On the Spectroscopy Study of the Earthshine Spectra
Transcript of On the Spectroscopy Study of the Earthshine Spectra
On the Spectroscopy Study of the Earthshine Spectra
Marina von Steinkirch
(laboratory partners: A. Massari and M. von Hippel)
State University of New York at Stony Brook
Department of Physics and Astronomy
Received : April 24, 2012; accepted : April 24, 2012
– 2 –
ABSTRACT
We obtain a low-resolution optical spectrum of the faint glow from the dark
side of the Moon, i.e., the Earthshine. We extract the Earth’s spectrum from
it and observe absorption features of ozone, molecular oxygen, and water. The
spectra is fitted to five well-known models for the atmosphere and the ground
of a planet with life content. At short wavelengths, the largest contribution to
this spectra comes from Rayleigh scattering. At long wavelengths, enhancements
with values of 4 ± 5% starting at 740 nm were found, corresponding to the red
reflectivity edge of vegetation.
Subject headings: Earthshine · Earth’s Spectrum · biosignature
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1. Introduction
The detection of exolife is one of the most important goals for future space missions.
Current space missions used to identify exoplanets include COROT, Spitzer and the Hubble
Space Telescope, as well as the secondary extended mission of Deep Impact (EPOCh)
which will observe the light reflected from exoplanets (1). ESAs Darwin mission (estimated
launch 2015) will aim to find and study the properties and composition of Earth-like
exoplanets in the infrared. Over 300 giant exoplanets already have been detected, and
hundreds, perhaps thousands more, are anticipated in the coming years. The nature of
these planets, including their orbits, masses, sizes, constituents, and likelihood that life
could develop on them, can be probed by a combination of observations and modeling.
Our observations tie in with current and future missions to observe and search for
life on exoplanets. By looking at the spectra of Earth, we can characterize what makes it
suitable for sustaining life - information that can be related to present and future exoplanet
observations. This search is characterized by the detection of possible biomarkers on
Earth-like exoplanets. On a first approach, they are simple molecules present in the planet’s
atmosphere, such as O2, O3, CO2, and H2O (see Fig.1-a). Further studies aim for the
detectibility of a proper signature of life from the planet’s surface, considering, for instance,
green vegetation as a biormaker (2).
Solar’s photon flux reaches the ground after absorption through Earth’s atmosphere.
In this case, vegetation reflects or transmits almost all incident radiation at wavelengths
where sunlight has about 40% of its energy. The vegetation reflectance (vegetation spectral
signature) has a well know spectrum, with a sharp edge of λ = 700 nm in the visible
electromagnetic spectra due to the missing photons used in photosynthetic process. This is
detected as a positive shift above the continuous spectra, starting at this wavelength, also
known as the Vegetation Red Edge (VRE) (see Fig. 1-b).
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Fig. 1.— (i) Mars Express record of Earth spectrum on the visible, (ii) The vegetation spectral signature.
The Earthshine as a Tool to the Study of other Earth-like Systems
The observation of the spectrum of Moon Earthshine, i.e., the reflection of the Earth’s
light on the non-sunlit Moon, allows one to observe the Earth as any distant planet, and to
perform studies on the detectibility of biomarkers (e.g. VRE) in its spectrum. Extracting
the Earth albedo from the Earthshine spectrum requires the measurement of moonlight
spectra (lit side of the moon) and the Earthshine spectra (unlit portion of the moon) in the
visible wavelength (3) (see Fig. 2).
The spectrum of the light reflected by the planet, when normalized to the Sun (parent
star spectrum), gives the planet reflectance spectrum revealing its atmospheric and ground
color (if this is visible by a transparent atmosphere). Quantitatively, the Earth spectrum
from the Earthshine depends on the following variables:
• the Sun spectrum as seen from outside of Earth’s atmosphere, S(λ),
• the Earth’s atmospheric transmittance, AT (λ),
• the moonlight (sunlight reflected by the Moon’s surface), MS(λ),
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Fig. 2.— (i) Moon’s Earthshine and the schematic illustration of the dark and bright side of the moon,
(ii) Schematic illustration of the sunlight reflected from the the Earth.
• the earthshine, ES(λ),
• the lunar reflectance, MS(λ),
• the Earth’s reflectance, ER(λ).
So we can write
MS(λ) = S(λ) × MR(λ) × AT (λ) × g1,
and
ES(λ) = S(λ) × ER(λ) × MR(λ) × AT (λ) × g2.
The Earth’s reflectance is given by the ratio of the two equations,
ER(λ) =ES(λ)g1
MS(λ)g2
, (1)
where EM(λ) and MS(λ) should be recorded simultaneously to avoid airmass variation,
and g1, g2 are geometric factors related to the position of Sun, Moon and Earth, and they
can be set to unity.
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The vegetation red edge is extracted from ER(λ),
V RE =rI − rR
rR
, (2)
where rI and rR are the near infrared and red reflectance integrated over the spectral
domains (∼ 10 nm width) (1) (4) (5).
– 7 –
2. Observations
This experiment aims to obtain an optical spectrum of Earthshine and test for the
presence of biomarker features,e.g., O2, O3, H2O, and the presence of the vegetation red
edge through fits of several models’ components to the observed spectrum. The observations
were performed on the Mt. Stony Brook 14-inch telescope, with the DADOS optical
spectrograph (6), and the SBIG STL-402 CCD camera (7), on the date of April 17th,
from 1:30 am to 5:30 am. The sky was clean and the temperature was around 55◦ F. The
overall cloud cover from the archival satellite imagery and the Earth seen from the moon,
can be seen in the figures 12 and 13, in the appendix.
2.1. Setting up the Spectrometer
A spectrometer splits the incoming light of Earthshine by wavelength, having previously
been focused by the optical section of the instrument. The intensity of light at each
wavelength is measured and recorded by the detector, and it is then plotted against light
intensity, which is analyzed to find a number of features. In order to pick up the key
features of oxygen, water and vegetation red edge, we investigate the visible and near
infrared sections of the electromagnetic spectrum, with light of wavelengths between 500 to
800 nm.
Earthshine is brightest when most of the Earth as seen from the Moon is illuminated,
i.e., when the Moon is only a thin crescent. However, if the Moon is too close to the Sun,
there are difficulties separating the glow of Earthshine from the bright twilight sky (3). We
select a night of waxing crescent moon when the angular separation from the Sun to the
moon (from the moonrise to the sunrise) is suitable for the experiment. This means that the
moon is sufficiently high above the horizon (> 20◦), yet sufficiently close to the Sun (< 90◦)
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so that the Earthshine signal is bright. The observations cease at sunrise, since when the
Sun reaches about 5◦ below the horizon, the sky will be too bright to measure Earthshine.
We set the optical wavelength range of the spectrograph to cover our chosen set of
Earthshine absorption by molecular O2, O3, H2O. This was done before mounting the
spectrograph on the telescope with the help of the Neon light source. We looked up the
wavelengths of the strongest Neon gas transitions in the optical, adjusting the wavelength
range of the spectrograph. We use the DADOS spectrograph with long integration times.
To maximize the spectral resolution the narrowest width slit 25µm is to be used. This gives
a spectral resolution of λ/∆λ ∼ 500.
Setting the telescope tracking rate to lunar (Autostar II keypad), we obtain sequences
of spectra of the bright (moonshine) and dark (earthshine) sides of the facing Moon, each
of them together with the adjacent sky (in the adjacent slit). We also take calibration
exposures of the Neon light source and darks with duration matched to the duration of all
of the science exposures.
2.2. Estimative of Exposure Times
The Earthshine usually has low S/N (signal to background) ratio because the
observations are obtained with Moon low above the horizon, and consequently a high
airmass and low Earthshine fluxes with respect to the sky. Moreover, the detector can be
quickly saturated when recording the spectrum of the sunlit Moon crescent. When it comes
to the vegetation signal, the Earthshine data reduction becomes even more difficult: past
works (2) have shown that it is only a few percent (less than 5%) above the continuum.
Two reasons for this are pointed in the literature: (i) the variable amplitude, induced by a
variable cloud cover and the Earth phase, (ii) the strong astmospheric bands which need to
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be removed to access the surface reflectance.
Assuming that the signal is limited to photons, the signal to background ratio for each
of the sciences can be written as
S/N =√
Nγt, (3)
where t is the time of integration ans Nγ the number of photon counts.
First, we make an estimate of the exposure time for the dark and the bright side of
the waxing crescent moon, supposing that their S/N are similar. Considering that the full
moon has magnitude mfull = −12.7 and the new moon has magnitude mnew = −2.5, the
ratio of photon fluxes for the dark and bright side of the moon (7) is
Rd/b ∼Fdark
Fbright
,
∼ 0.1 × 10(mfull−mnew)/2.5,
∼ 103.
We can then derive the exposures times for each side,
tbright × Nγ bright ∼ tdark × Nγ dark × R−1d/b.
The last result means that if we keep the number of counts constant for the dark and
bright sides, we should aim for calibration dark exposure times of around 1000 larger than
those for bright, e.g., we should have at least 90 minutes of net observation of the dark side
for a 5 seconds exposure of the bright side. However, due the observational constrains, we
ended up collecting only 1/4 of this value, as it is shown in the Table 1 of the appendix.
2.3. Steps of Data Acquisition
The data acquisition was performed by the following steps, based on the exposure
times in the Table 1 in the appendix:
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1. We record the spectrum of the Neon lamp on all the slits.
2. We record a non-saturated spectrum of a bright stellar point source (Altair) at two
distinct positions on the slit. We trace their spectrum, which gives the direction along
which we extract the spectrum of the Earthshine.
3. We track the dark side of the Moon, positioning the dark limb in one slit and the
adjacent on the other and recording the spectra.
4. We measure the illuminated limb of the moon in the same way, with a much smaller
time to avoid saturation.
5. We repeat the above three procedures while the Sun is still not close enough to the
Moon.
6. We obtain sets of dark frames for all the exposure times of our sciences.
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3. Data Reduction
The CCD observations are registered as astronomical images (FITS, Flexibble Image
Transport System). All the analysis was done in IDL and ATV (8) - the source codes are
included in the appendix.
3.1. CCD Dark Frame Calibration
The first step of the data reduction is to remove the various instrumental artifacts
of the CCD, by calibrating the science images. We create dark master frames for every
exposure times, i.e., median combined frames of the CCD closed, the high signal-to-noise
dark. We subtract these frames from the respective science frames with same exposure
times and median combine these last to form a deep exposure frame.
3.2. Spectra Trace Calibration
Spectra are arranged on the CCD in a manner that most efficiently makes use of the
detector size/area. Before these spectra can be extracted, their exact positions on the
CCD must be mapped. This is the process of aperture tracing. To this, we calculated the
spectra’s trace from two methods:
1. Method 1: From a standard point source;
2. Method 2: By integrating the 1 + 1/2 strips.
The trace of the point source, e.g., a bright (standard) star in the sky, is taken by
positioning this star in each of the three slits. With ATV (8), it is possible to extract the
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spectral flux distribution 1, Fλ, as shown in the Fig. 3.
Fig. 3.— Trace extraction from a point source star in each of the three slits (from ATV).
For the Moonshine, the flux is very high and using only the the point source trace
(method 1) was enough. (see Figs. 4).
Only for the Earthshine, due to their much lower signal (in the same order of the
adjacent sky), we determine a second set of data (method 2), aiming to extract more
statistics from the data. We proceeded integrating over the whole Earthshine strip and
adding half of the middle strip (which has the adjacent sky on the other half).
3.3. Adjacent Sky Subtraction
Both the dark and bright side of the Moon are corrected for scattered light in the
telescope by subtracting the adjacent sky spectrum. The adjacent skies were always
extracted in the same way the their respective set of data. The sky-subtracted spectra can
been in the see Figs. 5.
After these reductions we were able to calculate the signal to background for the
Earthshine (methods 1 and 2) and for the Moonshine spectra, obtaining S/Npointearth = 1.8,
1Loading the image with decomposed, device=0 option and pressing x on it.
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Fig. 4.— Extraction of the point source spectra for the bright (above) and dark (below) side
of the waning crescent moon and its adjacent sky (from ATV).
S/N stripearth = 3.4 and S/Nmoon = 148, respectively.
3.4. Obtaining the Reflectivity of Earth
The reflectivity of Earth is the ratio of the Earthshine to the Moonlight spectra, i.e., by
reducing the contribution of the extra passage of the Sun through the Earth’s atmosphere
in the spectrum of the Earthshine. Dividing the dark side by the bright side (the earthshine
by the moonshine) for methods 1 and 2, we obtain the Fig. 6. We confirm that they show
a very good agreement, with a very small enhancement from the method 2. We shall use
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Fig. 5.— Earthshine spectra from method 1(top) and method 2 (down), comparing to the
scaled Moonshine spectra, in function of CCD pixel counts, and wavelength calibrated.
only this spectra on the following analysis and refer to it as the Earthshine reflectivity.
3.5. Absolute Spectra Calibration
To obtain the absolute wavelengths of the Earthshine spectrum, we measure the
spectrum of a neon calibration lamp and compare it to the well-known wavelengths of neon
transitions, see Fig. 7.
We find the λ/pixels scale dispersion and we reduce the Earthshine spectra from it.This
results on the Earthshine spectra correlation to light wavelengths, i.e., the reflectivity of
the Earth.
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Fig. 6.— Earthshine reflectivity from method 1 and 2, scaled to each other.
Fig. 7.— Wavelength transitions of neon: (left) from the literature (10), (right) experimen-
tally obtained.
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Fig. 8.— The Reflectivity of the Earth.
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4. Data Analysis and Results
4.1. Detecting Molecular Gas Features
We compare the final sky-subtracted and wavelength calibrated spectrum of the
Earthshine to predictions and existing measurements. First, we detect the molecular bands
of O2, O3, and H2O by comparing the absorption lines obtained from (9). We verify that
the abundance of those components are compatible to the literature (see Fig. 9).
Fig. 9.— Atmospheric molecular bands detected in the Earthshine spectrum.
The presence of strong absorption lines in the near infrared when comparing to shorter
regions (blue) of the spectra indicates that if human vision were sensitive a little further
toward the red, the natural world would be very red and exceeding bright. In the next
session we also see that the blue spectrum from the subsurface ocean water has a very small
contribution ranging for wavelengths around 500 to 600 nm.
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4.2. Detecting the Vegetation Red Edge
The main contributors to the optical spectrum of Earthshine (5) (12) are
1. The neutral reflectivity from high clouds (same as the Sun (blackbody) with
T ∼ 5700K and independent of the wavelength).
2. The blue spectrum of subsurface ocean water (see Fig. 10 (right)) .
3. The transmission of Earth’s clear atmosphere.
4. The Rayleigh scattering (proportional to 1/λ4).
5. The vegetation reflection spectrum from land chlorophyll plants (see Fig. 10 (left)).
Fig. 10.— Some of the models we fitted our spectra: (left) Vegetation reflection and (right)
Ocean Surface.
We fit together each of the previous five models to our spectra of the Eartshine,
inferring the partial contributions to the combined spectrum (see Fig. 11), i.e., our model
has 5 parameters. We calculate the best values for these parameters to minimize χ2point on
each point then integrate to an acceptable final value of χ2 = 7.8 (see fitting code in ROOT
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in the appendix). We assume the data are normally distributed with a variance equal to
the mean and the data points are independent from each other, so we can use the level of
significance of α > 0.1 for the fit. For five parameters, the χ25 should be less than 9, so we
see that our fit is indeed significant: χ2 is not too large for a good fit and it is large enough
to reject the null hypothesis (5).
Fig. 11.— The main models to the optical spectrum of Earthshine which we fit to our data.
They are scaled in the plot for a better display.
The most important components in the fitting are the Rayleigh scattering (high cloud
continuous) in the beginning of the spectra and the clear atmosphere (molecular spectrum)
in the whole range.
We calculate the vegetation edge from equation 2. With mean reflectances in the [600,
670 nm] and [740, 800 nm] windows in the spectrum, we obtain V GE = 4 ± 5%, which was
small but compatible with the literature (12). The errors were estimating by looking at the
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standard deviation during a “flat” part of the spectra and dividing by the mean in that
region.
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5. Conclusion
The spectrum of the Earth as it would appear to an extrasolar observer is useful for
learning how to analyze the spectra of extrasolar planets. It illustrates both atmospheric
and surface reflectivity features.
The main contribuition for the spectra comes from the atmosphere transmission. We
also see enhanced reflectivity at short wavelengths from Rayleigh scattering and apparently
negligible contributions from aerosol and ocean water scattering. We see enhanced
reflectivity of 4 ± 5% at long wavelengths starting at about 740 nm, corresponding to the
well-known vegetation red-edge. Our fittings for the Earth’s reflection spectrum shows good
agreement with the combination of reflectance, scattering, and transmission models.
The vegetation signal was not very significant mostly because of the difficulties of the
observation - we had a signal-to-background ratios of S/N < 5. Although the observations
had great part of reflecting land and had not much high clouds in the atmosphere (see
figures 12 and 13), the low signal is due to the fact that we only had 20 minutes of net
observation for the Earthshine (less than one fourth of the minimum we had estimated in
the beginning of the report).
In conclusion, we have shown that an observer in a nearby stellar system, with the same
or better resources used in this experiment, would be able to use the oxygen, water and
ozone absorption features to suspect the presence of life on Earth. The small chlorophyll
red-edge reflection feature might also help to confirm the presence of life.
– 22 –
REFERENCES
Arnold, L., et al. 2008, ApJ, 135, 323
Seager, R., et al. 2005, ApJ, 5, 3
Woolf, E., et al. 2002, ApJ, 574, 433
Arnold, L., et al. 2002, astro-ph:02063
Metchev, The Spectrum of Earthshine: Experiment Writeup, 2012.
DADOS, Spectrograph Manual, 2008
ccd, Visible-light CCD Camera Manual, 2012
ATV.PRO, http://www.physics.uci.edu/ barth/atv/, as in 04/2012
NIST Atomic Spectra Database, http://www.nist.gov/pml/data/asd.cfm, as in 04/2012
NEON spectrum, http://www.astro.sunysb.edu/metchev/, as 04/2012
Parameters for spectrum simulation, http://hitran.iao.ru, as in 04/2012
Resource for spectra of vegetation and ocean water,
http://speclab.cr.usgs.gov/spectral.lib06/ds231/datatable.html, as in 04/2012
– 23 –
Fig. 12.— Cloud coverage on Earth for the period of observations.
Fig. 13.— Earth seen from the Moon in the begin and the end time of our observations.
– 24 –
Fig. 14.— Phases of the moon for the month we were observing. The data was taken on the
17th, a waning crescent moon.
Table 1. DADOS Spectrograph Observations Log Sheet
File Object Exp. Time (s) Position in the Slit Slit (µm)
cal/1 Neon 1 in all of them 200
cal/2 Star - Altair 30 middle 200
cal/3 Star - Altair 30 bottom 200
cal/4 Star - Altair 60 top 200
bright/15/1-5 Moonshine 15 Sky on top 200
bright/30/1-5 Moonshine 30 Sky on top 200
dark/1-10 Earthshine 120 Sky on bottom 200
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