOLO Theory of Colors 1859James ClerkMaxwell(1831 1879)In 1859, Maxwell, then 28 years old, presented his Theory of Colour Vision, acknowledged as being the origin ofquantitative colour measurement (Colorimetry). In this work, Maxwell demonstrates that all colours arise frommixtures of the three spectral colours red (R), green (here abbreviated to V [verde]), and blue (B), for example on the assumption that the light stimulus can be both added and subtracted. He allocates each of the three maincolours to a corner of a triangle, into which we have then placed a curve of spectral colours which is provided withtechnical data. A line of this type will reappear later in the CIE System. This is important, because all associatedinsights go back to Maxwell who, with his triangle, introduced the first two-dimensional colour system based onpsychophysical measurements.In 1849 Maxwell began his work on the subject. This work was presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in1855 in his paper entitled, Experiments on Colour, as perceived by the Eye, with remarks on Colour-blindness.He demonstrated, using a coloured top (figure 5.2.1), that any natural colour could be produced from the threeprimary colours - red, green and blue. Most of this work was not new and merely reiterated what was alreadyknown. However it was excellently produced and was a good prelude to his later work.Maxwell's major paper in optics, On the Theory of Colour Vision, was presented to the Royal Society ofLondon in 1860 and was awarded the Rumford Medal. It showed that colour blindness was due to individualsbeing unable to recognise red light and conclusively proved his theory of three primary colours. Most of theexperiments for this work were conducted in Maxwell's London home with the help of his wife, KatherineMary Dewar daughter of the Principle of Marchisal College, Aberdeen. These were wonderfully constructedand made use of a colour box designed by Maxwell himself. 22. The Plssl eyepiece is one of the most popular eyepieces today. It is often used for deep-skyGeorg Simon Pll(1794-1868)22SOLO OPTICSEyepiecesobserving, because it offers a comparatively wide field of view of 50 degrees.Originally designed by Georg Simon Plssl in 1860, severalversions can be found on the amateur astronomy market. By farthe Plssl eyepiece is currently the most widely used design. Thename Plssl eyepiece covers a range of eyepieces with at least fouroptical elements. Usually consisting of two sets of doublets, aconvex and concave element sandwiched together, the lensprovides a large apparent field of view along with relatively largeFOV. This makes this lens ideal for a variety of observationalpurposes including deep sky and planetary viewing.Eyepieces, 2002 John J. G. Savardhttp://www.astro-tom.com/telescopes/eyepieces.htmPlssel1860 23. 23SOLOSpectroscopy 1860Bunsen and Kirchoff ExperimentIn 1860 Bunsen and Kirchoff observed the emission spectraof alkali metals in flames and also noted the absorbed darklines when observing the spectrum of a bright light sourcethrough the flame.Kirchoff and Bunsen (right)http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/bunsen.html 24. Joseph Swan1828 - 191424SOLOElectric Lamp 1860Joseph Swans Electric LampJoseph Swan was a chemist, physicist, and inventor, who ismost famous for his important role in the development ofelectric lighting. In 1860 Swan developed a carbon-filamentincandescent lamp (some twenty years before Edison!!) andin 1878, produced an all-glass hermetically sealed bulb. Healso invented a dry photographic process. This invention leadto a huge improvement in photography and progress towardthe development of modern photographic film.http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/swan.htmlSwans Electric Lamp Swans Electric Bulb 25. For his demonstration, he arranged for three photographs of atartan ribbon to be taken by the professional photographer,Thomas Sutton. Each was made using a black+whiteslide. These slides were exposed respectively through red, greenand blue filters.25SOLO Photography 1861James Clerk Maxwell produces the first colorphotograph by photographing a subject through red,yellow, and blue filters, then recombining the images.http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1834-1866.htmlMaxwell analysis of color perception led to his invention ofthe trichromatic process. The trichromatic process is thebasis modern color photography.http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/maxwell.htmlhttp://www.edinphoto.org.uk/1_P/1_photographers_maxwell.htm 26. SOLO Photography 1861The American physician and poet, Oliver Wendell Holmesdeveloped a lightweight and inexpensive, hand held stereo-scopicviewer. The "Holme's Stereoscope. It becomes one ofthe world's most popular models. The first stereoscope, whichhe built, was with cardboard and an awl handle..Oliver Wendell Holmes1809 - 1894About 1860, Holmes invented the "Americanstereoscope", a 19th century entertainment in whichpictures were viewed in 3-D.[95] He later wrote anexplanation for its popularity, stating: "There was notany wholly new principle involved in its construction,but, it proved so much more convenient than any hand-instrumentin use, that it gradually drove them all out ofthe field, in great measure, at least so far as the Bostonmarket was concerned.. Rather than patenting the handstereopticon and profiting from its success, Holmes gavethe idea away.[ 27. SOLO Photography 1861Adolphe Bertsch Sub-Miniature CameraAdolphe Bertsch invents the first sub-miniature cameracalled the Chambre Automatique de Bertsch. Bertch'sAutomatic Camera had a fixed focus lens with a view ofless than one inch in diameter and so it used a very smallone and a half inch wet collodion plate..Portrait Chambre Automatique de Bertsch 28. 28SOLO Optics History 1864August Toepler (Tpler)1836 - 1912August Joseph Ignaz Toepler was a German physicist known for hisexperiments in electrostatics. In 1864 he applied Foucault's knife-edge testfor telescope mirrors to the analysis of fluid flow and the shock wave. Henamed this new method schlieren (from German; singular "schliere")photography, for which he is justifiably famous.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_ToeplerThe Schlieren technique was orignally developed for testing lenses(L. Foucault 1859), A. Toepler( 1864) was the first scientist to develop thetechnique for observation of liquid or gaseous flow.Schlieren optical systemSchlieren optics show changes in the condition ofa test area of space in the optical path, even whenit remains fully transparent. A simplified outline ofthe arrangement is shown in the scheme at left.A source sends out a beam of light through theapparatus to a film. Half the field is cut off by aknife-edged screen, K1, which is imaged by a lens, L1, to a position, K1', in the same plane as amatching screen, K2. The knife-edges of image and screen exactly coincide. A test position, T, issharply focused on the film. Thus the light flow past K1 to K2 is all cut off from the film if the spaceat T is completely uniform. Any nonuniformity, such as caused by a wave front in the air at T,causes a scattered light beam to evade the screen, K2 (path a), and reach the filmhttp://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/toepler.html 29. 29MAXWELLs EQUATIONSSOLOMagnetic Field Intensity H 1 m AElectric Displacement D 2 A s mElectric Field Intensity E 1 m VMagnetic Induction B 2 V s me Electric Current Density JJames Clerk Maxwell(1831-1879) 2 m AFree Electric Charge Distribution e 3 A s m1. AMPRES CIRCUIT LAW (A) 1821e JDtH 2. FARADAYS INDUCTION LAW (F) 1831BtE 3. GAUSS LAW ELECTRIC (GE) ~ 1830e D 4. GAUSS LAW MAGNETIC (GM) 0 B Andr-Marie Ampre1775-1836Michael Faraday1791-1867Karl Friederich Gauss1777-1855Electromagnetism 1865 30. 30SOLOElectromagnetismELECTROMGNETIC WAVE EQUATIONSFor Homogeneous, Linear and Isotropic Medium D E B H where are constant scalars, we have ,EtBDtHtHttE B HD E Since we have alsoBD t tE tE E E E & 00222D E DtH tE For Source lessMedium0E222 tEDefinec1 1 v K Ke m e m K K0 01 1 8c 3 10 m/ swhere 0 0 7 9101 364 10 is the velocity of light in free space.Run This 31. 31SOLO Optics 1865/66Carl August von Steinheil(1801 - 1870)Carl august Von Steinheil was professor of physics and mathematics inMunich. Together with the mineralogist Franz von Kobell, and parallelto Talbot's attempts, he developed a photographic negative process in1839. Founded the optical factory C. A. Steinheil & Shne (OptischeFabrik C. A. Steinheil & Shne) with his son Adolph Hugo Steinheil in1855. From 1865 on, development of photographic lenses: Periscope(1865), Aplanat (1866). In 1890, he also developed the telephoto lensused by Krone.Hugo Adolph Steinheil1832-1893August's son Adolph was strongly inclined toward optics and astronomy.He studied at Munich and Augsburg, and accompanied his father toVienna in 1850 at the age of 18 while the latter was organizing thetelegraph system there. Adolph returned to Munich in 1852 to devotehimself entirely to optics. He took a prominent part in the establishmentof the Steinheil Optical Institute there in May 1855. Working with hisfriend L. P. von Seidel (1821-1896), Adolph designed the Periskop in1865 and the Aplanat in 1866. There was a great argument as to thepriority of the invention of the Aplanat and Dallmeyer's RapidRectilinear, and it appeared that Steinheil had priority, but only by a fewweeks.In 1866 Adolph purchased his father's interest in the Optical Institute,which then became C. A. Steinheil Sohne. Adolph went on to designmany other lenses, including the Group and Portrait Antiplanets in1881. He collaborated with Ernst Voit in writing a book on lens designin 1891, two years before his death. 32. Wide-angle RectilinearSimultaneously and independently an almost identical design appeared in Germanycalled the Aplanat. This was designed and manufactured by Dr. H. A. Steinheil.As Steinheil and von Seidel (the mathematician who had recently established thetheory of lens aberrations) were good friends, it is probable that the Aplanat hadbeen designed on proper scientific principles, and Steinheil naturally supposed that Dallmeyer had pirated hisinvention. The argument became heated, and letters from both parties appeared in the scientific journals. Whenthe smoke cleared it appeared that Steinheil had priority but by only a few weeks. Simultaneous inventions areactually quite common. The need is there, the necessary technology has been developed, and we must expect tofind several inventors in various countries all working along similar lines.32SOLO Optics 1866The Rapid Rectilinear lens was introduced by J. H. Dallmeyer in 1866. We do notknow what led him to this highly successful design, but it may have been an assemblyof two Grubb-type landscape aplanats about a central stop. Dallmeyer's patent showeda lens that was manufactured and sold under the name of Wide-angle Rectilinear(Brit. Pat. 2,502/66; U.S. Pat. 79,323.) The front and rear components were similarbut not identical, the front being larger than the rear, as shown in Figure (a). Verysoon Dallmeyer found that it was better to make the two halves identical (Fig. (b), andthis arrangement became the well-known Rapid Rectilinear. Most previous rectilinear(i.e., distortion less) lenses had been of low aperture, and Dallmeyer was thereforejustified in calling his lens rapid, although the aperture was only f/8 or f/6 at the most.John Henry Dallmeyer1830-1883(a) The Dallmeyer Wide-angle Rectilinear lens(b) the Rapid Rectilinear 33. 33SOLOSpectroscopySir William Huggins (1824 1910), (England) developsan innovation for the use of spectroscopy in astronomy.He is the first to measure the radial velocity (the motionalong the line of sight) of a star by using the Dopplershift of its spectral lines.http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1867-1899.htmlHuggins, Sir William 18241910, English astronomer.Using a spectroscope, he began to study the chemical constitutionof stars from the observatory attached to his home in Tulse Hill,London. He proved that while some nebulae are clusters of stars,others are uniformly gaseous. Huggins pioneered in spectroscopicphotography and played a part in developing the combined use ofthe telescope, spectroscope, and photographic negative.http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry/HugginsWilliam Huggins1824 - 19101866William Huggins made the first spectroscopy study of a nova.http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/BruceMedalists/Huggins/huggins.jpg 34. On the left we see a Beale Chorentoscope ca. 1866. The slide,viewing area and crank are all clearly visible. As the crankingtakes place the 'dancing skeleton' dances through a sequence ofsix images (down).34SOLO Camera Obscura 1866LIONEL SMITH BEALE ( - )This year Beale 'animates' pictures he had drawn, using his invention, theChorentoscope (or Choreutoscope). This very simple optical toy is hand-held and iscranked by a small handle, which draws a lanternslide through the apparatus using asmall gear. Six images are seen in succession for a split-second each.Glass-painted slide (above) used in the Chorentoscope of LionelBeale. This one was known as the Dancing Skeleton. An animation(right) of the dancing skeleton.Movement is obviously not fluid as the number of images is few and, the speed of the cranking would never equal14 frames per second. Even if cranked faster, six images disappear quickly before any fluidity would be detected.http://www.precinemahistory.net/1860.htmRun This 35. 35SOLOSpectroscopy1868A.J. ngstrm published a compilation of all visible lines inthe solar spectrum.1869A.J. ngstrm made the first reflection grating.http://thespectroscopynet.com/educational/Kirchhoff.htmAnders Jonas Angstrm a physicist in Sweden, in 1853 had presented theories aboutgases having spectra in his work: Optiska Underskningar to the Royal Academy ofSciences pointing out that the electric spark yields two superposed spectra. Angstrmalso postulated that an incandescent gas emits luminous rays of the samerefrangibility as those which it can absorb. This statement contains a fundamentalprinciple of spectrum analysis.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum_analysis 36. 36SOLO Telescope 1868Melbourne Reflector TelescopeThe Melbourne ReflectorYear completed:1868Telescope type:Reflector Lightcollector:Metal mirrorMirror diameter:48 inches (1.2 m)Light observed:VisibleBy 1877, the metal mirrors were sotarnished that they needed to be polished.Unfortunately, the mirrors would have tobe sent all the way to their home factory inIreland before that could happen. Theobservatory director taught himself how topolish the mirrors and tried to do the work,but he couldnt conduct the proper tests tomake sure the surfaces were polishedcorrectly. The mirrors never worked wellagain.The Melbourne reflector lasted only 15years.http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/resources/explorations/groundup/lesson/scopes/melbourne/index.php 37. 37SOLOTyndall Effect1869Light ScatteringIn 1869, John Tyndall discovered the phenomenon that he ismost famous for in the world of optics. While carrying outobservations of solutions and colloids, Tyndall noted that abeam of light passing through a colloidal suspension is visible,but cannot be seen when it passes through a solution or a puresubstance. As deduced by Tyndall, this phenomenon is due tothe fact that in a colloidal suspension light is scattered by themany small particles it contains, but which are absent inhomogenous mixtures and pure substances. Moreover, as alsopurported by Tyndall, this special instance of diffraction, nowknown as the Tyndall effect, results in the visualization of ablue or violet color when the particles present are very small,but will cause the color red to appear when the particles arelarger in size. Oftentimes the Tyndall effect is used todetermine the existence of a colloid and is observable incolloidal suspensions as weak as 0.1 parts per million.http://microscopy.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/tyndall.html 38. 38SOLO Ray Tubes 1869Johann Wilhelm Hittorf1824 - 1919In 1869 Johann Wilhelm Hittorf observed tubes withenergy rays extending from a negative electrode. Theserays produced a fluorescence when they hit the glasswalls of the tubes. In 1876 the effect was namedcathode rays" by Eugen Goldstein. 39. 39SOLO Photography 1869Louis Arthur Ducos du Hauron (December 8, 1837 August 31, 1920) was a French pioneer of colorphotography.In the years following his unpublished paper of 1862 heset out practical ways of recording colour images usingboth additive (red, green, blue) and subtractive (cyan,magenta, yellow) methods. In 1868 he patented some ofhis methods and in 1869 he wrote Les Couleurs enPhotographie. One of his earliest color photographs isthe Landscape of Southern France, taken by thesubtractive method in 1877.A view of Agen, France in 1877 by LouisDucos du Hauron, a French pioneer ofcolor photographyAdditive color synthesis Subtractive color synthesis 40. 40SOLO Light ScatteringRayleigh Scattering1871Rayleigh provide a formula of the scattering of light by particleswith diameter d much smaller than wavelength of light.The intensity I of light scattered at an angle , from the incidentdirection, by a small particle of diameter d, from a beam ofunpolarized light of wavelength and intensity I0 is given by:The Rayleigh explained why the sky is blue by the scattering oflight by the atmosphere.http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/atmos/blusky.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_scatteringNobel Prize 1904 41. 41SOLO Spectroscopy 1871Henry Draper(1837 1882)Henry Draper (USA) is the first to photograph the spectrum of a star (Vega).http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1867-1899.htmlAside from the star catalog bearing his name, Henry Draper is best known for obtaining the firstphotograph of an astronomical nebula, recording the Great Nebula of Orion on the night ofSeptember 30, 1880. This image was not very impressive, but Draper improved upon it rapidly, andfurther refinements were achieved by Andrew Ainslee Common and Isaac Roberts in England afterDraper's untimely death. Other firsts for Draper include the first stellar spectrum photograph, whichhe took of Vega in August 1872, the first wide-angle photograph of a comet's tail, and the firstspectrum of a comet's head, both of these with Tebbutt's Comet in 1881. In addition, Draperobtained many high-quality photographs of the Moon in 1863, a benchmark spectrum of the Sun in1873, and spectra of the Orion Nebula, the Moon, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and numerous bright stars.He also invented the slit spectrograph and pushed the state of the art in photography, instrumentaloptics, and telescope clock drives, the steadiness of which is essential for long photographicexposures. He wrote a textbook on chemistry and published much of his astronomical work,including monographs on telescope design and spectrum analysis. Draper even suggested buildingobservatories in the Andes to avoid atmospheric turbulence and haze, an idea which has come intoits own in recent decades.http://www.naic.edu/~gibson/draper/ 42. 42SOLO Photography 1873EADWEARD JAMES MUYBRIDGE (1830 - 1904)Muybridge uses a battery of 24 cameras to photograph a racehorse owned by California Governor Leland Stanford. Theresulting 24 pictures taken as the trotting horse raced past, was thebeginning of what would become known as stop-action seriesphotography.Muybridge publishes over 2,000 photographs of the farwestern U.S. in his 'Catalogue of Photographic Views'. Hisphotos showed famous American landmarks in their pristinestate.One set of stop-action-seriesphotographs (above) byMuybridge shows the horse in afull gallop - "a perfect likeness".Notice the shadow against thewall.The frame (above) from theMuybridge disc shows all fourhooves off the ground at the sametime - "frozen"In April of 1873 the Daily Alta Californiareported that Muybridge had photographedthe horse Occident, owned by GovernorLeland Stanford.The newspaper stated in the story thatMuybridge's photographs had in factshown the animal "frozen" in mid stride.http://www.precinemahistory.net/1870.htm#ELECTRIC1879Run This 43. 43SOLOOptics HistoryAbbe Image Formation Theory1873Abbe formulated the wave theory of microscopic imagingand defined what would become known as Abbe SineCondition.The Carl Zeiss Foundation that employed Abbe describedhis work One year after beginning the manufacture of the CarlZeiss compound microscope, in 1873, Her Abbe released ascientific paper describing the mathematics leading to theperfection of this wonderful invention. For the first time inoptical design, aberration, diffraction and coma weredescibed and understand.http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Abbe.htmlhttp://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/abbe.html 44. 44SOLO Telescope 1873US Naval Observatory 26-inch RefractorYear completed:1873Telescope type:RefractorLight collector:Glass lensesLens diameter:26 inches (66 cm)Light observed:VisibleDiscovery Highlights:While being used to study the motion of theplanets, discovered the two moons of Mars,Phobos and Deimos.The observatory director turned to Alvan Clarkand his son, Alvan Graham Clark, ofMassachusetts.The pair had earned their reputation as experttelescope makers by grinding lenses powerfulenough to resolve close double stars, and bysignificantly improving the lenses of othertelescopes. The Clarks were the first Americans togrind lenses of the same quality as telescope-makersin Europe, becoming famous for theirwork after noted British astronomer WilliamRutter Dawes began using their instruments.http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/resources/explorations/groundup/lesson/scopes/naval/index.php 45. 45SOLO DiffractionCornu SpiralMarie Alfred Cornu professor at the cole Polytechnique in Parisestablished a graphical approach, for calculating intensities inFresnel diffraction integrals.Mthode nouvelle pour la discussion des problmes de diffraction dans le casdune onde cylindrique, J.Phys.3 (1874), 5-15,44-52Fresnel Integrals are defined as u uC u u du S u u du02022& : sin2: cos j u du Cu j S uu 022expC S 0.5The Cornu Spiral is defined as theplot of S (u) versus C (u)2d C u dud S u du22sin2cosd C d S du 2 2Therefore u may be thought as measuring arclength along the spiral.1874 46. As early as 1874 George Stoney had calculated the magnitude ofhis electron from data obtained from the electrolysis of water andthe kinetic theory of gases. The value obtained later became knownas a coulomb. Stoney proposed the particle or atom of electricity tobe one of three fundamental units on which a whole system ofphysical units could be established. The other two proposed werethe constant universal gravitation and the maximum velocity oflight and other electromagnetic radiations. No other scientist daredconceive such an idea using the available data. Stoney's work setthe ball rolling for other great scientists such as Larmor andThomas Preston who investigated the splitting of spectral lines in amagnetic field. Stoney partially anticipated Balmer's law on thehydrogen spectral series of lines and he discovered a relationshipbetween three of the four lines in the visible spectrum of hydrogen.Balmer later found a formula to relate all four. George JohnstoneStoney was acknowledged for his contribution to developing thetheory of electrons by H.A. Lorentz , in his Nobel Lecture in 1902.George Stoney estimates the charge of the then unknown electron to be about 10-20coulomb, close to the modern value of 1.6021892 x 10-19 coulomb. (He used theFaraday constant (total electric charge per mole of univalent atoms) divided by.Avogadro's Number46SOLO Particles 1874George Johnstone Stoney1826 - 1911 47. SOLOBezold-Brcke Phenomenon1876Theory of ColorsErnst Wilhelmvon Brcke(18191892)A change to the perception of colors under theeffects of in-creased light intensity or theapparent brightness of hues changes asillumination changes. With increasingintensity, wavelengths below 500 nm shiftmore toward blue, and above 500 hues shiftmore toward yellow. Reds become yellowerwith increasing brightness.Johann Friedrich Wilhelmvon Bezold(1837- 1907)1874 48. 48SOLO PolarizationElectro Optical Effects1875The electro optical effects are Kerr or Pockels2 K V0 n K E 220 2d In the Kerr Electro-optic Effect 1875 is the electric field that causes the substance tobecome birefringent. 49. 49SOLO Telescope 1876-1877Brachy Telescopein 1876-77, Vienna opticians J. Forster and Karl Fritsch developed anexcentric Cassegrain telescope which they obtained an Austrian patent,and called it the Brachy Telescope (translated "Short Telescope"). AntonKutter criticizes that name as actually a Brachyt is at least slightly longerthan a Cassegrain of the same aperture and effective focal length. Brachytelescopes were sold in comparatively small number until at least 1912, instandard apertures of 106 mm (4-inch) and 160 mm (6.3-inch), but alsosome 8-inch and at least one 32-cm (12.6-inch), which was sold to theNaval Observatory of Pola about 1880. Kutter reports that this instumenthad such bad references that the lunar and planetary specialist, PhilipFauth, rejected to accept it as a present offered to him. Brachy telescopeshad their friends among other telescope makers of the late 19th century,notably the Hungarian nobleman Nicolaus von Konkoly-Thegehttp://www.seds.org/~spider/scopes/schiefh.htmlhttp://www.seds.org/~spider/scopes/brachyt.html 50. 50SOLO Microscope1878Improved oil-immersion objectives areproduced by Ernst Abbe and Carl Zeiss.http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1867-1899.htmlRobert B. Tolles1874http://www.med.unc.edu/microscopy/documents/Ch7_Lenses.pdf 51. 1879 1884 1893The wavelength for which the spectral emittance of a blackbody reaches the maximumis given by:WILHELMWIEN(1864 - 1928)JOSEFSTEFAN(1835 1893)Stefan-Boltzmann Law51Physical Laws of Radiometry SOLOWiens Displacement Law 0d M BBdWien 1893from which:m 2898 Wiens Displacement LawT m K mStefan-Boltzmann LawStefan 1879 Empirical - fourth power lawBoltzmann 1884 Theoretical - fourth power lawFor a blackbody:1W W 5 42k 2 4122 324150 205.670 1015:exp / 1cm Kc hcmd Tc TcM M d BB BB LUDWIGBOLTZMANN(1844 - 1906)Nobel Prize 1911 52. 52SOLOCathode Ray Tube 1879The scientist Sir William Crookes paved the way for manydiscoveries. He worked in his own laboratory in London where hedid all of his experiments with different types of near vacuumtubes. In On radiant matter, a lecture delivered to the BritishAssociation for the Advancement of Science at Sheffield, FridayAugust 22 1879 Crookes demonstrated many of his tubedevelopments and discussed the fourth state of matter, plasma. Alot of Crookes tubes stood at the base of further discoveries likethe X-ray tube and the Braun tube which developed later on intoour well known TV tube. German glassblowers like Otto Pressler,Emil Gundelach and Mller-Uri made many types of Crookes,Hittorf and Geissler tubes in the beginning of the 20th Century.The tubes were sold to schools and Universities for classroomdemonstration by companies like Max Kohl and Leybold. In WWII the factories were heavily bombed because of the (weapon) workthey did for the Nazi regime. What was left of the machinery of theMax Kohl AG plant went to the Soviet Union and the former MaxKohl and Pressler-DGL were renamed after the war VEB (VolksEigener Betrieb).Sir William Crookes1832 -1919 53. 53SOLOEdison Electric Lamp Bulb 1879On 21-22 October 1879 Edison and his staffconducted their first successful experiments with acarbon-filament lamp in a vacuum. A year laterEdison began manufacturing commercial lampsusing carbonized Japanese bamboo as filaments.http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=46http://edison.rutgers.edu/lamp.htm 54. 54SOLOSpeed of Light 1879Marie-Alfred Cornu (France) improves the measurement ofthe speed of light and carries out a photographic study ofradiation in the ultraviolet.http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1867-1899.htmlCornu carried out a classical redetermination of the speed oflight by A.H.L. Fizeaus method (see Fizeau-FoucaultApparatus), introducing various improvements in theapparatus, which added greatly to the accuracy of the results.This achievement won for him, in 1878, the prix Lacaze andmembership of the Academy of Sciences in France, and theRumford Medal of the Royal Society in England.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Cornu 55. Run This55SOLOPhotography 1879EADWEARD JAMES MUYBRIDGE (1830 - 1904)The Zoopraxiscope, a moving picture projector, is designed andintroduced by Muybridge. He will take it on tour with him in theupcoming years to use in his lectures, namely, Paris in 1881 and 1882.Upon his return to America the University of Pennsylvania granted himfunds in the amount of $5,000 to advance his research in stop-actionseries photography [final costs would almost reach $40,000]. Between theyears 1883-1885, Muybridge took more than 100,000 photographs, whichwould later be published in 1887. The Zoopraxiscope operated byprojecting images drawn from photographs (by Faber and Eakins),rapidly and in succession onto the screen. The photographs were paintedonto a glass disc [even though Langenheim's Hyalotype process allowedphotographs to be copied onto glass] which rotated, thereby producing theillusion of motion. From this point forward in time, Muybridge's workbegan to clearly show that the possibility of actual moving pictures orcine-photography, was a reality and not far from perfection.The Muybridge Zoopraxiscope (above)used images drawn from Muybridge'sstop-action-series photographs. They wereinitially drawn by Erwin Faber, and laterby Thomas Eakins.http://www.precinemahistory.net/1870.htm#ELECTRIC1879Zoopraxiscope 56. 56SOLOTheory of Colors 1879Ogden Nicholas Rood (18311902) was an Americanphysicist best known for his work in color theory. He studied inBerlin and Munich before his appointment as Chair of Physicsat Columbia University, a position he held from 1863 until hisdeath. His book on color theory, Modern Chromatics, withApplications to Art and Industry, was published in 1879, withGerman and French translations appearing in 1880 and 1881,respectively. Rood divided color into three constants: purity,luminosity, and hueequivalent to James Clerk Maxwell's tint,shade, and hue (Harrison, 640).Rood was well suited to the job of bridging the gap betweenart and science, as he had a successful career as a teacher,scientist, and amateur painter. Rood explained manyconcepts that were still relatively unknown, such as thedifference between additive and subtractive color mixing. Hetalked much about the physical color spectrum and hethoroughly described the three colormaking attributes of hue,saturation, and value. These three colormaking attributeswere noticable absent from Chevreul's work. UnlikeChevreul's book, Rood's Modern Chromatics is stillconsidered to be scientifically accurate today.Ogden Nicholas Rood(18311902) 57. 57SOLO Fiber Optics History 1880Alexander Graham BellIn 1880, Alexander Graham Bell invented his 'Photophone', whichtransmitted a voice signal on a beam of light. Bell focused sunlightwith a mirror and then talked into a mechanism that vibrated themirror. At the receiving end, a detector picked up the vibrating beamand decoded it back into a voice the same way a phone did withelectrical signals. Many things -- a cloudy day for instance -- couldinterfere with the Photophone, causing Bell to stop any furtherresearch with this invention.Although the photophone was an extremely important invention,it was many years before the significance of Bell's work was fullyrecognized.Bell's original photophone failed to protecttransmissions from outside interferences,such as clouds, that easily disruptedtransport. Until the development of modernfiber optics, technology for the securetransport of light inhibited use of Bell'sinvention. Bell's photophone is recognizedas the progenitor of the modern fiber opticsthat today transport over eight percent of theworld'sAlexander Graham Bell1847 -- 1922Diagram of the Photophone. The image is taken fromAlexander Graham Bell's 1880 paper. 58. 58More than a hundred years ago, in1880, Alexander Graham Belltransmitted his voice as a telephonesignal through about 600 feet of freespace (air) using a beam of light asthe carrier -- demonstrating the basicprinciple of optical communications.He named his experimental devicethe "photophone." Bell went on toinvent the telephone, but he alwaysthought the photophone was hisgreatest invention.http://www.bell-labs.com/news/1999/february/25/1.html 59. 59SOLOOptics History 1881An American engineer, William Wheeler, patents a system ofinternally reflective pipes to guide light from a central intensesource to locations throughout a building. This form oflighting is impractical at the time and the light bulb becomesthe more practical method of artificial lighting .http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1867-1899.htmlIt is possible to channel light down a hollow tube having a reflective metallicinterior finish. Such metallic light guides date back to 1882 when scientist WilliamWheeler postulated that highly reflective mirrored pipes could be used to "pipe" lightthroughout a building from a central light source. This is an inventive idea, butunfortunately it has not been very practical because high reflectivity metallic surfaceswere simply not reflective enough to deal with the large number of reflections thatwould occur in such a complex system. Even today, with the development of higherreflectivity coatings for metal surfaces, the dream of piping light throughout abuilding seems elusive. 60. 60SOLOPhotography 1881tienne-Jules Marey (France) invents the "photographicgun," the world's first portable motion picture camera. Thedevice uses a rotating photographic glass plate that takestwelve consecutive pictures per secondhttp://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1867-1899.htmltienne-Jules Marey(1830 1904)Marey's photographic gunMarey adopted and further developed animatedphotography into a separate field of chronophotographyin the 1880s. The revolution was to record several phasesof movement in one surface.Flying pelican captured by Marey around 1882.He found a way to record several phases of movementsin one photohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Jules_MareyRun Thishttp://www.precinemahistory.net/1880.htm 61. Frederick Ives and the Invention of Halftone: A Brief History of Photomechanical PrintingLittle excitement was aroused in 1888 when Frederick Ives announced the invention of thecrossline halftone screen, the technology which would, in a few short years, revolutionize theAmerican publishing industry. Although Ives never profited from this invention, there can be nodoubt that without the crossline halftone screen, the Ten-Cent Magazine revolution of the 1890swould have never taken place.Ives's career as a photographic inventor began in 1873 when, at the age of 17, whileworking as an apprentice printer for a newspaper in Litchfield, Connecticut, he constructeda camera from a cigar box and spectacle lens so that he could experiment with the collodionwet-plate process. By 1875, Ives had become so adept at photography that he securedhimself a job with Cornell University's photographic laboratory, where he conducted hisfirst experiments in "finding photographic means to produce engraved printing plates."After a few years, Ives had found the means he was looking for -- a way of making what hecalled a "halftone" photoengraving.61SOLOOptics History 1881One of the first halftones printed in Harper's Magazine, from a plate manufacturedby Frederick Ives while working for Crosscup & West. From J.L. Kipling, "IndianArt in Metal and Wood," Harper's Magazine, June 1883, p.59.http://dphillips.web.wesleyan.edu/halftone/chap1.htmlFrederick Ives (USA) invents and patents the halftone engravingprocess that makes it possible to reproduce photographic images in thesame operation as printing text.http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1867-1899.html 62. 62SOLOX -Ray 1881Through his experiments into the nature of "cold light," Mr.Puliui invented an X-ray emitting device as early as 1881. Thetubes of this invention became known as the "Pului lamp" andwere mass-produced for a period. Mr. Puliui personally presentedone of them to Mr. Roentgen. And it was Mr. Puliui, not Mr.Roentgen, who first demonstrated an X-ray photograph of a 13-year-old boy's broken arm and an X-ray photograph of hisdaughter's hand with a pin lying under it. A couple of years later,Mr. Roentgen was to publicly repeat the same experiments, but indoing so did not once credit Mr. Puliui's role in this discovery.Ivan Puliuj1845 - 1918How is it then that Mr. Roentgen, and not Mr. Puliui, is automatically associated withthe discovery of the X-ray? Although he perfectly understood the nature of the X-raysthat he had discovered, Mr. Puliui's article "Luminous Electrical Matter and theFourth State of Matter" was expressed in a way that 19th century science considered tobe old-fashioned, which hindered the immediate acceptance of his work as a greatdiscovery. Mr. Puliui's experiments were published in the "Notes" of the [Austrian]Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1880-1883; these were later published in a book that[Great Britain] Royal Society recognized as one of the most outstanding achievementsof world science. 63. 63SOLOOptics History 1882Lewis Latimer (USA) develops and patents a process forefficiently manufacturing carbon filaments for incandescentlamps.http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1867-1899.htmlLewis Howard Latimer1848 - 1928Latimer became a member of Thomas Edison's elite research team,"Edison's Pioneers." Here Latimer made his most importantscientific contributions, by improving the light bulb invented byEdison.Edison's prototypical light bulb was lit by a glowing, electrified filamentmade of paper, which unfortunately burnt out rather quickly. Latimercreated a light bulb with a filament made of the much more durablecarbon. He sold the patent for the "Incandescent Electric Light Bulb withCarbon Filament" to the United States Electric Company in 1881, but didnot rest on his laurels. Latimer went on to patent a process for efficientlymanufacturing the carbon filament (1882), and developed the nowfamiliar threaded socket (though his was wooden) for his improved bulb.Moreover, Latimer wrote the first book on electric lighting, IncandescentElectric Lighting (1890), and supervised the installation of public electriclights throughout New York, Philadelphia, Montreal, and London.http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/latimer.html 64. Gustav RobertKirchhoff1824-18871. Obliquity or Inclination Factor:cos cos1 1 1 1PS rF r1 SrUUnU ,1882K , cos 1 1 & cos 1 164SOLODiffractionFresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Theory A j k r rsource s 1 1 1 1j k r r K dSr rAdSr n r nr rU r jSsssourceS S SsF ,2exp2 expWe recovered the Fresnel Diffraction Formula with:r n r n S S S SSS S SS r n r n22 0, 0 1 & 0, 0 S S K K2. Additional phase /23. The amplitude is scaled by the factor 1/ (not found in Fresnel derivation) SRScreenAperture0 P 0, 011SS nU QS 1nS 1nS In 1882 Gustav Kirchhoff gave a mathematical derivation ofFresnel Diffraction Theory 65. 65SOLOMichelson InterferometerInterference 1882Nobel Prize 1907Interference Phenomena in a new form of Refractometer,American J. of Science (3), 23, (1882), pp.392-400 andPhilos. Mag. (5) 13 (1892), pp.236-242Jos Antonio Diaz Navashttp://www.ugr.es/~jadiaz/2x y fI I I I I d2 22 coscos 21 2 1 2 I intensity of the interference fringesI1, I2 intensity of the intensities of the two beams wavelengthd path length difference between the twointerferometers armsx,y coordinates of the focal plane of a lens offocal length fRun This 66. 66SOLOH.A. Rowland at the John Hopkins University greatly improved diffraction gratings,introducing curved grating.Diffraction 1882http://thespectroscopynet.com/educational/Kirchhoff.htmAmerican physicist who invented the concave diffractiongrating, which replaced prisms and plane gratings in manyapplications, and revolutionized spectrum analysistheresolution of a beam of light into components that differ inwavelength.http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9064251/Henry-Augustus-RowlandHenry Augustus Rowland1848 - 1901http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/rowland.htmlRowland gratingsRowland invented the ruling machine that can engrave as manyas 20,000 lines to inch for diffraction gratings 67. SOLOTheory of Colors 1883 -1897Alois Hfler(1853--1922)Alois Hfler (1853-1928), the Austrian educationalist and philosopher, produced manytexts on both psychology and general science and made a name for himself by publishing theBerliner Kant-Ausgabe (1903). In 1897, his textbook Psychologie appeared, in which heintroduced his first colour system a double pyramid with rectangular base (an octahedron).He later proposed a further, derivative colour solid with a triangular base (tetrahedron). White(W.) and black (BK.) are found at the tips of both constructions, with grey appearing in themiddle.Hfler also sought a relationship between the harmony of colours and music. In his books, heexplicitly points to the sequence white-grey-black since he discovers here a "quasi-straightline", meaning a straight line limited at both ends. Such a line, however, appears unfamiliar tomusic and musical notes.The rectangle the system of four operates with the four elementary perceived colours:yellow (Y), red (R), blue (B) and green (G). Of these four psychological colours, only the yellowreappears, along with cyan (C) and purple (P), in the artists' triangle, which thus contains thesubtractive primary colours.The purpose of Hfler's arrangement is not to provide an organisational or identificationsystem, and neither does he consider that colour variations can be subordinated, for instance tothe geometrical properties of a sphere. He is more concerned with "certain alternative internalrelationships" between the colours. His colour-octahedron not only represents Hering's basiccolours, but also their relationship as opposing colours.Hfler's solid should be seen as an expression of the relationship between coloured sight on theone hand and the psychological effect of colours on the other. For this reason, manypsychological textbooks have adopted his pyramids to provide information on our perception ofcolours. 68. 68Electromagnetism SOLO1884http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1867-1899.htmlPhysicist Heinrich Hertz (Germany) uses a new method to deriveequations for Maxwell's Electrodynamic Theory, clarifying thetheory and better defining the relationship between electric andmagnetic fields.Heinrich Rudolf Hertz1857-1894HERTZs POTENTIALSV0 0From Lorenz Conditions: A we can define the0 0 0 tElectric Hertzs Vector Potential (1884) such thate A et0 0 0 V 0e The field vectors are given by 0 1 E mt tV AAtee 2 020 0 000 m e mt t1 H A V At 220 0 0 0000 69. http://histv2.free.fr/nipkow/nipkow2de.htmPaul Gottlieb Nipkow(1860 1940)69Television SOLO1884German engineer Paul Gottlieb Nipkow patents his concept for a completeelectromechanical television system. The key piece is the Nipkow disc, a rotatingdisc with holes in a spiral pattern that makes it possible to scan and electricallytransmit moving images.http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1867-1899.htmlHe applied to the imperial patent office in Berlin for a patent covering an electric telescope forthe electric reproduction of illuminating objects, in the category "electric apparatuses". This wasgranted on 15 January 1885, retroactive to 6 January 1884. It is not known whether Nipkow everattempted a practical realization of this disk but one may assume that he himself neverconstructed one. The patent lapsed after 15 years owing to lack of interest. Nipkow took up aposition as a designer at an institute in Berlin-Buchloh and did not continue work on thebroadcasting of pictures.Nipkows Mechanical Television System, 1884http://inventors.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/NIPKOW%5FDISK.html 70. 70SOLO ElectromagnetismEM People1873 - 1884John Henry Poynting1852-1914Oliver Heaviside1850-1925Nikolay Umov1846-19151873Theory of interaction on finaldistances and its exhibit toconclusion of electrostatic andelectrodynamic laws1884 1884Umov- Poynting vectorS E HThe Umov-Poynting vector was discovered by Umov in 1873, and rediscovered byPoynting in 1884 and later in the same year by Heaviside. 71. 71SOLOSpecroscopy 1885Johan Jakob Balmer presented an empirical formula describingthe position of the emission lines in the visible part of thehydrogen spectrum.Johan Jakob Balmer1825 - 1898Balmer was a mathematical teacher who, in his spare time, wasobsessed with formulae for numbers. He once said that, givenany four numbers, he could find a mathematical formula thatconnected them. Luckily for physics, someone gave him thewavelengths of the first four lines in the hydrogen spectrum.Balmer Formula 2 2 2 hm / m n2, 3654.6 10 , 3,4,5,6, 8 n h cm m Hviolet blue - green redn n 5n 4n 3n 2n 1Lymanserie4 1 1me 2 3 2 20BalmerseriePaschenserieBrackettserieE 0Energy 81c h n nf 1 f n 2 f n 3 f n 4 f n 72. 72SOLO Photography 1885George Eastman (USA) beginsmarketing the world's first commercialfilm. Transparent and flexible, it is cutinto narrow strips and wound on aspindle for use.http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1867-1899.htmlIn 1885, Eastman began marketing the world's first commercialfilm: transparent and flexible, it could be cut into narrow strips andused while wound on a spindle. In 1888, Eastman introduced his"Kodak" to the market: a compact box camera with 100 exposures'worth of film, priced at $25. Whatever improvements have been madesince then, all non-digital hand-held cameras used today evolved fromthat first Kodak.http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/eastman.html 73. Otto Schott brought his unique glass experiments to Jena and formed a partnership withCarl Zeiss and Ernst Abbe which resulted in totally new forms of optical and other glass.The optical glass enabled Zeiss to manufacture new microscope objectives and othernew breakthrough products as well and helped to assure their leading scientific prowessfor many years to come. The firm became the leading glass and optical glass firm in theworld. Schott, too, was separated into East and West factions and both prospered untilthe unification of Germany when the Eastern firm was merged into the Western firm.73SOLO Optics History 1886Schott and Associates, Inc. produce apochromatic lenses that correctchromatically for three colors simultaneously.http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1867-1899.htmlhttp://www.zeisshistorica.org/companies.htmlOtto Schott(1851 1935)1889 was the year after the death of Carl Zeiss and the same year that Abbe announced newapochromatic objectives which were totally color corrected. These were possible due to theefforts of Otto Schott who had reacted to Abbe's public statements that current glasstechnology would not permit such an improvement. Schott has sent glass samples that werebetter but not right for Abbe's purposes. Schott relocated to Jena and after a lot of discussionbetween the partners Zeiss and Abbe and a subsidy from the Prussian government, a glassfactory was constructed and Schott produced what Abbe was looking for. In fact, Schottrevolutionized the glass industry and the the partnership was extremely successful.http://www.zeisshistorica.org/microscopes.html 74. 74SOLO Optics HistorySchott Glass Letter-Number Code and Abbe Number VAn Abbe diagram plots the Abbe number againstrefractive index for a range of different glasses(red dots). Glasses are classified using the SchottGlass letter-number code to reflect theircomposition and position on the diagram.nF blue index produced by hydrogenwavelength 486.1 nm.nd yellow index produced by heliumwavelength 587.6 nm.nC red index produced by hydrogenwavelength 656.3 nm.Define:nF nC - mean dispersionndn nF Cv1- Abbes Number or v value or V-number 75. 75SOLO Optics History 1886Following the work of his predecessor, Ernest Abbe, microscopistCarl Zeiss produces a light microscope with lenses capable ofresolving images at the theoretical limit of visible light. This ispossible through the use of a microscope corrected for bothspherical and chromatic aberration, applying Kohler illuminationwith matched substage condenser lenses and apochromaticobjectives.http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1867-1899.htmlhttp://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/webb/BOT410/KolZeiss/KolZeiss.html 76. 76SOLO Ray Tubes 1886In 1886 Eugen Goldstein noted that cathode-ray tubes with aperforated cathode emit a glow from the end of the tube near thecathode. Goldstein concluded that in addition to the electrons, orcathode rays, that travel from the negatively charged cathode towardthe positively charged anode, there is another ray that travels in theopposite direction, from the anode toward the cathode. Because theserays pass through the holes, or channels, in the cathode, Goldsteincalled them canal rays.When the cathode of a cathode-raytube was perforated, Goldsteinobserved rays he called "canal rays,"which passed through the holes, orchannels, in the cathode to strike theglass walls of the tube at the end nearthe cathode. Since these canal raystravel in the opposite direction fromthe cathode rays, they must carry theopposite charge.Eugen Goldstein(1850 1930) 77. 77SOLO Specroscopy 1887Johannes RobertRydberg1854 - 1919Rydberg generalized Balmers hydrogen spectral lines formula. Rydberg Formula1 1 1for Hydrogen 2 2n n 5n 4 H i fR n nn 3n 2 n 1Lymanserie4 1 1me 2 3 2 20BalmerseriePaschenserieBrackettserieE 0Energy81c h n nf 1 f n 2 f n 3 f n 4 f n4e2 30 8Hm eR h cRydberg Constantfor Hydrogen31 9.10938188 10 e m kg Electron mass 19 e 1.602176452 10 C Electron charge Permittivity of 8.854187817 10 12F / m 0 vacuum34 h 6.62606876 10 J s Plank constant Theodore Lyman1874 - 19542 i n Balmer series (1885)Johan Jakob Balmer1825 - 1898Friedric Paschen1865 - 19473 i n Paschen series (1908)4 i n Brackett series (1922)Frederick Sumner Brackett1896 - 19721 Lyman series (1906) i n 78. 78Special RelativitySOLOMichelson and Morley ExperimentAlbert AbrahamMichelson1852 - 1931Edward W. Morley1887Mikelson and Morley attempted to detect the motion of earth through the aetherby comparing the speed of light in the earth direction movement in the orbit aroundthe sun with the perpendicular direction of this movement.They failed to find any differences, a result consistent with a fixed speed of lightand Maxwells Equations but inconsistent with Galilean Relativity. 79. 79Photoelectricity SOLO1887In 1887 Heinrich Hertz, accidentally discovered the photoelectric effect.Heinrich Rudolf Hertz1857-1894------ejected electrons-- ------metallic surfaceincomingE.M. waveshttp://en.wikipedia/wiki/Photoelectric_effecthttp://en.wikipedia/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz 80. 80SOLO Electromagnetism1888In 1888 Heinrich Hertz, created in Kieln Germany a devicethat transmitted and received electromagnetic waves.Heinrich Rudolf Hertz1857-1894His apparatus had a resonantfrequency of 5.5 107 c.p.s.AircapacitorHertz also showed that thewaves could be reflected by awall, refracted by a pitch prism,and polarized by a wire grating.This proved that theelectromagnetic waves had thecharacteristics associated withvisible light.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz 81. SOLO Photography 1888Louis Aim AugustinLe Prince1842 - 1890Louis Aim Augustin Le Prince (born 28 August 1842, vanished 16September 1890) was an inventor who is considered by many filmhistorians[1] as the true father of motion pictures,[2] who shot the firstmoving pictures on paper film using a single lens camera.A Frenchman who also worked in the United Kingdom and theUnited States, Le Prince conducted his ground-breaking work in1888in the city of Leeds, West Yorkshire, England.In October 1888, Le Prince filmed moving picture sequencesRoundhay Garden Scene and a Leeds Bridge street scene using hissingle-lens camera and Eastman's paper film. These were severalyears before the work of competing inventors such as Thomas Edison(whose first motion picture was made in 1891) and Auguste and LouisLumire (who made their first motion picture in 1892). RoundhayGarden Scene is listed by the Guinness Book of Records and InternetMovie Database as the earliest surviving motion picture.He was never able to perform a planned public demonstration in theUnited States because he mysteriously vanished from a train in 16September 1890.[3] His body and luggage were never found, but, overa century later, a police archive was found to contain a photograph ofa drowned man who could have been him60mm film spools used by LePrince on his 1888 single-lenscamera-projector MkII (1930Science Museum, London) 82. SOLOTheory of Colors 1890Karl Ewald KonstantinHering(1834 1918)Hering disagreed with the leading theory developed mostly byThomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz. Helmholtz's theorystated that the human eye perceived all colors in terms of threeprimary colors: red, green, and blue. Hering instead believed that thevisual system worked based on a system of color opponency, aproposal now widely recognized as correct.Hering looked more at qualitative aspects of color and said there weresix primary colors, coupled in three pairs: red-green, yellow-blue andwhite-black. Any receptor that was turned off by one of these colors,was excited by its coupled color. This results in six different receptors.It also explained afterimages. His theory was rehabilitated in the1970s when Edwin Land developed the Retinex theory that stated thatwhereas Helmholtz's colors hold for the eye, in the brain the threecolors are translated into six. 83. Nobel Prize 190883SOLO Photography1891Gabriel Lippmann made the first colour photographic plate.Professor Lippmann had evolved the general theory of his processfor the photographic reproduction of colour in 1886 but thepractical execution presented great difficulties. However, afteryears of patient and skilful experiment, he was able tocommunicate the process to the Academy of Sciences in 1891,although the photographs were somewhat defective due to thevarying sensitivity of the photographic film. In 1893, he was able topresent to the Academy photographs taken by A. and L. Lumire inwhich the colours were produced with perfect ortho-chromatism.He published the complete theory in 1894.http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1908/lippmann-bio.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Lippmannhttp://thespectroscopynet.com/educational/Kirchhoff.htmGabriel Lippmann1845 - 1921Early colour photograph of flowers by Lippmann 84. William Kennedy LaurieDickson(1860 1935)http://www.earlycinema.com/pioneers/dickson_bio.html84SOLO Photography 1891W. K. Laurie Dickson of the Thomas Edison Laboratory (USA) invents thefirst celluloid film motion picture camera, the Kinetograph. The films aredisplayed with the Kinetoscope (Motion Picture Viewer, or Peepshow), whichwas developed shortly after the Kinetograph.http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1867-1899.htmlFrame from restored version of the DicksonDicksons invention, the Kinetoscope, was simple:a strip of several images was passed in front of anilluminated lens and behind a spinning wheel. Infact, Edison saw very little value in the contraption,but thought that it might be served to endorse hisphonograph.On January 7, 1894, Dickson received a patent formotion picture film. Shortly afterwards, after a greatdeal of debate with Edison and West Orange filmcolleague Jonathan Cambell, Dickson switched fromthe 19 mm width, single sprocket film he was using,to the more stable 35 mm double-sided sprocket film.Edison didn't see the need or benefit for redesigningthe equipment to accept the larger negative, butDickson and Campbell believed it was essential if thetechnology was to advance. Today's standard is still35 mm double-sided sprocket film.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dickson_Experimental_Sound_Film Experimental Sound Film (1894/95) 85. Ernst Waldfried Joseph Wenzel85SOLO Interferometers1891/92Ernst Mach and Ludwig Zehnder separately described what has becomethe Mach-Zender Interferometer.Mach1838 - 1916Ludwig Louis AlbertZehnder1854-1949Ernst Mach. Modifikation und Anwendung des Jamin Interferenz-Refraktometers.Anz. Acad. Wiss. Wien math. Naturwiss. Klasse 28, p.223-224, 1981Ludwig Zehnder, Ein neuer Interferenzrefractor, Z.Instrumentenkd. 11, p.275-285,1981 86. 86SOLO PolarizationPoincar Sphere1892H. Poincar, Thorie Mathmatique de la Lumiere,Gauthiers-Villars, Paris, 1892, Vol.2, Ch.12Jules Henri Poincar1854-1912S Scos2 cos2 /S S cos2 sin 2 /S S sin 2 /We foundxyAy Ax AA3S1 S2 S222cos2 cos2 cos2 sin 2 sin 2201 02 0S Scos 2 cos 2 cos 2 S S2320222021S S tan tan 2 / sin 2 tan 2 tan 2 cos sin 2 sin 2 sin3 0We see that the normalized Stokes Parameters can berepresented as a unit vector on a sphere (called PoincarSphere) using the Polarized Ellipse parameters and .Run This 87. 1893'http://www.physi.uni-heidelberg.de/~schmiedm/Vorlesung/LasPhys02/LectureNotes/OpticsCrystals.pdf#search='Pockels%20EffectThe electro optical effects are called Pockels or Kerr where the refractive indexchanges linearly or quadraticly, respectively.87SOLO PolarizationElectro Optical EffectsPockels Effect 1893r n Vn L2 x x' '2 ' '1 22 3retardationr Ennnn Lx yzy y32:' ' 0 k Pockels1 12 0 k Kerrn K Enk2Frederich Carl AlwinPockels(1865-1913)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pockels_effect 88. 88SOLO Microscopy 1893The Khler illumination technique was first introduced in 1893 byAugust Khler of the Carl Zeiss corporation as a method ofproviding the optimum specimen illumination. This technique isrecommended by all manufacturers of modern laboratorymicroscopes because it can produce specimen illumination that isuniformly bright and free from glare, thus allowing the user torealize the microscope's full potential.http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/kohler.htmlhttp://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/anatomy/kohleroriginal.htmlhttp://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/anatomy/kohler.html 89. 89X-Ray SOLO 1895Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen a German physicist did research onCathode ray's in 1895 with a Crookes tube, he discovered whileworking, that a plate of Barium Platino-Cyanide (fluorescent crystals)on a nearby table in his workroom glowed when he activated the tube.Even when he covered the tube with black material it kept glowing.This was a new phenomena, Rntgen named this X-Rays. In the nextexperiments he used photographic material and made his first X-Raypicture, the hand of his wife Anna Bertha. Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen1845-1923Nobel Prize 1901William Rntgens work roomhttp://members.chello.nl/~h.dijkstra19/page5.html 90. 90X-Ray SOLO 1895Thomas Edison investigates several thousand materials fortheir ability to fluoresce under X-ray exposure. He concludesthat calcium tungstate is the most effective substance. ByMarch 1896, his fluoroscope will be the standard tool formedical X-ray examinationshttp://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1867-1899.htmlIn 1895 Edison experimented with Roentgen's X-ray andfrom these experiments developed the fluoroscope.Edison did not patent this invention but chose to leavethis to public domain because of its universal need inmedicine and surgery.http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/scienceservice/011018.htm 91. Cinematographe (closed and open)91Motion Pictures SOLO 1895AUGUSTE (1862 - 1954) LOUIS (1864 - 1948) LUMIREAuguste Lumire (right)and Louis Lumire (left)One of the first commercial, public showings of a motion picture (and made with acelluloid film camera/projector), took place December 28 of 1895 at the Grand Caf onthe boulevard des Capucines in Paris. The Lumire's used the basement to open theirmovie theatre known as the Cinematographe Lumire Freres'. A private showing of themachine (as well as experimental films) took place in March of the same year - seebelow. The device was the Cinematographe (below), and was used in scheduled showingsfrom that point on. It was constructed by Jules Carpentier of the Lumire factory, withAlfred Molteni adding the lamphouse, and had a claw-like mechanism in order toprovide the required intermittent pull-down movement of 35mm perforated-celluloidfilm. The film which had two perforations per frame, was also manufactured by theLumire business. (Image Source: Smithsonian Institute)One of the rolls of film shown (there wereten) was titled for lack of a better term,'Workers Leaving The Lumire Factory'[Factory La Sortie Des Ouvriers De LursineLumiere]THE LUMIRE EXPERIMENTAL FILMSThe first of the Lumire private screeings took place on 22 March 1895 inpreparation for the public showing in December of that year. Known asActualits, or 'actuality' films, their repertoire of experimental films amassed toover two thousand by the year 1903.http://www.precinemahistory.net/1895.htmRun This 92. 92Metrics that define Image Quality Strehl Ratio1895eyeHStrehl, Karl 1895, Aplanatische und fehlerhafte Abbildung imFernrohr, Zeitschrift fr Instrumentenkunde 15 (Oct.), 362-370.Dr. Karl Strehl1864 -1940One of the most frequently used optical terms in both,professional and amateur circles is the Strehl ratio. It isthe simplest meaningful way of expressing the effect ofwavefront aberrations on image quality. By definition,Strehl ratio - introduced by Dr. Karl Strehl at the end of19th century - is the ratio of peak diffraction intensities ofan aberrated vs. perfect wavefront. The ratio indicatesimage quality in presence of wavefront aberrations; oftentimes, it is used to define the maximum acceptable level ofwavefront aberration for general observing - so-calleddiffraction-limited level - conventionally set at 0.80 Strehl.dlHStrehl Ratio 93. William H. Pickering(1858-1938)93Other Metrics that define Image Qualityc.1895http://www.damianpeach.com/pickering.htmFIGURE 34: Pickering's seeing scale uses 10 levels to categorize seeing quality, with the level 1 beingthe worst and level 10 near-perfect. Its seeing description corresponding to the numericalseeing levels are: 1-2 "very poor", 3 "poor to very poor", 4 "poor", 5 "fair", 6 "fair to good"7 "good", 8 "good to excellent", 9 "excellent" and 10 "perfect". Diffraction-limited seeingerror level (~0.8 Strehl) is between 8 and 9.Pickering 1 Pickering 2 Pickering 3 Pickering 4 Pickering 5Pickering 6 Pickering 7 Pickering 8 Pickering 9 Pickering 10 94. 94SOLO SpectroscopyZeeman Effect1896Pieter Zeeman observed that the spectral linesemitted by an atomic source splited when the source isplaced in a magnetic field.In most atoms, there exists several electronconfigurations that have the same energy,so that transitions between different configurationcorrespond to a single line.Because the magnetic field interacts with theelectrons, this degeneracy is broken giving rice tovery close spectral lines.no magnetic fieldB = 0a,b,cd,e, fmagnetic fieldabcdefB 0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeman_effectNobel Prize 1902Pieter Zeeman1865 - 1943 95. 95SOLO DiffractionRayleigh-Sommerfeld Diffraction Formula1896The first rigorous solution of a diffraction problem was given by Sommerfeld in1896 for a two-dimensional case of a planar wave incident on an infinitesimally thin,perfectly conducting half plane.Arnold JohannesWilhelmSommerfeld1868 - 1951A. Sommerfeld : Mathematische Theorie der Difffraction,Math. Ann., 47:317, 1896 96. 1 C 2 C96SOLO InterferenceRayleighs Interferometer1896Lord Rayleigh, Proc. Roy. Soc.,59, p. 198, 1896Nobel Prize 1904Rayleighs Interferometer is used to measure the refractiveindex of a gas. His refractometer is based on Youngs doubleslit interferometer. The two coherent rays passing through theslits S1 and S2, from the single source S passed through thetubes T1 and T2 filed with the gas.When the pressure of the gas is changed in on of the tube adifference in the refraction index occurs, the optical paths ofthe two rays change and the fringe system, viewed at theeyepiece E located at the focus of the second lens, changes.A count of the fringes as they movedprovides a measurement of optical pathchange, therefore of the refractive index.The compensating plates C1 and C2, of equalthickness are rotated by the single knob D. Onepath length is shorted the other lengthened tocompensate the difference between the paths.S1 S2 S1 T2 Tf1 C2 CDDERayleigh's Interferometer 97. 97SOLO ParticlesDiscovery of the Electron1897J.J. Thomson showed in 1897 that the cathode rays are composed of electrons andhe measured the ratio of charge to mass for the electron.Joseph John Thomson1856 1940Nobel Prize 1922The total charge on the collector (assuming all electrons arestick to the cathode collector and no secondary emissions is:Q nqeThe energy of the particles reaching the cathode is:/ 2 2 E nmvqQ e 2 1mv UE2vqem 2U2Thomson Atom ModelWavelike Behaviour for Electrons 98. Marie Paul August CharlesFabry1867 1945Jean-Baptiste Alfred98SOLO InterferenceFabry Perot Interferometer1899Marie P. A.C. Fabry and Jean B.A. Perot (France)developed the Fabry Perot InterferometerPerot1863 1925Marie P. A.C. Fabry and Jean B.A. Perot,Thory et applications dune nouvelle mthode de spectroscopieinterfrentielle, Ann. Chim. Phys. (7), 16, p.115-144, 1899This interferometer makes use of multiple reflections between two closely spacedpartially silvered surfaces. Part of the light is transmitted each time the lightreaches the second surface, resulting in multiple offset beams which caninterfere with each other. The large number of interfering rays produces aninterferometer with extremely high resolution, somewhat like the multiple slits ofa diffraction grating increase its resolution.http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/fabry.htmlhttp://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/F/Fabry.htmlhttp://www.patrimoine.polytechnique.fr/collectionhomme/portrait/fabrybig.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabry-Perot_interferometer 99. Nobel Prize 191899SOLO Physical Laws of RadiometryPlanks LawPlanks Law applies to blackbodies; i.e. perfect radiators.The spectral radial emittance of a blackbody is given by:1exp / 1215c TcM BB c h c W cm m2 3.7418 104c c h / k 1.439 10m Kc km 299792.458 / sec speed of light34 2h W 6.6260 10 sec Plank constant23k W K1.3806 10 sec/ BoltzmannconstantT - Absolute Temperature inK22 4 2 41 Planks Law1900MAXPLANCK1858 - 1947 100. 100SOLO Magneto - OpticsVoigt Effect, or Magnetic Double Refraction1902In 1902 Voigt discovered that when a strong magnetic field is applied to a vapor whichlight is passing perpendicular to the field, double refraction takes place.W. Voigt, Magneto- und Elektro-optik, B.G. Teubner, Leipzig, 1908Woldemar Voigt1850 - 1919 101. Nobel Prize 1905ejected electrons- -101SOLO Photoelectricity 1902Philipp E.A. Lnard (Germany) performs experiments on thephotoelectric effect and finds that there is a threshold frequencythat must be achieved in order to produce the effect. Lightfrequencies below the threshold will not produce thephotoelectric effect.------------metallic surfaceincomingE.M. wavesk E0 http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1900-1933.htmlhttp://www.physics.usyd.edu.au/ugrad/jphys/jphys_webct/1003_qm/1003_qm_lec02.pdfPhilipp Eduard AntonLenard(1862 1947)Nazi Scientist 102. 102SOLO ParticlesThomson Atom ModelJ.J. Thomson showed in 1897 that the cathode rays are composed of electrons andhe measured the ratio of charge to mass for the electron.In 1904 he suggested a model of the atom as asphere of positive matter in which electrons arepositioned by electrostatic forces.1904--------------------Joseph John Thomson1856 1940Nobel Prize 1922 103. 103SOLO Telescope 1904Snow Solar TelescopeTwo of Snow's three mirrors are shown. The lower mirror (the"coelostat," seen from behind) tracks the Sun and sends its light to thesecond mirror (on tall support post). From there, the light is bouncedto the primary mirror (not shown), which is sheltered in the long shed-likeGeorge Ellery Hale (1868 1938)Year completed:1904Telescope type:ReflectorLight collector:Silver-coated glass mirrorMirror diameter:24 inches (61 cm)Light observed:VisibleAmerican astronomer George Ellery Halewanted to study the Sun. For this he built anew type of telescope.building.The solar telescope would use a moveable mirror, called acoelostat (pronounced seelostat), to constantly reflect theSuns image into its instruments, even as the Sun movedacross the sky. Because the mirror, not the telescope, wouldmove to follow the Sun, the spectroheliograph could befastened to stone or concrete supports.Hale was given $10,000 by Helen Snow of Chicago, whoasked that the new replacement telescope be named afterGeorge Washington Snow, her father. 104. Nobel Prize 1921ejected electrons- -104SOLO PhotoelectricityEinstein and Photoelectricity1905Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effectdiscovered by Hertz in 1887 by assuming that the lightis quantized (using Plank results) in quantities thatlater become known as photons.------------metallic surfaceincomingE.M. wavesk E0 The kinetic energy Ek of the ejected electron is:E m v h h k e 0212where: 34 2 h W6.6260 10 sec Plank constantlight frequencyHz sec work functionh W0http://en.wikipedia/wiki/Photoelectric_effectAlbert Einstein1879 - 1955 105. 105SOLO Magneto - Optics1905Cotton-Mouton Effect, or Magnetic Double Refraction of Light in LiquidsIn 1905 A. Cotton and H. Mouton discovered that when a strong magnetic field isapplied to a liquid like nitrobenzene which light is passing perpendicular to the field,very strong double refraction is observed. This is the magnetic analog to Kerr Effect.A. Cotton and H. Mouton, Compt. Rend. Hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci. (Paris). 141,317 (1905)A. Cotton and H. Mouton, Compt. Rend. Hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci. (Paris). 141,349 (1905)Aim Cotton1869 - 1951Henri Mouton1869 -1935 106. SOLO Color Theory1905 - 1915Albert Musell was a art teacher and artist who published a simple color system in 1905 and an atlas of colors in1915. His book was successful at creating a standardized set of colors that continues to be used by artists andpublishers. to this day. The Munsell standardized colors make it easy for people to communicate in the language ofcolor. Although other tools exist to define colors, most notably the CIE 1931, they are slightly more difficult to workwith in comparison to the Munsell system. The simplicity of the system as helped it gain wide acceptance by artists,designers, photography, printers and moreThe Hue is the property of light by whichthecolor of an Object is classified as Red,Yellowor Blue iOn rr eafse rae gnrcaed taot itohne ospr evcatrruiemty. of a color.Or as the Rainbow color, just likeall the Hue's of the RainbowThe Hue is the term used in theworld of color for theclassification of Red, Yellow,Green etc.Also, although Red and Yelloware two completelydifferent, mixing both results isOrange.( Orange is sometimes referredto as Yellow-RedThe continuum of these results inthe color wheelAlbert Henry Munsell(1858 1918)Form a Color Wheel HUE's .shown as the diagram 107. 107SOLO X - Rays 1906Charles Barkla (England) polarizes X rays (selecting X-ray wavesthat vibrate in the same plane), demonstrating that X rays aretransverse waves like other electromagnetic radiation, such as light.http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1900-1933.htmlCharles Barkla evolved the laws of X-ray scattering and thelaws governing the transmission of X-rays through matter andexcitation of secondary rays. For his discovery of thecharacteristic X-rays of elements he received the 1917 NobelPrize in Physics. He was awarded the Royal Society's HughesMedal that same year.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Glover_BarklaNobel Prize 1917Charles Glover Barkla(1877 1944) 108. 108SOLO ScatteringMie Effect1908Gustav Mie presented a description of light scatteredfrom particles comparable in size (diameter) to thelight wavelength.Gustav Mie1869 - 1957 109. Hans WilhelmGeiger1882 1945Nazi PhysicistSir ErnestMarsden1889 1970Nobel Prize 1908Chemistry109SOLO Quantum TheoriesQuantum Mechanics1908 Geiger-Marsden Experiment.Ernest Rutherford1871 - 1937Geiger-Marsden working with Ernest Rutherford performedin 1908 the alpha-particle scattering experiment. H. Geigerand E. Marsden (1909), On a Diffuse Reflection of the -particle, Proceedings of the Royal Society Series A 82:495-500A small beam of -particles was directed at a thin gold foil.According to J.J. Thomson atom-model it was anticipated thatmost of the -particles would go straight through the gold foil,while the remainder would at most suffer only slight deflections.Geiger-Marsden were surprised to find out that, while most ofthe -particles were not deviated, some were scattered throughvery large angles after passing the foil. 110. 110SOLO ParticlesElectron Charge1909R.A. Millikan measured the charge of the electronby equalizing the weight m g of a charged oil dropwith an electric field E.Robert Andrews Millikan1868 1953Nobel Prize 1923 111. Ritchey-Chrtien Telescope or RCT is a specialized Cassegrain telescope with a hyperbolicPrimary and Secondary mirrors invented in 1910. First RCT constructed in 1927 had a 0.5meter diameter, and the second had a 1 m diameter.111SOLO TelescopeRitchey-Chrtien TelescopeGeorge Willis Ritchey(1864 1945)1910Henry Chrtien(1879 1956) 112. Nobel Prize 1908Chemistry112SOLO Quantum TheoriesRutherford Atom Model1911 Ernest Rutherford finds the first evidence of protons.To explain the Geiger-Marsden Experiment of 1908 hesuggested in 1911 that the positively charged atomicnucleus contain protons.Ernest Rutherford1871 - 1937Rutherford assumed that the atom model consists of a smallnucleus, of positive charge, concentrated at the center, surroundedby a cloud of negative electrons. The positive -particles that passedclose to the positive nucleus were scattered because of the electricalrepealing force between the positive charged -particle and the nucleus .Hans WilhelmGeiger1882 1945Nazi PhysicistSir ErnestMarsden1889 1970--------------------+2+2+2 113. 113Optics HistorySOLOSagnac Effect 1913In 1913, Georges Sagnac showed that if a beam oflight is split and sent in two opposite directions arounda closed path on a revolving platform, and then thebeams are recombined, they will exhibit interferenceeffects. From this result Sagnac concluded that lightpropagates at a speed independent of the speed of thesource. The effect had been observed earlier (byHarress in 1911), but Sagnac was the first to correctlyidentify the cause.The Sagnac effect (in vacuum) is consistent withstationary ether theories (such as the Lorentz ethertheory) as well as with Einstein's theory of relativity. Itis generally taken to be inconsistent with emissiontheories of light, according to which the speed of lightdepends on the speed of the source.Retrieved from"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/