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Transcript of Manajemen Lingkungan Ok
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8/10/2019 Manajemen Lingkungan Ok
1/23
Living in
an Exponential
Age
Two
ancient kings enjoyed
playing
ches. The winner
claimed
a
prize
from
the
loser"
After
one match, the winning
king
asked
the
losing king
to
pay
him
by
placing
one
grain
of wheat
on
the
fir5t
square
of the chessboard,
two
grains
on the second
square,
four
on the third,
and so on, with
the
number
doubting
on each
square
until all 64
squares were
filled.
The
losing king,
thinking
he
wa:
getting
off
easy,
agreed
with-delight.
lt
was
the biggest mistake
he
ever
made. He
bank-
ruptifo
his
kingdom because
the number
of
grains
of wheat he
had
promised
was
probably
more
than
sll
the wheat
that
has
ever been harvested
This fictisnal
story
illustrates
the
concept of
exponential
growth,
by which
a
quantity
increases
at a
fixed
percentage
per
unit of time,
such
as
2%
per year.
Exponential
growth
is
decep-
tive. lt starts off
slowty, but
after only a
few
doublings. it
grcws
to enormous numbgrs
because each
doubling
is
more than the
total
of all earlier
growth"
Here
is another example.
Fold
a
piece
cf
pa-
per
in hall
to double its
thickness-
li
you
could
continue
doubling
the
thickness of
the
paper
42
times"
the
stack
would
reach
frorn
the earth ts
the
moon*386,400
kilometea
{240,000
mits}
away. tf
you
could double it 50 times,
the folded
paper
would
almost
reach
the sun*149 million
kilometers
(93
million
miles)
awayl
Because
of exponential
growth
in
the hu-
man
population
{Figure
1-1}, in 2008
there were
6.7
billion
people
on the
planet.
Collectively,
these
people
consume
vast
amounts of
food,
water, raw
materials,
and
energy and in
the
process
produce
huge
amounb
of
pollution
and wa5tes.
Unles5
death
rater
rise
sharply. there will
probably
be
9.3 billion
of us by
2050
and
perhaps
as many
a5
10 billion
by the
end
of
this century.
The
exponential
rate
of
global population
growth
has
declined since 1963.
[ven ro, each day
we add an
average of 225.000 more
people
to
the
earth's
population.
This is roughfy
equivalent to
adding a
new
U.5. city
of
Los Angeles.
Califarnia,
every 2 months,
a
new France
every
9
months,
and
a
new
Urited States-the warld's
third
most
popu-
lous
country*about
every 4
years.
No
one
kncrrt's
horv rnany
pecple
the
earth
can
support,
and at what level
of
resource
consump
tion or
affluence.
without
seriously
degrading the
ability of
the
planet
lo
nuppsrt us and
other
forms
of
life
and
our
economies. But
there
are
some disturbing warning
rigns. Biolo-
gists
estimate that, by the
end of this
{entury, our
exponentially
increasing
papulation
and
resource
consumption
could
qause
the
inwersible
lors
o{ one-third
to orre-half
of
the world's known
dif-
ferent
types
of
plants
and
animals.
There
is
also
growing
evidence
and concem
that
continued
exponential
growth
in
human
activities
such as burning fcsnJ
fuefs
(carbon-based
fuels
such
as
coal,
nalurai
gas,
and
gasoline)
and
clearing
forsts
will change the
earth's
climate during this
century.
This
could ruin
some
areas
for
farming, shift
water
sup-
plies,
efiminate
rnany
of
the earth'5 unique forms
of
life,
and
disrupt economigs in various
parB
of the
world.
6reaf
news;
We
have
soiutions to these
prsblems
that
we
could
implerfiEnt
within a few
decads,
as
you
will learn
in
this book.
t-6 riilli$t
years
20m
21&
.
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Key
Questions
and
Concepts*
r-r What
is
an
environmentally
sustainable
society?
corucEpr
r-rn
Our lives
and
economies depend
on
energy
frorn
the
sun
{solar
capfali
and
on natural
rescurces
and
natuial
services
(natural
capital)
provided
by the earth.
colrcEpr
r-rs Living
sustainably
means living
off
the earth's
natural
income
without
depleting
or degrading
the natural
capital
that
supplies
it,
t.2
HoLt'
can
environmentally
sustainable
societies
grow
economically?
coilcEpr
r-z
Societies
can
become
more
environmentally
sustainable
through
economic
development
dedicated
to improving
the
quality
of life
for
everyone
without
degrading
the earth,i
life
-
support
systms.
1.3
How are
our ecological
footprints
affecting
the
earth?
corucEpr
r-t
A5
our
e{ological footprints grow,
we are
depleting
and
degrading
more
of
the
earth's natural
capital.
r-c
What
is
pollution,
and what
can we
do about
it?
comcEpr
r.+
Preventing pollution
is
more
effective
and
less
costlythan
cleaning
up
pollution.
t.5 tllhy
do we have
envirounnentat
problems?
corucEpr
r.sn Major
causes
of environmental
problems
are
population
growth,
wasteful and unsustainable
resource
use,
poverty.
exclu$on
of environmental
costs
of
resoutce
use
from
the
market
prices
of
goods
and services,
and attempts
to manage
nature
with
intufficient
knowledge.
coircEp?
r.se
People
with
differnt
environmental
worldviews
often
disagree
about
the seriousne:s
of environmental
problems
and
what
we
shouid do
about them.
i.o What
are
fsur
scientific principles
of sustainabilit;r?
coitcEp?
1.6
Nature
has
sustained
itself
for
billions
of
years
by
using
solar
energy,
biodivemity,
population
control,
and nutrient
cyclingi---lessons
from
nature that
ws
can
apply
to our |ifestyles
and
economies.
'Thi5
E a
corEep
corucEpr
r.tB
living
surtainably
means
living
off
the earth,s natural
income
without
depleting
or
degrading
tha natural
capital
that
eupplies it
Environmental
Science
Is
a
Study
of
Connections
in
Nature
The environment
is
everything
around
us. It includes
all of
the
livilg
and
the nonliving
things with
which
we
interact.
Arrd it
inclucies
a
complex web of
relation*
ships that
connect
us witlr
one
another
and with
rire
world we live in.
Despite
our many
scientific
and
technological
ad-
yances,
we are
utterly
dependent
on the
environrnent
for
air, water, food,
shelter,
energy,
and everything
else
we
need
to
stay
alive
and healthy.
As a result,
we
are
part
of.
and
not
apart from,
tbe rest
of nature.
This
textbook
is
an
in[oduction
to enrrironmen-
tal
science,
an interdi*tiplinrrry
srudy of how
hunrans
interact
with
the
environment
of living
and
nonliving
5
r-inrr,
$ffi,
refert
tc the
core case
study.
S'-$%1
,"t"ru
to
rt
e
uook's
sustainability
the**.
fftr
indl.utes
tinks
to
key
concepts in
eartier chapters.
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Table
1-1
Major Fields
Subfields
Chemistry:
study
of
chemicals
and
their interactions
Earth
science;
itudy
of
the
planet
as
a whole
and its
nonliving
systems
$ocial
sciences:
studies
of human
society
Humanities:
study
o{
the aspectE
of the human
condition
not
covered
by
the
physical
and
social
sciences
things.
It
integrates
infonnation
and
ideas
from
the
natural
sdenat such
as
biology,
chemistry,
and
geology,
the
social scieflces,
such
as
geography.
economics, politi-
cal science,
and demography
(the
srudy
of
popularion$),
and
the hutnanities,
including
philosophy
and
ethics
(Table
I
-l
and
Figure
1,2).
The
goals
eif
environmental
science
are to
learn
haw
natare
works,
how the
environ-
ment
affeds
us, how
we affea
the
environment,
and how
n
deal
witle
enviranmnttal
prohlems
and live
more
sustainubly.
A
key
sulrfield
of
environmenml
science
is
ecol-
ogy,
the
biological
science
thar
studies
how
organ-
isms,
or
living
tbings,
interact
with
their
environnrent
and
with
each
other.
Every
organism
is
a member
of
a
certain
species:
a
group
ol
organisms
with
djstinc-
tive
traits
and,
for
sexually
reproducing
organisms,
can
mate
and
produce
fertile
of{spring,
Fnr
example,
all
humans
are
menrbers
of a species
that
lriclogis;s
lrave
nanred
llorro
sapiens
sapiens.
A
major focus
o{
ecology
is
the
study
of
ecosystems.
An
eco$y$tem
is
a
set of
Blology
study
of
living
things
(organisms)
Ecobgry:
study
of how
organism:
intrafi
\
/ith
ofie
another
and
with
their
nonliving
envirsnment
Sota$y:
study
of
plants
Zookogy
study
ol
anirnals
tiochemi*ry:
study
of
tle
chernistry
of
living
things
Climatology:
study
of the
earth.s
atmosphere
and
climate
Geology;
study
of the
earthb
origin,
history.
suriace,
and
interior
processes
Hydrology:
study
cf
ihe earthb
water
resources
Paleontologtrr
study
ol fossils
and
ancient life
Anthrcpology:
study
of human
cultures
Demography:
study
cf the
characteristics
of hurnan
populations
Geography:
study
of
the
relationships
betwesn
hurnan
populations
and the
eartht
suriace
features
Fcqnomicsl
study
of the
production,
distribution,
and
consumption
of
goods
and
services
Polftical
Science:
study
of the
principles.
processes,
and
strudture
of
government
and
political
institutions
'
Hktory:
study of information
and
ideas
about
humanityt
past
Ethics:
study
oi
rnoral
values
and
concefis
roncerning
right
and
wrong
hurnan
behavior
and responsibilities
Phib*phy:
study of knowledge
and wisdom
about
the
nature
of reality,
values,
and human
conduct
tthirs
Philorophy
Ilidogiy
Foliti(l
s.lance
gtonoflici
...,
.
eilttgfdlfry
A*l6relttilr
Figure
1-2
Environmental
science
is
an
interdisciplinary
study
of
connections
between
the
earth's
li{e-
support
system
and human
activilies.
CONCEPTS
1-1A
AND
1.18
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Soht
w
E
ffiffi
ffi
Figure 1-3 Key natural resaurces
(biue)
and natunl
sewices
lorange)
that support
and
sustain
the earth's
life
and
economies
iconcept
1-1A).
organisms interacting wiih
one
another and
with
their
environmenl
of
nonlivilg
matter and energy
within
a
defined area or
volume.
We should not
confuse
environmental
science and
ecology
with
environmentallrrn, a social
movement
dedicated to
protec'ting
the earfh's
life-support
systems
for us and
all
other torms of lile. Environmentalism is
prac(iced
more in
rhe
political
and ethical arenas than
in ttre realm o{ science.
Sustainability Is
thetentral Theme
of
This
Book
Sustainability
is
the ability of the earth's
various
nat-
ural systems and
human
cultural systems and econo-
rnies to
survive and
adapt to
changing enyironmental
conditions
inde{initely"
It
is the cenral theme of
this
book,
and its
components
provide
the subthemes of
this book.
CHAPTER
1 Environmental Problems.
Their
Causes,
and Sustainability
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A
critical
component
of
sqstainability
is
natural
capital-the
natural resources
and
natural services
that
keep
us and other lorms of life
alive
and
suppoil
our
econornies
(Figure
l-3). Natural
resources
are mate-
rials
and energy
in nature
thal arr egsential nr useful to
humans. These resourees
are
often
classified as
reaewable
{such
as air, water,
soil,
plants,
and wind) or
nonrfiw-
a&le
(such
as
copper, oii,
aud
coal),
Natural
servlce$
are
{unctions
of
nature,
such
as
purification
of
air
and
water,
which support life and human
economies.
Ecosystems
provide
us
with
these essential
services
aI no
cost.
One vital natural seryice is nutrient
cyding.
the
circulatian
oi
chemicals necessary for life, from the en-
vironment
(mostly
from
soil and
wateri
through or-
ganisms
and back to
the
environment
(Figure
1-4). For
exantple, tapsoil, the upper layer
of
the earlh's cnrst.
provides
the
nutrients
that support the
plants,
animals,
and
rnicroorganisms
that live on
.[and;
when
rhey
die
and decay, they resupply the
soil
with these nutrients,
Without
this service,
lile
as
we know
it
could nnt exist,
Nalural capital
is
supported by solar
capital:
en-
ergy from
the sun
(Figure
1
-3).
Take away solar energy,
and
all
rratural
capital would
collapse.
Solar
energy
warrrls the
planel
and supports
photosynthesis*a
com-
plex
chemical
process
that
plants
use to
provide
food
for
themselves and for
us
and most other
animals.
This
direct input
of snlar energy also
produces
indirect forms
of
renewable
solar energy such
as
wind, flowing water,
and
biofuels
rnade from
plants
antJ
plant
residues. Thus,
our
lives and economies
depend
on
energy from the sun
(solar
capital\ and
natural
resources
and natural seryices
(natura{
capital
)
provided
I$
the
earth
(Concept 1-1A).
A
sec6nd {omponent
of
susrainabitity-and another
sub-theme of
this
text*is
to
recognize
that many hu-
marr
activities can degrade natursl
capital by using tror-
mally renewable
resources faster than
nafure
can
reflew
them. For example, in
parts
of the world. we
are clear-
ing
mature forests much faster
than nalure
can
replen-
ish rhem.
We are also harvesting many
species
of
ocean
fish faster than
fhey can replenish themselves.
This leads us to a
third component o{ sustainability,
Environmental
scientists
search
tw
solutions to
probtrems
such
as the degradation
of
nalural
capital. However,
their
work
is limited
to finding
the scientific sotrutions.
while the
political
solutions
are
left
to
political pro-
cesses.
For example, scientific solutions
might
be
to
stop
chopping
down
biologically
diverse. mature forests,
and
to
harvest fish no faster tban
tirey can replenish tbem-
selves.
But
implementing
such
solutions could require
government
laws
and regulations.
The
search
for
solutions often involves
conflicts.
When
scientistri
argue
lor
protecting
a divrse natural
forest to help
prevent
the
premalure
extinction
of
vari-
ous life forms, for
example,
the timber company that
had
planned
to
harvest
trees
in
that
lorest might
pro-
test. Dealing
with
such
conflicts often
involves
making
trade-offs.
or compromises-a founh
component o{ sus-
tainatrility. ln
the case
of
the timber company,
it
might
be
persuaded
to
plant
a tree
farm
in an
area that
had
Rgur
t-it
Nutrient cfiing: an
important natural
service thal recycles chemicals
needed
by organisms
from the
environment
{mostly
from
soil and
water)
through
organisms and back
to
the
envuonment.
aiready been
cleared or degraded,
in
exchange
for
pre-
serving the natural forest.
Any shift
tcward
environmental
sustainability
should be based nn scientific concepts and results
that
are
widely
accepted
by
experts
in
a
particular
tield,
as
rliscussed
in
more deuil in
Chapter
2. In making
such a
shilt, individua{s
matter*another subtheme o{ this book.
Some
people
are
good
at
thinking
of new ideas and
in-
venting
innovative
technologies or
solutions.
Others
are
good
at
putting political ple$sure
on
government
ofiicials and
business
leaders,
acting either alone or in
groups
to
implernent
those solutions. In any
case, a shift
toward sustainability feir
a society ultimately depends on
the
actions of individuals
within that society.
Environmentally
Sustainable
Societies
Protect
Natural
Capital
{Zt
and Live Off Its Income
'
-\
The ultimate
goal
is
an
environmentally
sustain-
atrle
rociety-one
that
meets the current
and
fulure
basic
resource
needs of its
people
in
a
just
and equita-
ble mauner
without
compromising
the atriliry
of
future
generations
t0
meet
their
basic
needs.
Imagine
you
win
$l
million
in
a lottery.
If
you
in-
ve$
lhis money and earn
l0olo
iuterest
per year. you
will
have
a
sustainable
income
of
$100,000
a
year
that
you
can
live off
of indefinitely,
while allowing
interest
to
accumuiate on what is Ieft afier each withdrawal,
without depleting
your
capital.
However. if
you
spend
9
ONCEPTS 1.1A AND 1.18
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$200,000
per year,
even while
allnwing
intere$t to ac-
cumulate,
your
capihl
of
$l
million will
be
gone
early
in
the seventh
yi:ar.
nven
i{
you
spend
only
$110"000
per
year
and stilt
allow
the interest
to
accumulate,
you
will
be
bankrupr
early
in
rhe eighteenth year.
The lesson
here is an old one:
Przted
ylur
capital and
live
off the income it
pravides"
Deplete
or waste
your
capi-
tal,
and
you
will move
from a sustainable
to
an unsus'
tainable
lifestyle.
The sarne
lesson applies
to our u$e
of the ear-th's
natural capital-rhe
global
trust
lund
that
nature
pro-
vides
for
us"
Living swsuinably
means
living otf
natural
lncomc. the
renewable
resources such
as
plants,
ani
mals. and
soil
provided
by nalural
capital.
This means
preserving
the earth's
naturai capital, which
supplies
this
income,
while
providing
the
human
yrpularion
with
adequate
and equitable
access
to this narural
in-
come
for tlre
{ore seeable
future
{Concept
1-'lB)'
The bad
news
is
that,
according io
a
gr*wing
body
of
scientific
evidence,
we are
living unsustainably
by wasl-
ing, depleting.
and degrading
the earth's
natural
capital
at
an exponerrially
accelerating
rate
(core
case
t*-
Study).*
In 2005,
the
United
Nations
(U.N.)
rn'{
released
its Millennium
Ecasyslem
Assess&ent.
'the
oDeoinq
Core Case
studv
is
used as
a
theme
to
(onnect
and
integrale
much
df
the
-mater,al
in
each
ihapter.
The
logo
rndicates these
(onrEclions
According
to
rhis
4-year
study
by
1,360
expens
from
95
couRlries,
human activities
are degrading
or over-
using
about 62a/a
at the earth's
[atural
sewices
(Fig-
ure
l-3). In its summary
statement.
the report
warned
that'human
activity
is
putting
such
a strain
on
the
nat'
ural
{unctions oI
Earth that
the ability of
lhe
planet's
ecosystenu
tt}
sustain
future
Senerations
can n(}
longer
be
taken
for
granted.' The
goerd
news is that the
report
$uggests
we
have the knowledge
and tools
to conserve
the
planet'$
natural
capital, and
it
describes
common-
sense slrategies
for doing
this.
A
erash
program
ro
gain
tretter
and
more comprehensive
information
atnul ttre
health
r:{
the
world's life-suppon
sys-
tems, See
academlc.cengage.com/biologyrmtller'
HOW
WOULD
YOU VOTE?i*il
Do
you
believe
that
the snciety
you
live
itr is
on an
unsustainable
path?
Cast
your
vote
online
at
academic
.cenga
gg.com/biology/mlller.
'Envronmental
scrnce
is
a
de\doping
lield
wtlr
many
exciting
research
fron$ers
drat
are
rdentitid
thrftghout
this book.
**To
rast
vour
vote. oo
the
wbste
fo
fiis
book
dnd
then
to the appropriale
chapter
(in
this
ca e,
ehapter
1
)
ln
rnost
(dses,
you
will
be able
to
compare
horry
you
voted
wth
others
usrng
this book.
1-2
How
Can
Environmentally
Sustainable
Societies
Grow Economically?
>
corucEpr
r-2 Soieties
n
become
more erwlronmentally
rustainabh
through
aconomic developr:rent
dedkated to
imprcving the
guality
ol life
for
everyona
without degradirtg th
eartht
ltfe support
rystems.
There
Is
a
Wide
Economic
Gap
between
Rich
and
Poor Countries
Economic
growlh
is an
increase
in
a nation'$ output
of
goods
and
services. It
i$ usually measured by
the
percentage
of
change
in
a country's gross domestic
product
(GDP):
the annual
market
value
ol all
goods
and
services
produced
by
all firms and
organizations,
foreign
and
domestic,
operating
within
a country"
Changes
in
a country's
econornic
growth per
per$orl
are
measured by
per
capita GDR
the GDP
divided by
the total
popularion
at rn.idyear.
The
value
of any
country's
currency changes
when
it
is used
in
other
countries.
Because
of
such differ-
ences,
a
basic unit
of
currency
in one counu-v
can buy
more
of
a
particular
thing
than the
basic unit
of cur-
rency
o{
another
country
can
buy. Consumers
in the
first country are
said
to
have
morc
purchasing power
than
consunrers
in
the
second country
have. To help
compare countries.
economisls use
a
tool
called
pur-
chasing
power
parity
IPPP
|
.
By ctimbining
per
capita
GDP
and
PPP,
for
any
given
country,
they
arive
at a
per
capita
GDP
PPP-a
rneasure
of
the amount
ol
goods
and services that
a country's
average
citizen could buy
in the United
States.
While econonric
growth provides
people
with
more
goods
and services, eccnomlc
development
has
the
goal
of using economic
grovwh
to improve
living
stan-
dards. The United
Nations classifies
the world's coun-
tries as economically
developed
or developing based
primarily
on their degree
of
inclustrializarion and
their
per
capita GDp
PPP. The developed
countries
(with
1.2 billion
people) include the United
States, Canada,
,Iapan,
Australia,
New Zealand,
and most
countries ol
to
CHAPTER
1
Environmental Problems, Their
Causes.
and
Sustainability
-
8/10/2019 Manajemen Lingkungan Ok
7/23
Europe.
Mosf are highly industrialized
and have a high
per
callita
GDP
PPP.
All otlrer nations
{with
5.5 billion
pople}
are classi-
fied
as
developing
countries,
most of
them
in
Afuica,
Asia,
atd Latin America.
Sone are micldle-inaffie,
mod-
erately developed
eountries such
as China. lndia, Brazil,
Tr"rrkey" Thailand,
and Mexico.
Others are
low-inwme,
least deteloped
rcuntries where
per
capita
GDP PPP is
steadily declining. These
49
countries
wirh
I I
o/o
of
the
world's
population
include Angola,
Congo, Belarus,
Nigeria, Nicaragua,
and Jordan. Figure 2
on
p.
Sl0 in
Supplemerrt
3 is a rnap
of
high-,
upper middle-, lower
middle-, and low-income
countries,
Figure I
-5
compares some key characteristics ol
de-
veloped
and developing countries. Abour
97%
of the
projected
increase
in
the wnrld'$
populaiion
between
2008
and 2050 is expected
to
take
place
in
develop-
ing countries,
which
are least equipped
to
handle
such
large popular.ion increases.
We lir.e in a world nf
haves and have-nots,
Despite
a 40-fold increase in
economic
growth
since
l9OA,
more
than trwlf
o
the
people
in tke
world live
in
extreme
poverty
afid try
ta survive on
a
daily
income of tex than
$).
Awl
one
of every
six
peoltle,
classitied
u
desperately
pool,
struggle to
swrtsive
on
less
than
$1
a day.
(AJl
dollar figures are
in
U.S.
dollars")
(Figure
t-6)
P6rcentage
of
World'e:
ffifl
re*
Ho'uratron
'
az%
Poputation
|
0
12%
growth
i.461a
Liie
expectancy
Wealth
and
income
Fesource
us6
Pollution
and
waste
77
years
67
years
Developed countries
Develeping
countries
Figurc
1-5
Global
outlaak:
conrparison
of
developed and
de-
velopinq
countrias,
2008.
(Data
from
the
United lltions
and the
World Bank)
ffirs'a
250k
Figure
1{ Extreme
Wverty:
boy searching
for
items
to sell in an open
dump
in
Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil. Many
children of
poor
families
who
live in
makeshift
shanty-
towns
in or near
such
dumps
olten
scaveng
all
day
for food
and
other
items
to
help
their {amiiies
survive.
This
mean$
that they c6nnot
go
to
schooi.
Some
economists call for
continuing conventional
economic
growth,
which lras
he$ed to increase lood
supplies, allowed
people
to live longer.
and stimulared
mass
production
of
an
aray
of useful
goods
and
ser-
vices for many
people.
They
also see such
growth
as
a
cure lor
poverty,
maintaining that
sume of the result-
ing increase
in
wealth trickles
down to countries
and
people
near
the bottom ol
the economic
ladder.
Other
economists
call
{or
us to
put
much
greater
em*
phasis
on
environmentally
sustalnable
economic
development,
This involves
using
political
and
eco-
Ronric sysfems
lo
dLtrswrage
environmentally
harmful
anrt
unsustainabie {orms
of econonric
growth
that
de-
grade
natural
capital"
and ta encourage
environmentally
beneficial and
sustainable forms
o{ economic
develop-
ment
that
heip sustain
natural
capital
(Concept
1-2).
E
Economic
Growth and
SustainabiliW
*.'l.a'
ls cxp(,nenrial
econonrie
growrh
irrcornliatil,le wirh a.{Ztt
orvironnrenral sustainahiliry?
Whar
arc
rhrec
typcs
\7
of
goods
whose
cxporrenilal
growth
would
promorc
environmcntal susrainabiliw?
CONCEPT 1-2 t.l
-
8/10/2019 Manajemen Lingkungan Ok
8/23
{-3
How
Are
Our Ecological
Footprints
Affbcting
the Earth?
>
cotucEpr r-r
A5 sur e(ologkal
footprlnts
gFow,
we
arc daplating
and degrading
more of
the
earth's
natural
capital.
Some
Resources
Are Renewabie
Froin
a
lruman standpoint, a rssource
is
anything ob-
ta:ined from
the environment
tf) meet our
needs and
vvanls.
Conservation is the management
of natural
reriources
with
the
goal
of minimizing resource
waste
and sustainirg resource
supplies for
current and future
generations.
Some
resources,
such as solar energy, fresh
air.
wind, fresh
surface
water. fertile
soil, and
wild
edible
plants,
are directiy available
for'use.
Other resources
such
as
petrol.eum,
iron,
water {ound
underground,
and
cuhivated
crops,
are not directly
available. They
trecom.e
useful
to us
only
with
some effort
and technological
ingenuity.
For
example,
petroieum
was a mysterious
fluid
until
we
leamed how
to find,
exuact.
and convert
(refine)
il.
into
gasoline,
beating oii.
and other
products
that could
be snld.
Solar
energy is called
a
perpetual
resource
be-
cause it is renewed
continuously
and is expected
to last
at lea$t
6 trillion
years
as the
sun completes its
lile
cycle,
On
a
human
time
scale,
a renewable
resource
can
be
replenished
fairly
quickiy
(trorn
hours
to hun-
dreds oI
years)
through
natural
processes
as lnng as it is
not
used up laster
than it is renewed.
Examples
include
forests, grasslalds,
fisheries,
freshwatet
fresh air,
and
tertile
soil.
The highest
rate
at which a
renewable
resoLrrce
can
be used ixdefinitely
witbout reducing
its
available sup-
ply
is
called its
sustainable
yield.
When
we
excecd
a renewable
resource's
natural replacement
rate,
the
available
supply
begins to
shrink, a
proces$
known
as
envircnmental
degradation,
as
shown in Figure
l-7.
We
Can
Overexploit
Commonly
Shared
Renewable
Resources
:
The
Tragedy
of the
Commons
There are
three types
erl
property
or
resource
rights.
Ane is
privrtt proprty
where individuals
or lirms
own
Figure
1-7
Degradation
of
normally
renew-
able natural
resources
and
services in
parts
oi
the world,
mostly
as
a
result
of rising
population
and
resoulce
use
per
per5on.
12
CHAPTER 1
Environmental
Problems,
Their
Causes,
and Sustainability
-
8/10/2019 Manajemen Lingkungan Ok
9/23
the rights
to iand,
minerals,
_or
other resources" Al-
other is
xrnrnofi
properry
wheie
the
rights
to
certain
resources
are held by large
groups
of
individuals.
For
example,
rcughiy one-third
trf
the
land
in
the
United
States
is
owned
joinily
by
all
U.5.
citizens
and
held
and
managed lor
them
by
the
government.
Another
exam-
ple
is land
that belongs
to a whole village
and
can be
used by anyone for
activities such
as
grazing
cows
or
sheep.
A
third
cafegory consists
oI
open
access
renewable
re-
soarcer', owned
by no one
and available Jor
use by any-
one at
litlle
or no
charge. Examples
of
such shared
renewable
resources
include
clean air" underground
water
supplies, and
the open ccean
and its fish.
Many
common
property
and npen access renew-
able rescurces
have
been degraded.
In
1968, biologist
Carrett l{ardin
{1915-2003}
called such degradation
the
tragedy
of
the
commons"
It
ocur$ because each user
of a shared
courmon resource
or
open-access
resource
reasons,
"If I
do
not
use this resource,
someone
else
will. The little
bir that I
use
or
pollute
is
not
enough to
matter,
anrl anyway, it's
a renewatrle
resource."
When
the
number o{
users is
small, rhis logic
wnrks. Eventually,
however.
the
cumularive effecl of
many
people
trying
to ex$loit
a
shared resource
can
exhausl
or
ruin
it.
Then
no
one
can benefit from it.
Such resource
degradation results
from rhe
push
to
satisfy
ihe short-telrn
needs
and wants of
a
growing
number
of
per:ple.
It
threatens our ability
to ensure the
long-term
economic
and
e[vironmental
sustainability
of open-acce*s
resourfes
such as clean
air or
an
open-
ocean fishery.
One
'solution
is
to
,tss shared
resources
at rates well
below their
esdmated
sustainable
yields
by reducing
use
of the resources,
regulating
access to
the resourceg,
or
doing both. For
example,
the most
conunon approach
is
for
govemments
to
estabiish laws
and regulations
Iimiting
fhe annual harvests
of
various tlpes
of
ocean
fish
that ar being harvested
at unsustainable
levels
in
their coastal
waters.
Another
approach
is
for
nations
to enter into
agreements
that regulate
accrss
to open-
access
renewable
resources
such as the fish in
the open
oceaR.
Another
solution
is to
convert open-atcess
resources
to
private
ownership.
The reasoning
is
that if
you
own
some-
thing,
you
are
more
iikeiy to
protect
y_our
investment,
That
sounds
good,
Lrut this
approacb
is not
practical
for
global
open-access
resources-such
as the
amo
phere,
the open ocean,
and most wildlife
species-that cannot
be divided
up and
converted
fo
private property.
Some Resources
Are Not Renewable
Nonrenewable
re*ources
exist
in
a fixed
quantity,
or
stotk,
in
the earth's
crust.
On a
time
scale
of
millions
to
billions
of
years. geological
processe$
can renew
such
resources.
But on the much
shorter human
time
scale
of
hrndreds
to thousands
of
years,
these
resources
can
tre depleted
much
faster
rhan
they
are
formed.
Such
exhaustible resources
include
eflergy reslurces
{such
as
coal and oi1l,
wetallic mineral
resaalces
(such
as copper
and aluminum\,
and twnmetallb miwral
raronrces
{such
as
salt and sand).
As
such resources
are depleted. human
ingenu-
ity
can
often
lind
subsritutes. Ferr
e,xanrple, during
this
century, a mix
ol
renewable
energy resources
such
as
wind.
the sun, llowing
water, and
the hear
in
the
earth's
interior could reduce
our
dependence on non-
renewable fossil fuels such
as
oil
and coal. Also, various
types of
plastics
and cnmposite
materials
can
replace
certain metals, .But
sometimes
there is no
acceptable
or
aflordable
substitute.
Some nonrenewatrle
resources,
such as
copper and
aluminum,
ean be
recycled
or reused
to
extend sup-
plies,
Reuse is
using a resource
over
and ovr in the
same
lorm.
For
example,
glass
bottles can be
collected,
washed,
and
refilled
many times
(Figure
i-8).
Recy-
cling
involves
collecting
wasle materials
and
process-
ing
them
into
new matedals.
For
example.
discarded
aluminum
cans can be crushed
and melted
to make new
Figure
1 Beuse: This
child and
his
{amily
in
Katmandu,
Nepal,
collect beer
bottles
and sell
them
for
cash to
a brewery where they will
be reused.
i
*
*
Degradation
of Commonly
Shared Resources
tfm
,l ant
llow is
rhe
degradation
of
shared renewable
re'
rnc{
sources related
to exponential
gtowtr
(Core
Case
Study)
ol the
world's
populalion
and ecouomies? Whar
are
three examples
of how most cf
us contribute to
this envin:n-
mental
degradation?
CONCEPT
1-3
t3
-
8/10/2019 Manajemen Lingkungan Ok
10/23
aluminum
cans
or other aluminum
products.
But en-
ergy resources such as
oil and coal cannot be recycled.
Once
Lrurned,
their
energy is no longer available to us.
Recycling nonrenewable
metallic
resources
takes
much less energy, water, and other
resources and
pro-
duces
rnuch less
pollution
and
environmental degrada-
tion than expk:iting virgin mctallic
resources. Reusing
such resources
takes
evcn
less
energy and
other re-
sources and
produces
less
pcllutinn
and environmental
degradation than recycling
does.
Figure
1
Consumptron of
natural resources.
The
top
photo
shows a family
of
{ive
iils
s:e.Ee
{aryners
with
all
theu
possessions.
They live
in
the
village
of
Shingkhey,
Bhutan,
in
the Himalaya Mountains, rvhrch
are sandwiched
between
China
and lndia
in
South Asia.
Th
bottom
photo
shows a
typical
U.s.
family
of four
living in
Fearland,
Texas,
with
their
possessions.
Our
Ecological
Footprints
Are Growing
Many people
in
developing countries strugglc
to
sur-
vive. Their
individual
use nl
resources and
the
resuit-
ing envircrnmental
impact is low and is clevoted mnstly
to meeting
their
basic
neecls
{Figure
l-9,
top). By con-
trasl,
many indivicluals
in
nrore affluent nations con-
sume large
arnounts
of
resources way beyond
their
basic needs
(Figure
l-9,
bottom).
Supplying
people
with resources
and dealing
with
the
resulting
wastes
and
pollution
can
have a large en-
vironmental
impact.
We can
think of
iI
as
an ecologi-
cal
footprint-the amount
ol
biologicaliy
productive
land and water
needed
to
supply
the
people
in
a
par-
dcular country or area
with
resnurces and
to
alrsorb
and
recycle ihe
wastes
and
pollution produced
by such
resource use.
The
per capita
ecological
footprint
is
the average ecological
footpr:int
of
an
individual
in
a
givcn
country
or area,
If
a
country's, or the world's, total ecological
foot-
print
is larger than its
bialogi.ml c&pacity to replenish its
renewable resources and absorb
the
resulting waste
products
and
pollution.
ir
is said to have an uolagiul
deficit.
The
world wildlife Fund
(WWF)
and the Global
Fo$tprint
Network
estimated that
in
2003
(the
latest
data availablei
humanity's
global
ecological footprint
exceeded the earth's
biologkal
capacity by about 25%
{Figure
l-10.
right).
That
figure
was aboul
88olo
in
(he
world's
high-inconre
countdes,
with
the
United States
having
the
world's
iargest
total
ecological footprint^
lf
the current exponeffial growth
in
the
use
o{
renew-
able
resources
ccrntinus, the Global
Foofprint Network
estimates
that
by
2050 humanity wiJl be
trying
to use
twice as
nany
rer'lewable resources
as the
planet
can
supply
(Figure
1-10.
bottom)
(Concept
1-3). See Fig-
ure
J
on
p.
S24 and
Figure
5 on
pp.
S27
in
Supple-
ment
4
{eir maps
ol
the human
ecologicai
footpriuts
for the
world
and
the United
States,
and
Figure
4
on
p.
526
lor
a map of countries
that
are ecoiogical debtors
and those that
are
ecological creditors,
The
per
capita ecological footprint is
an
estimate
o{
how
much
o{
the earth's renewable resources
an
individual consume.s. After the
oil"ricb United Arab
Emirateri,
the United States has the world's second larg-
est
per
capita
ecological
Iootprint.
In
2003
{the
latest
tlata
available), its
per
capita ecological foofprint
was
about 4,5
times
the average
global
footprint per person,
6 times
larger
than China's
per
capita
footprilt,
and
12 times the average
per
capita lootprint in
the world's
low-income
countries.
According
to William
Rees and Mathis
Wackernagel,
the
developers
of
the
ecologicai
fclofprint
concept,
it would take the land area
o{ about
fve
more
planet
eafths
to( the rest of
the
world
to
reach
current
U.S.
levels
of
consunption
with
existing technolngy.
Pur
another
way. if
everyone consumed
as much as
the
average American does today,
rhe earth's natural
capi-
tal cor:ld support
only about
1.3
billion
people-*not
:
14 CHAPTER
1 Environmental Problems,
Their
Causes,
and Sustainability
-
8/10/2019 Manajemen Lingkungan Ok
11/23
Toi6l
oological FootFrint
(il$ttlon
h.ctaros)
and
Sharg
of Global Ecotogicat
Cspachy
{%}
united
states
ffi
a.s1o
(af./"\
European
Un,on
2.160 (1S%)
China
2,050
{18%)
rnoraf
zlo{ry,j
Jananf
s4o(s%)
China
1.S
lndia
g
o.B
.iapanffia.a
0
1961
ts90
2000
2040
Year
Figure
1'10
Natural
capital
use and
degradation: total
and
percapita
ecological fooprints
of selected
coun-
tries
(top).
ln
2003,
humanity's
total
or
global
ecoiogical foatprint was
about
25yo higher
than the
earth's ec6iogi-
cal
capacity
{bottom)
and
is
projected
to
be twice
the
planet's
ecological
capacity by
2050.
Question:
lf
we
are
living
beyond the arth's
biological
capacity. wtry
do
you
think
the
human
population
and
per
capita reseurce
con"
sumption ar
still
growing
exponentially?
(Data
from Woddwide
Fund for
Nature,
Global Footprint
Network)
living
in
todsy's developir"lg
natjons
will
reach 1.2
bil-
iion-about
four
times the
current
U.S.
population.
China is
row the
world's
leacling
consumer
of
wheat,
rice,
meat,
coal, ferfilizers,
sleel, and
cement,
and
it
is the
second largest
consunrer
of
nil
a{ter the
United States.
China
leads
the world
in
consumption
of
goods
such
as
television sets.
cell
phones.
refrigera-
tors,
and
soon,
personal
computers.
On the other
hand,
aftr 20
years
of
industrializatian,
two-thirds
of
the
world's
rnost
poliuted
cifies are
in
China;
this
pollution
threatens
the
health
ol
urtran
dweilers.
By 2020,
China
is
projeeted
to be rhe
world's largest producer
and con-
sumer af
cars and to have
rhe
world's leading
economy
in
rerms
of
GDP
PPP.
Suppose
that
China's
economy
continues
growing
I
CASE
STUDY
exponentially at a rapid rate and its projened popula-
tion
size
reaches
1.5
billion
by ?033"
Then
China
will
China's
New
Affluent
Consumers
nced two-r.hirds
of the worldis
currenr
grain
hawest,
lVlore
than
a billion
super-affluent
consumers
in devel-
trvtce
,the
world's
current
paper
con$umption,
and
oped
countries
are
putring
imnrense
pressure
on rt.
*"t:-':ii.l-o:-Tte*'globalproductionoioil'
earth's
natural
capital.
Another
billion
consurnr.*
r..
^
According
to environmental policy
expert
Lester R'
attaining
middle-class.
aflluent
lifestyles
in rapidly
de-
Erown:
velr:piug
countries such
as
China, India,
Brazil,
South
The
western
emnontk
model-the
lossit fuel-baxd,
Korea,
and Mexico.
The
700
miilion
middle-class
con-
aat0mobile-ceftt*ed,
throwaway
economy*is
not going
surners
in
China ancl tndia
number
more
than
lwiee
to work
for
China. Nor
will
it work
far
lndia,
whith
by
the
sizc
of the
entire
U.S.
population,
and the
number
3013
k
projected
to
have
a
populatiott
even larger
than
is
growing
rapidly.
In
2006,
the World
Bank
projected
Chitu\
or
for
the
other 3
billion
people
in devdoping
that try
2030 the
number
o{ middle-class
consumers
cauntries
w4n are
also dreawing
the
'Atnerican
dream."
Per
Gapit8 Ecological
Foolprint
{hactarcs
per petson}
United State$
European
Union
e
1'5
.g
UJ
,.0
s)
c
z
o.s
today's 6.7
billion,
hr
other
words, we are
living
unsus-
tainably
by depleting and degrading
some
o{ the earth's
irreplaceable
natural
capital and
the natural renewable
income
it
provides
as nur ecological
footprints
grow
and
spread
across the
earth's
surface
{Concept
1-3),
For
more on
this subject,
see rhe
Guest Essay
by Michael
Cain
at CengageNOWrM.
See
the Case
Study that
fol-
lows
about
tlte
growing
ecological
fnotprint
Qf Cirina.
.:;
tr;r::tl";..{i:i::{l
+
f
Earth'g
ocologlcdl
Froiocred
footprtnt,
-,
cspacity
Bcological
foohrlfit
*
t
,
Your
Ecological
Footprint
Esti]nate
your
own ecological
footprinr
by
visiring
the website
www.myfaotprint.orgl.
What
are
three
things you
could
do
to reduce
your
ecr:logical
footpdnr?
CONCEPT 1-3
{5
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8/10/2019 Manajemen Lingkungan Ok
12/23
For
more
details
on the
growing
ecological
footprint
of china,
see
rlle
Guest Essay
by
Norman
Myers
for this
chapter
ar CendageNOw.
Cultural
Changes
Have
Increased
Our
Ecological
Footprints
Culture
is
the whole
of
a society's
knowledge,
brlie{s,
technology, and pracrices,
and human cultural
changes
have
had
profound
effects on
the earth.
Evidence
o{ organisms
from
the
past
and
studies of
ancient
cultures
suggest
that
the {urrent
form
ol
our
species,
Homo
sapiens
sapiens,
has walked
the
eanh for
perhaps
90,000-195,000
years*.less
rhan
arr
eye-blink
in
the 3.56
billion
years
of
life
on rhe
earth.
Until
abour
12.00O
years
ago,
we were mosdy
hunter-gathererswlto
obtained
Iood
by
hunting
wild
animals
or scavenging
their
remains
and
garhering
wild
planrs,
Early
hunter-
gathers
lived
in
small
groups
and
moved
as
needed
to
find
enough
food
for survival.
Since
then,
three
major
cultural
changes
have
oc-
curred.
Fr'rs,
was
the agricwltural
r*olution,
wbich
began
I0,0OO-12.00O
years
ago
when
humans
learned
how
to
grow
and
breed
plants
and
animals
for
food,
clothing,
and other
purposes.
Second
was
the
industrial-medical
revolution,
beginning
about
275
years
ago when peopie
invented
machines
for
the large-scale
production
of
gnods
in
factories.
This involved
learning
how
to
get
energy lrom
fossil
fuels,
such
as coal
and
oil,
and
how
to
grow
large quantities
o{ Iood
in
an
efficient
manner.
I.-inally,
the
information-glabalization
revolution
began
about
50
year$
ago,
when
we developed
new
technolo-
gies
fnr gaining
rapid
access to
much more
information
and
reseturces
nu a
global
scale.
Each
of
these cultural
changes
gave
us m.ore
snergy
and new
lechnologies
with
which
to alier
and control
more of
the
planet
to meei
our
basic needs
and irrcreas-
ing
wants. They
also
allowed
expansion
of
the human
population, mo$tly
brcau$e
of
increased
{ood
supplies
and longer
life
spans.
Il
addition,
they
each
resulted
irr
greater
resource
use,
pollufion,
and
environmenlal
elegradation
as our
ecological
lootprints
expanded (Fig-
ure l-10)
and
allowed
us
to
dominate
the
planet.
Many
environmenhl
scientists
and
other
analysts
call for
us
to
bring
about
a new
envlronmental,
or
sus-
tafurabtlity,.evolution
during
&is
cenrury.
It
would
involve
leaming
how
to
reduce
our
ecnk:gical
footprints
and
live
more
sustainability.
For
more
background
and
details
on
environmental
history,
see
Supplement
5
(p.
S3l).
China and
Sustainability
*lJ*
lr{hat
are three
rhings
China
could
tlo to shift
,r*ura
$.{}i
more
sustainablc
consumption?
Whar
are
three
\t
things
the
United Stales,
Japan,
and
the European
Union
could
do ro
shift roward
more
sustairable
consumption?
1-4
lMhat
Is
Pollution
and
1{hat
can
we
Do
about
It?
>
corucEpr
r-4
pnaventing
pollution
ir
more
effejtfue
and
hsr cordy
dran
cle*nlng
up
pollution.
Pollution
Comes
from
a
Number
of Sources
Pollution
is
any
in
the
euvironment
t}rat :is
harmful
to the
heahh,
survival,
or
activitie$
ol
humans
or orher
organisms. Pollutants can
enter the environment natu-
rally,
such
as {rom
volcanic
eruptiors.
or
through
hu-
man
activifies,
such as
buming
coal and
gasoline
and
discbarging
chemicals
inro
rivers
and
the ocean,
The
pollutants
we
produce
come from
two
tlpes
of
sourcfs.
Point
$ources
are
single,
identjfiable
sources.
Examples
are
the srnokestack
of
a coal-burning
power
or industrial
plant
{Figure
f
-It),
the
drainpipe
of
a faclr:ry,
and
the
exhaust
pipe
of
an
automobile.
Nonpolnt
source$
are
dispersed
and often
diffi-
cult
to
identify.
Examples
are
pesticides
blown
lrom
the land
intn
the
air and
the
runofI
of
fenilizers
and
pesticldes
from
farmlands.
lawns, gardens,
and
golf
courses
into
streams
and lakes.
It
is
mucb
easier
and
cheaper
to identify
and
conirol
or
prevenl
pollution
lrom
point
sources
than
{rorn
widely
dispersed
ncn-
point
sources.
There are
two main
types
of
pollutants,
Blodegrad-
able
pollutants
are
harmful
materials
that
can
tre bro-
ken
down
by natural processes.
Examples
are human
sewage
and newspapers.
Nondegradable
pollutants
are
harmful
materials
that natural
processes
cannot
break
down.
Examples
are
toxic
chemical
elernents
such
as
Iea{
mercury.
and
arsenic
{see
Supplernent
6,
p.
S39, for
an intoduction
to
basic
cbemistry),
Pollutants
can
have
three
tlTes
of
unwanted
effecs.
Firsl,
they
can
disnrpt
or
degrade
lile-supporr
sysrems
for
humans
and
nther
specie$,
Second,
they can
damage
wildlife.
human
health.
and
properfy.
Third"
they
can
t6
CHAPTER
1
Environmental problems,
Their
Causes,
and
Sustainability
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8/10/2019 Manajemen Lingkungan Ok
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create
nuisances
such
as noise
and
unpleasant sruells,
tastes, and sights.
We
Can
Ctrean Up Follution
or Frevent
It
Consider
the
smoke
produced
by a steel
rnilJ. We
can
try
to deal with this
problem
by asking two enrirely di{-
Ierent
queslions.
One
question
is
"how
can we clean up
the smoke?"
The other is
'how
car
we avoici
producing
the smoke
in the firsr
place?"
The answers
to
these
questions
involve two dif-
ferent
ways of dealing
with
pollution.
one
is
pollu-
tion
cleanup, or
output
pollution
coutrol,
which
involves cleaning up
or diluting
pollutants
alter
they
have
been
produced.
The
other is
pollution
preven-
tion,
or
input
pollution
control,
which reduces nr
eliminates
the
production
of
pollu{ants.
snvironmental scientists
have identified three
prrrb-
lems
witlr
relying
prirnarily
on
pollution
cleanup.
Frrsl,
it is
only
a
temporary bandage
as
long
as
population
antl consumpdcn levels
grow
without
corresponding
irnprovements in
pollution
control
technology. For ex-
ample,
adcling catalyric
conveners to car exhausl
sys-
tems
lras reduced some lorrns ol air
pollution.
At the
same
tim,
increases
in the nunber of
cars and
the
to-
tal distance eaeh car
travels have reduced the effective-
ness ol this cleanup approach.
Secotd,
cleantrp often rqnoves a
pollutaut
frorn
one
part of
rhe enyironrnent
only
t{} carrse
pollution
in
an-
other. For
exanrple,
we can
collect
garbage,
bur
the
gar-
bage
is
rhen bun*d
(perhaps
causing air
pollution
and
leaving
toxic ash that mu$t be
put
somewhere),
duwped
Figure
1-11
tuint-source
air
Wllufior
trom
a
pulp
mill in New York
State
(USA)
on
the land
{perhaps
causing
water
pollutioil
through
runoff or
seepage into
groundwater),
or &arird
(periraps
causing
soil and
groundwater
pollution).
Third,
once
pollutants
hecome dispersed
into
the en-
virnnment
at harmful levels,
it
usually costs too much
or
is impossible
to reduce them t(") acceptable levels.
Pollution
prevention (Irnnt-of-the-pipe)
and
pol-
lud*n
cleanup
{end-of-the-pipe)
solutions are
troth
needed.
But
environmeltal
scientists,
sorns
econo-
mists, and some m.ajor companies urge us to
put
more
enrphasis
on
prevention
because it
works
belter and
in
the
lnng
run
is cheaper than cleanup
iConcept
1-4).
c
1-5
\AIhy Do
We
Have Environmental
Problems?
>
coilcEpr
.r-rn
Major aures of
environmental
problemo
ar
pcpnLtion grcwth,
wasteful and unsurtainable
resoure
ure,
povsrty,
rcluslon of environmental
costr
of
rsrcur{ us from
the
market
pricer
rf
goods
and
rervices.
and
attempb to
manag
natur with in:uffkient knowledge.
>
comcspr
r-rr
Feople
with different envirtnmental
wsrldviews
often
disagree
about
tha iriournss of envirsnmentat
probhmr
and what ure rhould do
aho$t
them.
Hxperts Have
Identified Five
Basic
Causes af
Environmental
Problerns
As we
nrn
more
and
more of the earth's
nalural
re-
sources
through
the
global
economy,
in
nrany
parts
oi
the
world. {orests
are shrinking. deserts
are expanding,
soils are eroding, and agricultural
lands
are
deteriorat-
ing. ln
addition,
tlre
lower atmosphere is warming.
gla-
cters
are
meltilrg,
sea
ievels
are
rising, and
stnrms
are
becoming
more destructivc.
And in
lrrany
areas,
water
tables are falling,
rivers
are running
dry,
fislreries
are
collapsing, coral reefs are disappearing, and
various
species are becoming extil'rct.
According to
a
number
of
environmenml
and
social scientists, the major causes
of
these and
other
CONCEFTS I.5A AND 1-58
17
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8/10/2019 Manajemen Lingkungan Ok
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ffi
opulalion
growth
Exeluding
environmentgl {osts
{rsm rnarkct
prices
figul" t-lZ Enyironmental
and social scientists
have
identified five
basic causes
ol the environmental
problems
we
face
{Concept
1-5A).
Quertion:
What are three
ways in which
your
lifestyle
contributes
to these causes?
Udsustainable
resour
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8/10/2019 Manajemen Lingkungan Ok
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Figure
'l-14
Global Outloak in developing counlris. one of every
three children under age
5,
such
as
this child
in
Lunda, Angola,
suffers
from
severe
malnutrition
caused by a
lack
of
calories
and
protein.
According
to
the Wgrld Health
Organization, each
day at
least 13,700 children under
age
5
die prematurely
from malnutritisn
and infectious
diseases,
most
from
drinking
contaminated
water
and being weakened
by
malnutrition.
The
great
new$ is that
we
have
the means
ta
solve fhe
environmental, healrh,
and social
problems
resulting
from
poveny
within 20*10
years
if
we
can iind the
po-
litical
and thical
will
to
act.
Afflnence
Has
F{armful
and
Benefi cial Environmental
Effects
The harmful
environmental
e{fe$s
of
poverfy
are
serious,
but
lhose
of
affluence are
much worse
{Fig'
ure l-10,
top). The lifestyles
of
rnany aflluent con-
sumers in
developed countries and in rapidly develop-
ing
countries ruch as
India
and China
(p.
l5)
are built
upein
high
levels
of consumption and unnecessary
waste of resolrrce$.
Such alTluence
is
based
mostiy or
the
assurnptinn-fueled
by mass
advertising-that buy-
ing urore and
more things
will
bring
happiness.
This
type
o{
affluence has
an
enoilnous harmful
environmental
impact.
It
takes about 27 tractor-trailer
loads of resources
per
year
to support one American,
or 7.9
billion truckloads
per year
to supporl the enlire
U.S.
population.
Stretched
end-to-end, each
year
these
trucks would reach beyond the sunl
While the
Uuited
States has
far {ewer
people
than
India. the
average
Arnerican
consunres
aliout
]0 times
as
much
as
fhe
average
citizen
nf India
and
100 times
as
much
as
the
average
person
in
the world'r
poorest
couREies. As
a resuh.
the
average environmental
im-
pact,
or ecological footprint
per
person.
in
the
United
State$
is
much larger than thr average
impact
per per-
son
in
developing countries
(Figure
l-10, top).
on the
other
haud, affluence can
lead
people
to be-
come more concerned
about
environmental
quality.
It
also
provides
nrorey
for deveioping technologies to
reduce
pollution,
environntental
degradation. and re-
sOurce waste.
Jn
the United States
and most other affluent coun-
tries,
rhe air is cleaner, drinking water
is
purer.
and
most rivers and lakes are cleaner than
they were in rhe
1970s.
ln
addititxr, the
food supply is
rtrore
abundant
and
safer,
the
incidence
ol
liJe-threateninSl
infectious
cliseases has been
greatly
reduced. lilespans are longer,
and
some
endangered
species
are
being
rescued
from
premature
extinction.
Afiluence financed these improvements
in
envi-
rcmmental
quality,
ba*ed on
greatly
increased
scientific
research and techmrlogical advances,
And
education
spurred citizens
insist
rhat businesses and elected
offi-
eials
inprove environrnenral
qualiry.
Affluence and ed-
ucation have also
heiped to reduc'e
population growth
in
most developecl countries. However, a downside to
wealth is that
it
allows the affluent to
otrtain
fhe re-
sources they
need from
almost anywhere
in
fie
world
without seeing
the harmlul
environmental
impacts
of
their
high
-consumption life
styles.
Prices Do
Not
Include
the
Value
of Natural
Capital
When
companies use
resources
to
create
goods
and
services
for
consumers, they are
generaily
not
required
to
pay
the enyironmental costs of such resource
use.
For
example,
fishing
companies
pay
the costs
of
catch-
ing
fish
but
do
nnt
pay
for
the depletion of iish stocks.
Timber
cornpanies
pay
for clear-cutting
forests
but
not
f.or
the resulting environmental degradation and loss o{
wildlile
hatritat. The
primary goal
of
these companies
ir
to maximize their
profits,
so they do not voluntarily
pay
fhese
harmful
enviroumental cosls
or
even
try
to
as$ess them, unless required
tc
dei
so
by
gnvernment
laws or regulations.
E
The
Poor.
the Affluent and Exponentially
4qiffir
lncreasing Population
Growth
':ffi,
Some
see rapid
populadon
growth
a{ the
poor
in
developing countfies as the
primary
cause of our en-
vircnmental
problems.
Orhers say that
the much higher
reseurce u$e
per person
in developed
countries
is a rnore
imponant
factor.
Which facror
do
you
think is rnore impor-
ranr? why?
CONCEPTS
1.5AAND 1.58
19
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8/10/2019 Manajemen Lingkungan Ok
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As a
result,
tlx
prices
of
goods
and sewices do
not
include their
harmJui environmental
costs. Thus, con-
sumers
are
generally
not aware
of
them
and have no
effective
way to
evaluate the resulting
harmful
effecls
on the earth's
life-support systems and
on their own
healti.
Another
problem
is
that
governments
give
com-
panies
tax breaks and
payments
called subsidies
to assist
them
in
using
resources to
run
their
businesses,
This
helps
to create
joh
and stimulate
economies. but
it
can also
result
in
degradation
o{ natural capital,
again
because fhe
value of the
natural capital is n$t
included
in the market
prices
of
gocds
and
services. We ex-
plore
this
problem
and
some
pos*ilrle
solutions
in later
chapters.
People
Have
Different
Views
about
Environmental
Problems
and
Their
Solutions
Dilfering views
about the seriousness
o{ our
environ-
mental
problenx
and what
we
should
do about
them
arise
mostly
out
of differing
environmental
wnrld-
views. Your
environmental
worldview
is
a
set of
assumptions
and
values
reflecting
how
you
think the
world
works and
what
you
think
your
role in the wr:rld
should be.
This
involves environmental
ethics, which
are our beliefs abaut what
is
right and wtong with
how
we treat the
enviromnent.
Here
are
some important
ethical
questions
relating fo
tbe environment:
.
Why should we care about
the environment?
.
Are
we
rhe most
important treings on the
planet
or
are we
just
one of the earth's
millions o{ differ-
ent forms of life?
.
Do we
have
an obligation
to see that our acfivi-
ties do
nnt
cause the
premature
extinction of
other species? Shnuld
we
try to
protecl
all species
or only some? How do we decide which species
to
protect?
.
Do we have an ethical obligation to
pass
on to
future
generations
the extraordinary
natural
world in
a
condition
at
least
as
good
as
what
we
inherited?
.
Should
every
Ferson
be
entitled
to equal
protec-
tion
from
environmental
hazards
regardless
of
race,
gender,
age, naticlnal origin, income. social c1ass, or
any
other factor?
People
wi&
widely
differing environmental
world-
views
can
take tbe
same data, be
logically consistent,
and arrive
at
quite
djf{erent conclusions
because they
start
with
different
assumptions
and rnoral, ethical,
or
religious belie{s
(Concept
1-58}. Environmental world-
views
are discussed
in
detail
in
Chapter
25, but here
is
a
brief introduction.
The
planetary
managemnt
worldvlew
holds
that
we are separate
lrom nature, that nature
exists
mainly
to meet our needs and
increasing wants, and
that we can
use our ingenuity and xechnology
to man-
age
the
earth's
li{e-suppart sy$tems, mostly
for our
benefit,
indefinitely.
The
rtewardship
worldview holds that we can
and should
manage the eanh
for our benefit, but
that
we have an erhical
responsibi.lity to be caring
and re-
sponsible
managers,
ot
stewards,
of
the earth.
It says we
should
encourage
environmentally beneficial forms of
econornic
growth
and development
and discourage en-
vironmenally
harmfu I forns,
The environmental
wisdom
worldview
holds
that we arf
part
of, and
totally
dependent
on, nature
and that
nature
exists
for all
species,
not
just
for
us.
It
also
calls
for
encouraging
earth-sustaining
forms of
economic
growth
and
deveiopment
and
discouraging
earth-degrading
forms. According to this view, our suc-
cess
depends on leaming
how
lile
on earth sustains
it-
self and
integraring
such
envirsnmerrtal wisdzfi
into
the
ways
we tbink and
act.
Many of the ideas for the stewardship
and environ-
mental wisdom
worldviews are derived
from the
writ-
ings of
A.ldo
Leopold {Individuals Matter,
p. 22).
We
Can
Learn to Make
Informed
Environmental
Decisions
The first step lclr dealing
with
an environmental
prob-
lem
is to carry out scientilic
research
on the
nature
of
the
protrlem
and to evaluate
possible
solurions to the
problem.
Once this
is
done,
other factors
involving
the
social
sciences and ttre humanities
(Table
l-l) must be
used
to
evaluate
each
proposed
solution. This involves
considering various humanvalres. what are its
projected
short-term and long-term benelicial and
harmful
envi'
ronrnental, economic,
and health
effects?
How
much
will it
eost?
Is
it
ethical? Figure
l-15
shows the major
steps
involved in making
an
environmental decision.
We
Can
Work
Together
to Solve
Environmental
Problems
Making the
sltilt
to more
sustainable
societies
and
eccnomies
involves building what snciologists call ro-
cial capital.
This
involves
gefiing
peopl