Myers’ EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (4th Ed)
-
Upload
noelani-blake -
Category
Documents
-
view
47 -
download
1
description
Transcript of Myers’ EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (4th Ed)
Myers’ EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (4th Ed)
Chapter 7
Memory
James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University
Worth Publishers
MemoryMemory
persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information
Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an
emotionally significant moment or event
MemoryMemory as Information
Processing similar to a computer
write to filesave to diskread from disk
Encoding the processing of information into the
memory system
Memory
Storage the retention of encoded
information over timeRetrieval
process of getting information out of memory
MemoryShort term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly
e.g., the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
Long term memory the relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system
Encoding
Encoding
Effortful Automatic
Encoding
Sensory Memory immediate, initial recording of sensory
information in the memory systemAutomatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, frequency and well-learned information, such as word meanings
Encoding
Effortful Processing encoding that requires attention
and conscious effortRehearsal
conscious repetition of informationto maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage
Encoding
Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the
fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2
Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better long
term retention than massed practice
Encoding
20
15
10
5
08 16 24 32 42 53 64
Time in minutestaken to relearnlist on day 2
Number of repetitions of list on day 1
Encoding
Serial Position Effect tendency to
recall best the last and first items in a list
Position of word in list
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Percentage ofwords recalled
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
What do we Encode?
Semantic Encoding encoding of meaning including meaning of words
Acoustic Encoding encoding of sound especially sound of words
Visual Encoding encoding of picture images
EncodingImagery
mental pictures a powerful aid to effortful processing,
especially when combined with semantic encoding
Mnemonics memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid
imagery and organizational devices
EncodingChunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable unitslike horizontal organization-
1776149218121941
often occurs automatically use of acronyms
HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, SuperiorARITHMETIC- A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat
Tom’s Ice Cream
Encoding- ChunkingOrganized information is more easily recalled
EncodingOrganization benefits memory
Encoding(automatic or effortful)
Imagery(visualencoding)
Meaning(semanticencoding)
Organization
Chunks Hierarchies
EncodingForgetting as encoding failureInformation never enters the memory
systemAttention is selective
we cannot attend to everything in our environment
William James said that we would be as bad off if we remembered everything as we would be if we remembered nothing
Encoding
Forgetting as encoding failure
Externalevents
Sensorymemory
Short-termmemory
Long-termmemory
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Encoding failureleads to forgetting
Encoding
Forgetting as encoding failure
Which penny is the real thing?
Storage-Retaining InformationSensory Memory
the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
Iconic Memory a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more
that a few tenths of a second Registration of exact representation of a scene
Echoic Memory momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
Storage-Short Term Memory
Short Term Memory
limited in duration and capacity
“magical” number 7+/-2 Time in seconds between presentation
of consonants and recall request(no rehearsal allowed)
Percentagewho recalledconsonants
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
03 6 9 12 15 18
Storage-Long Term Memory
Long Term Memory virtually limitless capacity we don't have to discard old items to
remember new itemsEbbinghaus- forgetting curve over
30 days initially rapid, then levels off with time
Storage-Long Term Memory
12345 10 15 20 25 30
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
Time in days since learning list
Percentage oflist retainedwhen relearning
How Does Storage Work?Karl Lashley (1950)
trained rats to solve maze, then cut out pieces of their cortex and retested their memory of maze
partial memory retained
Long-Term Potentiation increase in synapse’s firing potential after
brief, rapid stimulation
Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and
retention
Storage-Long Term MemoryAmnesia- the loss of memory Implicit Memory
retention without conscious recollection skills and dispositions also called nondeclarative memory
Explicit Memory memory of facts and experiences that one can
consciously know and declare hippocampus- neural center in limbic system
that helps process explicit memories for storage
Storage-Long Term Memory
MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus
Storage- Long Term Memory Subsystems
Types oflong-termmemories
Explicit(declarative)
With consciousrecall
Implicit(nondeclarative)
Without conscious recall
Facts-generalknowledge(“semanticmemory”)
Personally experienced
events(“episodic memory”)
Skills-motorand cognitive
Dispositions-classical and
operant conditioning
effects
RetrievalRecall
measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier
like fill-in-the-blank test
Recognition a measure of memory in which the person
need only to identify items previously learned
like on a multiple choice test
RetrievalRelearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when relearning material for a second time
Priming activation, often unconsciously,
of particular associations in memory
Retrieval Cues
Reminders of information we could not otherwise recall
Guides to where to look for info Context Effects
memory works better in the context of original learning
Retrieval Cues
0
10
20
30
40
Water/land
Land/water
Land/water
Different contexts for hearing and recall
Same contexts for hearing and recall
Land/land
Percentage ofwords recalled
Retrieval CuesDeja Vu- (French) already seen
eerie sense that "I've experienced this before" cues from the current situation may subconsciously
trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
Mood Congruent Memory tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with
one’s current mood memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues
State Dependent Memory what is learned in one state can more easily be
remembered when in same state
Retrieval
Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory
Externalevents
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Retrieval failureleads to forgetting
Retrieval
Sensorymemory
Short-termmemory
Long-termmemory
Forgetting- Interference
Learning some items may interfere with retrieving others Proactive (forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information
Retroactive (backwards acting) Interferencedisruptive effect of new learning on recall
of old information
Forgetting- Interference
Motivated Forgetting people unknowingly revise history
Repression defense mechanism that banishes
anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
Positive Transfer sometimes old information facilitates
our learning of new information
Forgetting
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it
Sensory memory - the senses momentarily register amazing detail
Short term memory - a few items are both noticed and encoded
Long-term storage - Some itemsare altered or lost
Retrieval from long-term memory - depending on interference, retrieval cuesmoods and motives, some things get retrieved, some don’t
Memory ConstructionWe filter information and fill in
missing piecesMisinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
Source Amnesia attributing to the wrong source an
event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)
Memory Construction
People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions
Imagining events can create false memories
Children's eyewitness recall Child sexual abuse does occur Some innocent people suffer false
accusations Some guilty cast doubt on true testimony
Memory Construction
Memories of Abuse Repressed or Constructed?
Child sexual abuse does occurSome adults do actually forget such episodes
False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience
sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
Memory ConstructionMost people can agree on the following:
Incest happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplace Memories “recovered” under hypnosis or
drugs are especially unreliable Memories of things happening before age 3
are unreliable Memories, whether false or real, are
upsetting
Improve Your Memory
Study repeatedly to boost recallSpend more time rehearsing or
actively thinking about the materialMake material personally meaningfulUse mnemonic devices
associate with peg words- something already stored
make up story chunk-acronyms
Improve Your Memory
Activate retrieval cues- mentally recreate situation and mood
Minimize interference Test your own knowledge
to rehearse it to determine what you do not
yet know