MEIOSIS AND CROSSING OVER Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs Homologous chromosomes: the 2...
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Transcript of MEIOSIS AND CROSSING OVER Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs Homologous chromosomes: the 2...
MEIOSIS AND CROSSING OVER
Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs
Homologous chromosomes: the 2 members of a pair of chromosomes—contain genes for the same traits
Somatic cells of each species contain a specific number of chromosomes
Human cells have 46, making up 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes
Chromosomes
Sister chromatids
Paired chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes both chromosomes of a pair carry “matching” genes
control same inherited characters homologous = same information
diploid2n2n = 4
homologouschromosomes
double strandedhomologous chromosomes
eye color(brown?)
eye color(blue?)
Gametes have a single set of chromosomes
Gametes~ egg or sperm Cells with two sets of
chromosomes are said to be diploid (2n) somatic cells(46 in humans)
Gametes are haploid, with only one set of chromosomes, (1n)(23 in humans)
Human female karyotype
46 chromosomes23 pairs
XX
diploid = 2 copies 2n
46 chromosomes23 pairs
XY
Human male karyotypediploid = 2
copies 2n
Life Cycle At fertilization, a sperm
fuses with an egg, forming a diploid zygote Repeated mitotic
divisions lead to the development of a mature adult
The adult makes haploid gametes by meiosis
All of these processes make up the sexual life cycle of organisms
Why meiosis?
When cells divide by mitosis, the new cells have exactly the same number and kind of chromosomes as the original cells.
Imagine if mitosis were the only means of cell division.
IF the parent organism has 14 chromosomes, it would produce gametes that contained a complete set of 14 chromosomes
The offspring would have cell nuclei with 28 chromosomes, and the next generation
would have cell nuclei with 56 chromosomes
Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid
Meiosis, like mitosis, is preceded by chromosome duplication However, in meiosis the cell divides twice to
form four daughter cells In the first division, meiosis I,
homologous chromosomes are paired While they are paired, they cross over and
exchange genetic information The homologous pairs are then separated,
and two daughter cells are produced
Meiosis I
In the first division, meiosis I, homologous chromosomes are paired As the chromosomes coil, homologous chromosomes line up with
each other gene by gene along their length, to form a four-part structure called a tetrad.Here synaspsis occurs: the meeting of two homologous pairs
While they are paired, they cross over and exchange genetic information
The homologous pairs are then separated, and two daughter cells are produced
Division in meiosis I occurs in four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
Meiosis 1 overview 1st division of meiosis
4 chromosomes
diploid 2n
2 chromosomes
haploid 1n
doublestranded
Copy DNA before meiosis
Line Up 1
Divide 1
gamete
prophase 1 metaphase 1
telophase 1
Meiosis II Meiosis II is essentially the same as mitosis
The sister chromatids of each chromosome separate
The result is four haploid daughter cells
2nd division of meiosis looks like mitosis
Meiosis 2 overview
2 chromosomes haploid 1n
4
gametes
Line Up 2
Bye Bye 2
telophase 1
metaphase 2
telophase 2
Review: A comparison of mitosis and meiosis For both processes, chromosomes replicate
only once, during interphase
Review: A comparison of mitosis and meiosis
Genetic variation Each chromosome of a homologous pair
comes from a different parent The large number of possible
arrangements of chromosome pairs at metaphase I of meiosis leads to many different combinations of chromosomes in gametes
Random fertilization also increases variation in offspring
Crossing over further increases genetic variability Crossing over is the exchange of corresponding
segments between two homologous chromosomes
Genetic recombination results from crossing over during prophase I of meiosis
This increases variation further
2006-2007
Errors of MeiosisChromosomal Abnormalities
Chromosomal abnormalities
Incorrect number of chromosomes nondisjunction
chromosomes don’t separate properly during meiosis
breakage of chromosomes deletion duplication inversion translocation
ALTERATIONS OF CHROMOSOME NUMBER AND STRUCTURE
• A karyotype is a photographic inventory of an individual’s chromosomes
• Human female karyotype
An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes
Down syndrome• This karyotype shows
three number 21 chromosomes: trisomy 21
• An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes Down syndrome
• The chance of having a Down syndrome child goes up with maternal age
Down syndrome & age of motherMother’s age
Incidence of Down Syndrome
Under 30 <1 in 1000
30 1 in 900
35 1 in 400
36 1 in 300
37 1 in 230
38 1 in 180
39 1 in 135
40 1 in 105
42 1 in 60
44 1 in 35
46 1 in 20
48 1 in 16
49 1 in 12
Rate of miscarriage due to amniocentesis: 1970s data
0.5%, or 1 in 200 pregnancies
2006 data<0.1%, or 1 in 1600 pregnancies
Accidents during meiosis can alter chromosome number
• Nondisjunction~ The failure of homologous chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis
• Abnormal chromosome count will result.
Nondisjunction • Problems in meiosis cause errors in daughter cells– chromosome pairs do not separate properly during Meiosis 1– sister chromatids fail to separate during Meiosis 2– too many or too few chromosomes
2n n
n
n-1
n+1
Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes do not usually affect
survival
• Nondisjunction can also produce gametes with extra or missing sex chromosomes
• A man with Klinefelter syndrome has an extra X chromosome
• A woman with Turner syndrome lacks an X chromosome
• XXY male– one in every 2000 live
births– have male sex organs, but
are sterile– feminine characteristics
• some breast development• lack of facial hair
– tall– normal intelligence
Klinefelter’s syndrome
Klinefelter’s syndrome
Turner syndrome• Monosomy X or X0
– 1 in every 5000 births– varied degree of effects – webbed neck– short stature– sterile
Nondisjunction
• When a gamete with an extra set of chromosomes is fertilized by a normal
haploid gamete, the offspring has three sets of chromosomes and is triploid.(3n)
• The fusion of two gametes, each with an extra set of chromosomes, produces
offspring with four sets of chromosomes—a tetraploid. (4n)
• This is polyploidy.
Alterations of chromosome structure can cause birth defects
and cancer
• Chromosome breakage can lead to rearrangements that can produce genetic disorders or cancer– Four types of
rearrangement are deletion, duplication, inversion, and translocation
Deletion
Duplication
Inversion
Reciprocaltranslocation
Nonhomologouschromosomes
Changes in chromosome structure• deletion– loss of a chromosomal segment
• duplication– repeat a segment
• inversion– reverses a segment
• translocation– move segment from one chromosome to
another