Leptospirosis : An Overview
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Dr. Zubair SarkarJR2
Department of MedicineJ. N. Medical College , AMU
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Zoonotic disease
Caused by the spirochete Leptospira
Historically known as Weil’s disease
Described in 1885 by Adolf Weil with clinical hallmarks of
splenomegaly
jaundice
nephritis
Introduction
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One of the emerging infectious diseases since the late 1990s
Recent large outbreaks in several Asian, Central and SouthAmerican countries
Becoming an important public health problem, yet itcontinues to be under recognized
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Genus Leptospira, order Spirochetales, family
leptospiraceae
Can live both in animals and free in the environment(both pathogenic and saprophytic)
Around 250 serovars from 20 species cause disease inhumans and animals
Organism
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All species are morphologically identical
Tightly and regularly coiled with hooked ends
Highly motile along the longitudinal axis
Morphology
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Not seen by direct light microscopy
Dark-field or phase contrast microscopy must be used
In tissues
silver impregnation (Warthin starry staining),
immunohistochemistry or
immunoflourescence microscopy
Isolation difficult
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Zoonotic disease
No human to human transmission
Most important sources are rats, dogs, cattle and pigs
Epidemiology
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Domestic animals : temporary carrier
Rodents : permanent carrier
Rodents are therefore considered as the major reservoir ofinfection.
Rat (Rattus norvegicus and Rattus rattus) associated L.interrogans serovars Icterohaemorrhagic and Copenhageniare mostly associated with Weil’s disease
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Transmitted through contact with infected animal urineand other excreta (e.g. placenta)
Contact may be
direct or
indirect through surface water or moist soil
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Patterns of transmission can be
Epidemic
Endemic
Sporadic
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Seasonal rains and flooding are the most importantfactors causing epidemics
Endemic disease is facilitated by
Tropical humid environment
Poor sanitation
Rodent and dog population
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• Sporadic disease is associated with
Occupation : veterinary, sewer and slaughterhouseworkers
Poor hygiene areas e.g. slums
Adventure travel
Military training
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No precise estimates of the global burden of humanleptospirosis
Estimated annual incidence (WHO) – 0.1 to 1 per 100 000per year in temperate climates – 10 or more per 100 000per year in the humid tropics.
Estimated case-fatality rates in different parts of theworld have been reported to range from <5% - 30%
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Figures are grossly underestimated : Overlooked andunder reported
Why the lack of recognition?
Clinical manifestation wide and varied
May mimic many other diseases, e.g. dengue fever andother viral haemorrhagic diseases
Diagnostic capabilities are not readily available(especially in endemic countries)
Poor surveillance and reporting of cases
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Considered a rare zoonotic disease in India with only
sporadic cases being recorded.
Since 1980’s the disease has been reported from variousstates during monsoon months in mini epidemicproportions.
Indian perspective
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In India, urban leptospirosis has been reported fromChennai & Mumbai while rural leptospirosis has beenreported from Gujarat, Kerala and Andamans
Non-reporting of leptospirosis from other states of Indiadoes not mean that it is absent in those parts.
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The disease is endemic in
Kerala
Tamil nadu
Gujarat
Andamans
Karnataka
Maharashtra
It has also been reported from Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi & Puducherry
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Leptospirosis has been under-reported and under-diagnosed from India due to
lack of awareness of the disease and
lack of appropriate laboratory diagnostic facilities in mostparts of the country
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Organism disappears from blood but remains in organs including brain , liver, lung, heart and
kidneys
Development of antibodies(5-7 days)
Proliferate in bloodstream and disseminate hematogenously
Infects through mucosa ( conjunctival , oral) or through punctured or abraded skin
Pathogenesis
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Excreted in urine
Adhere to proximal tubule epithelial cells
Penetrate basement membrane of PCT
Traverse interstitial spaces of kidney
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Hypovolaemic shock and vascular collapse
Loss of fluids into the third space
Vasculitis and leakage : petechiae , intra parenchymal bleeding and bleeding along serosa and mucosa
Capillary vasculitis (endothelial necrosis and lymphocytic infiltration)
Attach onto the endothelial cells
Produces endotoxin
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Clinical expression can be
Subclinical infection
Undifferentiated febrile illness
Weil’s disease
Incubation period 2-30 days (average 5-14 days)
Clinical features
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Classically described as biphasic
Acute phase:
3-10 days
leptospiraemia : blood culture may be positive
fever responds to antibiotics
Immune phase :
fever does not respond to antibiotics
isolation from urine
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Conjunctival suffusion
Jaundice
Pharyngeal erythema without exudate
Rashes (maculopapular, erythematous, petechial orecchymotic)
Muscle tenderness
Rales in lungs
Meningismus
Hyporeflexia or areflexia
Physical examination
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The most severe form of leptospirosis
Monophasic and fulminant
Variable combinations of jaundice, acute kidney injury,hypotension and hemorrhage
Pulmonary hemorrhage is the most common
Multisystem involvement occurs
Weil’s disease
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Presents with jaundice
Not associated with fulminant hepatic necrosis or livercell damage
LFTs are abnormal (<5 times the upper limit)
Liver can be enlarged and tender
Splenomegaly in a minority of patients
Liver involvement
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Can manifest after several days of illness
Can be oliguric/nonoliguric
Dyselectrolytemia is common: hypokalemia andhypomagnesemia in nonoliguric disease
Hypotension may cause tubular necrosis and oliguria
May require vasopressor support and hemodialysis
Kidney involvement
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Manifests with cough,
chest pain and hemoptysis
Purulent sputum
uncommon
Severe pulmonary
hemorrhage occurs in endemic disease
Alveolar infiltrates are visible on CXR
Pulmonary involvement
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Cardiac :
Myocarditis
Neurological :
Aseptic meningitis
Hypo or areflexia
Eyes :
Uveitis
Skeletal muscles :
Severe myalgia of calves and abdominal muscles
Cholecystitis
Pancreatitis (can cause hypo/hyperglycemia)
Other manifestations
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High index of suspicion is critical in a setting of
An appropriate exposure history
Infection’s protean manifestations
Biochemical, hematological and urinalysis may suggestbut are not specific for diagnosis
Diagnosis
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The disease is usually diagnosed by –
detecting antibodies using various serological tests
culturing the bacteria from blood, urine or tissues
demonstrating the presence of leptospires in tissues usingantibodies labelled with fluorescent markers
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Immunostaining
Cultures take many weeks and cannot guide clinical care
Dark-field microscopy of blood/urine not recommended
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Dark field microscopy showing Leptospira spp.
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Immunohistochemical demonstration of leptospira in kidney tissue
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Microscopic agglutination test (MAT) is the goldstandard : Sensitivity 92% Specificity 95%
MAT has a very limited availability
Serological tests
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The MAT entails growth of a battery of serovarsrepresenting the 26 leptospiral serogroups , incubation of astandard quantity of leptospires with the patient’s serumon a microtiter plate, and detection of agglutination bydark-field microscopy.
The highest dilution of serum that yields significant (50%)agglutination is reported as the titer.
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When patients have a high pretest probability: a singleantibody titer >1:200 is considered strong evidence ofinfection
In regions where leptospirosis transmission and subclinicaldisease are common, higher titers are generally required
MAT is generally negative in the first 7–10 days after theonset of infection
Paired acute- and convalescent-phase serum samples arepreferred to document seroconversion or a fourfold rise intiter.
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Microscopic Agglutination Test(MAT)
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Genus specific or rapid tests include
ELISA
Macroscopic slide agglutination test (MSAT)
Latex agglutination test
Dipstick tests ( Lepto dipstick, Lepto Tek lateral flow)
Lepto Tek Dri-Dot test
Indirect hemagglutination
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These tests are simple, more sensitive and becomepositive earlier than MAT (5-6th day) as they detectspecific IgM antibodies
Use saphrophytic leptospira as antigens
Are commercially available
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Leptospires can be cultured from blood and CSF
during first 7-10 days
Urine culture useful beginning in the 2nd week
May take 2-4 weeks to be positive
Urine cultures can remain positive for many months/years despite therapy
Isolation
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Malaria
Enteric fever
Dengue/ chikungunya
Hanta virus infection
Viral hepatitis
Influenza
Rickettsial diseases
Differential diagnosis
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Prompt initiation of antibiotic therapy shortens the
course and prevents progression
Mild leptospirosis resolves without any treatment
Treatment
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Renal involvement may require hemodialysis
Hypotension can be managed by fluids and vasopressors
Severe disease should be treated empirically with broad-spectrum antibiotics before confirmation
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Advanced age, pulmonary involvement, elevated
creatinine , oliguria and thrombocytopenia indicate poorprognosis
Liver dysfunction has not been confirmed to be anindependent risk factor for death
No permanent sequelae or progressive organdysfunction after resolution
Prognosis
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No vaccine available currently
Short-term antibiotic prophylaxis can be used for well-defined exposures
Doxycycline 100 mg or Azithromycin 250mg once a weekmay be used
Long-term antibiotic prophylaxis ineffective
General sanitation measures and avoidance of swimming incontaminated places
Prevention
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Adequate history of exposure is most important in
diagnosis
Possibility of leptospirosis to be kept in d/d of all ictericillness
Prompt treatment can prevent life threateningcomplications
Health education and awareness for prevention
Take Home Message
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