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Transcript of Exploring Psychology Eighth Edition Chapter 7 Learning Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers David...
Exploring PsychologyEighth Edition
Chapter 7Learning
Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers
David G. Myers
2
Definition
Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.
What behaviors are learned?What behaviors are not learned?
3
How Do We Learn?
We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence. 2000
years ago, Aristotle suggested this law of association.
Examples: ABC Song, music on a movie, smell of baked goods, sight of belt or wooden spoon
Figure 7.1 Classical conditioningMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers
Figure 7.2 Operant conditioningMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers
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Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov
Behaviorists John Watson.
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Sov
foto
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Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning:
Unconditioned Stimulus, US - food Unconditioned Response, UR - salivation . Neutral stimulus - does nothing
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Pavlov’s ExperimentsDuring conditioning:
Neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR).
After conditioning:
Neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
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Pavlov’s Experiments
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Neutral Stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Response (CR)
Examples: 1, 2, 3
We have all been classically conditioned.
• Punishment Tools• Food triggers illness• Training coyotes to
not eat sheep• Teacher getting
attention of class• Language learning• Bells at school
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
• Unconditioned Response (UR)
• Neutral Stimulus
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
• Conditioned Response (CR)
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Terms associated with classical conditioning
• Acquisition
• Higher Order Conditioning (Secondary Conditioning) – Fear of dogs, fear of barking
• Extinction
• Spontaneous Recovery
• Generalization – sound of a different tone, fear of cars and all moving objects
• Discrimination – ability to distinguish
Figure 7.5 Idealized curve of acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recoveryMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers
Figure 7.6 Child abuse leaves tracks in the brainMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers
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1. Former crack cocaine users should avoid cues (people, places) associated with previous drug use.
2. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response.
Applications of Classical Conditioning
15
Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising
campaigns for a number of organizations,
including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break”
an American custom.
Applications of Classical Conditioning
John B. Watson
Brow
n Brothers
Operant Condition
• Make a dog salivate is on thing, what about this…?
17
Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
Which is Which?
Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US).
Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events, i.e. punishments and rewards
The Law of Effect – Rewarded behavior is likely to recur.
• Edward L. Thorndike
Figure 7.10 A Skinner boxMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers
B.F. Skinner
• Shaping – providing reinforces that lead to desired behaviors.
Table 7.1 Ways to Increase BehaviorMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers
Reinforcer – any event that strengthens the preceding response.
• Positive reinforcement – strengthens a response by presenting a pleasant stimulus after a response.
• Negative reinforcement – strengthens a response by removing or reducing something undesirable or unpleasant. Negative reinforcement is not punishment.
Figure 7.11 Intermittent reinforcement schedulesMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers
Table 7.2 Schedules of ReinforcementMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers
Table 7.3 Ways to Decrease BehaviorMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers
Punishment – any consequence that decreases the frequency of a preceding behavior.
• What is better reinforcement or punishment?
Table 7.4 Comparison of Classical and Operant ConditioningMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers
Examples of Operant Conditioning
• 1, 2, 3
More About Learning
• Cognitive Maps
• Intrinsic Motivation
• Extrinsic Motivation
• Biological Predisposition
Applications of Operant Condition
28
Learning by Observation
Higher animals, especially humans,
learn through observing and
imitating others.
What have you learned by watching
others?
Imitating others is called modeling.
© H
erb Terrace
©H
erb Terrace
29
Mirror Neurons
Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.
Rep
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ith p
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Imitation Onset
Learning by observation begins early in life. This
14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV
in pulling a toy apart.
Mel
tzof
f, A
.N. (
1998
). I
mita
tion
of te
levi
sed
mod
els
by in
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s. C
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Dev
elop
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122
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hoto
s C
ourt
esy
of A
.N. M
eltz
off
and
M. H
anuk
.
31
Bandura's Experiments
Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961)
indicated that individuals
(children) learn through imitating
others who receive rewards and punishments.
Cou
rtes
y of
Alb
ert B
andu
ra, S
tanf
ord
Uni
vers
ity
32
Applications of Observational Learning
Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies
show that antisocial models (family,
neighborhood or TV) may have
antisocial effects.
33
Positive Observational Learning
Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.
Bob
Dae
mm
rich
/ The
Im
age
Wor
ks
34
Television and Observational Learning
Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children
in elementary school who are
exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased
aggression.
Ron
Cha
pple
/ Tax
i/ G
etty
Im
ages
35
Modeling Violence
Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.
Children modeling after pro wrestlers
Bob
Dae
mm
rich
/ The
Im
age
Wor
ks
Gla
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an/ T
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mag
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orks
Figure 7.15 The famous Bobo doll experimentMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers
Figure 7.16 Media violence viewing predicts future aggressive behaviorMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers