Lecture Slides prepared by Meg Flemming Austin … 105/Ess...• Name the components and functions...

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PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

prepared by

Meg Flemming

Austin Community College

C H A P T E R

The Skeletal

System

6


Chapter 6 Learning Outcomes

• 6-1

• Describe the primary functions of the skeletal system.

• 6-2

• Classify bones according to shape, and compare the structures and

functions of compact and spongy bone.

• 6-3

• Compare the mechanisms of intramembranous ossification and

endochondral ossification.

• 6-4

• Describe the remodeling and homeostatic mechanisms of the

skeletal system.

• 6-5

• Summarize the effects of the aging process on the skeletal system.



• 6-6

• Name the components and functions of the axial and appendicular

skeletons.

• 6-7

• Identify the bones of the skull, discuss the differences in structure

and function of the various vertebrae, and describe the roles of the

thoracic cage.

• 6-8

• Identify the bones of the pectoral and pelvic girdles and the upper

and lower limbs, and describe their various functions.

• 6-9

• Contrast the major categories of joints, and link their structural

features to joint functions.



• 6-10

• Describe how the structural and functional properties of synovial

joints permit the dynamic movements of the skeleton.

• 6-11

• Explain the relationship between joint structure and mobility of

representative axial and appendicular articulations.

• 6-12

• Explain the functional relationships between the skeletal system

and other body systems.


Five Functions of the Skeletal System (6-1)

1. Support

• Provided for the entire body by the entire skeletal system

• Bones provide attachments for soft tissues and organs

2. Storage

• Provided by the bones for calcium salts for body fluids

• Lipids are stored in yellow marrow for energy reserves



3. Blood cell production

• Occurs in the red marrow and results in increases in red

blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets

4. Protection

• Provided to soft tissues and organs by surrounding them

with the skeleton

• Examples:

• The skull enclosing the brain

• The ribs protecting the heart and lungs



5. Movement

• In part a function of the skeletal system because the bones

function as levers

• When the skeletal muscles pull on the bones, movement

occurs


Checkpoint (6-1)

1. Name the five primary functions of the skeletal

system.


Bone Tissue Characteristics (6-2)

• Bones or osseous tissue

• Are a supporting connective tissue; cells are called

osteocytes

• Matrix made of extracellular protein fibers and a ground

substance

• Calcium phosphate

• Ca3(PO4)2

• A salt deposited into the matrix

• Giving 2/3 of the weight of the 206 bones in the body


Four General Shapes of Bones (6-2)

1. Long bones

• Longer than they are wide

• For example, the humerus

2. Short bones

• About as wide as they are long

• For example, the carpal bones

3. Flat bones

• Are broad

• Like the scapula

4. Irregular bones

• Complex in shape

• Like a vertebra


Figure 6-1 Shapes of Bones.

Long Bones

Short Bones

Humerus

Carpal bones

Flat Bones

Parietal bone

Irregular Bones

Vertebra


Structure of a Long Bone (6-2)

• The diaphysis, or central shaft

• Has a marrow cavity in the center filled with bone marrow

• The epiphyses are the wider portions at each end

• Covered with articular cartilage


Structure of a Long Bone (6-2)

• Compact bone

• Is densely packed; forms the diaphysis

• Spongy bone, also called cancellous bone

• Has projections of bone separated by space

• Periosteum

• Is the outer covering of bone

• Endosteum

• Lines the marrow cavity and spongy bone


Figure 6-2 The Structure of a Long Bone.

Articular cartilage

Spongy bone

Blood vessels

Epiphyseal line

Marrow cavity

Endosteum

Compact bone

Periosteum

Proximal epiphysis

Diaphysis

Distal epiphysis


Histology of Bone (6-2)

• Periosteum has two layers

• A fibrous outer layer and a cellular inner layer

• Bone cells are called osteocytes

• Located in pockets called lacunae

• Found between sheets of matrix called lamellae

• Canaliculi are small channels

• That run through the matrix

• And connect the lacunae and blood vessels


Histology of Compact Bone (6-2)

• Has a repeating functional unit called the osteon,

or Haversian system

• Osteon is made of concentric circles of lamella

• Surrounding a central canal that has blood vessels in it

• Perforating canals allow for blood vessels in the

central canals:

• To be linked to other vessels


Characteristics of Compact Bone (6-2)

• Covers all bone surfaces except for the articular

surfaces

• Can tolerate a lot of stress applied to either end of

a long bone

• Cannot tolerate moderate stress applied to the side of the

shaft


Histology of Spongy Bone (6-2)

• Has no osteons

• The lamellae form rods called trabeculae

• Found in the epiphyses

• Where the stress is handled by the joints

• Much lighter than compact bone

• Reducing the work of muscles to move bones


Figure 6-3 The Microscopic Structure of a Typical Bone.

Cellular layer

of periosteum

Fibrous layer

of periosteum

Spongy bone

Marrow cavity

Compact bone

Small vein

Capillary

Lamellae Lamellae Canaliculi

Osteons

Endosteum

Central canal

Osteon

Lacunae

Osteon LM x 343

In this thin section through compact bone, the intact matrix making up the lamellae appears white, and the central canal, luacunae, and canaliculi appear black due to the presence of bone dust.

Trabeculae

of spongy bone

Perforating

canal Central

canal

Vein

Artery

This diagrammatic view depicts the parallel osteons of compact bone and the trabecular network of spongy bone.


Figure 6-3a The Microscopic Structure of a Typical Bone.

Cellular layer of periosteum

Fibrous layer of periosteum

Spongy bone

Marrow cavity

Compact bone

Small vein Capillary Lamellae

Osteons

Endosteum

Trabeculae of spongy bone

Perforating canal

Central canal

Vein Artery

This diagrammatic view depicts the parallel osteons of compact bone and the trabecular network of spongy bone.


Figure 6-3b The Microscopic Structure of a Typical Bone.

Lamellae Canaliculi

Central canal

Osteon

Lacunae

Osteon LM x 343

In this thin section through compact bone, the intact matrix making up the lamellae appears white, and the central canal, luacunae, and canaliculi appear black due to the presence of bone dust.


Types of Bone Cells (6-2)

• Osteocytes

• Mature cells that maintain bone structure by recycling

calcium salts

• Osteoclasts

• Large cells that secrete acid and enzymes that break down

the matrix

• Releasing minerals through osteolysis

• Osteoblasts

• Produce new bone through a process called ossification


Checkpoint (6-2)

2. Identify the four general shapes of bones.

3. How would the strength of a bone be affected if the ratio

of collagen to calcium increased?

4. A sample of a long bone shows concentric layers

surrounding a central canal. Is it from the shaft or the end

of the bone?

5. Mature bone cells are known as ________, bone-building

cells are called ________, and ________ are bone-

resorbing cells.

6. If the activity of osteoclasts exceeds that of osteoblasts in

a bone, how will the mass of the bone be affected?


Bone Formation (6-3)

• Embryonic development of bone

• Begins at week 6 as a cartilaginous formation

• Replaced with bone, a process called ossification

• Two types

1. Intramembranous ossification

2. Endochondral ossification

• Calcification occurs during ossification

• Can also occur in other tissues besides bone


Intramembranous Ossification (6-3)

• Occurs during fetal development

• Developing sheets of connective tissue

• Osteoblasts differentiate and develop calcified

matrix

• Ossification begins around an ossification center

• New bone branches outward, develops blood

supply

• Spongy bone structures remodel into compact flat bones

• Such as the skull bones


Figure 6-4 Bone Formation in a 16-Week-Old Fetus.

Endochondral bones

Intramembranous bones


Five Steps of Endochondral Ossification (6-3)

• Embryonic cartilaginous skeletal structures are

replaced by true bone in a series of five steps

1. Chondrocytes enlarge and matrix begins to calcify

• Closing off the chondrocytes from nutrients

• Causing them to die

2. Bone formation starts at the shaft surface

• Blood vessels invade the perichondrium

• New osteoblasts produce bone matrix



3. Blood vessels invade inner region of cartilage

• New osteoblasts form spongy bone at primary ossification

center

• Bone develops toward each end

• Filling shaft with spongy bone

4. Osteoclasts begin to break down spongy bone in

center

• To form marrow cavity

• Epiphyseal cartilages, or plates, on the ends of the bone

continue to enlarge



5. Centers of the epiphyses begin to calcify

• Secondary ossification centers form

• Epiphyses fill with spongy bone

• Bone grows in length from the epiphyseal cartilages

• Joint surfaces are covered with articular cartilage


Endochondral Ossification (6-3)

• At puberty, bone growth accelerates

• Due to sex hormone production

• Osteoblasts produce bone faster than the

epiphyseal cartilage can expand

• Epiphyseal artilages eventually disappear or "close"

• Adult bones show evidence of the epiphyseal line

• Where the cartilage once was


Figure 6-5 Endochondral Ossification.

Enlarging chondrocytes

within calcifying

matrix

Hyaline cartilage model

Epiphysis

Diaphysis

Bone

formation

Blood

vessel

Marrow

cavity

Primary

ossification

center

Superficial

bone

Spongy

bone

Marrow

cavity

Epiphyseal

cartilage

Secondary center of

ossification

Epiphyseal

cartilage

Epiphysis

Articular cartilage


Appositional Growth (6-3)

• Enlargement in the diameter of bones occurs as it

is growing in length

• Periosteum cells develop into osteoblasts

• Produce more matrix on the outer surface of the bone

• Osteoclasts erode the inner surface

• Enlarging the marrow cavity


Figure 6-6 Appositional Bone Growth.

Bone resorbed

by osteoclasts

Bone deposited

by osteoblasts Infant Child Young adult Adult


Closing of Epiphyseal Plates (6-3)

• Vary from bone to bone

• Digits close early

• Arm, leg, and pelvis bones close later

• Vary from person to person

• And between males and females

• Mostly due to differences in sex hormones


Requirements for Bone Growth (6-3)

• Mineral supply

• Especially calcium salts

• Vitamin D3

• Involved in calcium metabolism

• Rickets is due to vitamin D3 deficiency

• Vitamin A and vitamin C

• Provide support for osteoblasts

• Growth hormone, sex hormones, thyroid hormone,

and the calcium-balancing hormones


Checkpoint (6-3)

7. During intramembranous ossification, which type

of tissue is replaced by bone?

8. How could x-rays of the femur be used to

determine whether a person had reached full

height?

9. A child who enters puberty several years later

than the average is generally taller than average

as an adult. Why?

10.Why are pregnant women given calcium

supplements and encouraged to drink milk even

though their skeletons are fully formed?


Bone Remodeling (6-4)

• In adults:

• Osteocytes in lacunae continuously remove and replace

surrounding calcium salts

• Osteoblasts and osteoclasts remain active

• Remodeling bone, especially spongy bone

• In young adults:

• Remodeling is so rapid that about one-fifth of the skeletal

mass is replaced each year


Bone Remodeling (6-4)

• Appropriate stress

• Causes thickening and strengthening of bone

• Little stress on bones causes them to be weak and thin

• Exercise

• Is key to maintaining normal bone structure and strength


The Calcium Reserve (6-4)

• Calcium balance in the body fluids

• Is essential for many physiological mechanisms

• Especially in nerves and muscles

• Calcium balance is regulated by:

• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitriol to raise calcium

levels

• Calcitonin to lower calcium levels in body fluids


Types of Fractures (6-4)

• Named by external appearance

• Closed (simple) fractures

• Completely internal

• Open (compound) fractures

• Project through the skin



• Named by location

• Example: Pott's fracture

• Occurs at the ankle and affects bones of the leg

• Example: Colles fracture

• Break in the distal portion of the radius



• Named by the nature of the break

• Example: transverse fractures

• Break a shaft of bone across its long axis

• Example: spiral fractures

• Produced by twisting stresses along the length of a bone

• Example: comminuted fractures

• Shatter the area into many smaller fragments


Four Steps to Repair Fractures (6-4)

1. Fractures result in broken blood vessels that

cause a blood clot, called a fracture hematoma,

to form

• This closes off the blood supply

• Killing osteocytes

• Resulting in dead bone on either side of the fracture


Four Steps to Repair Fractures (6-4)

2. Cells of periosteum and endosteum collect at the

fracture

• And develop into an external callus (develops hyaline

cartilage) and internal callus, respectively

3. Osteoblasts replace cartilage with spongy bone

4. Spongy bone is replaced by compact bone

• Leaving a slightly thicker spot at the fracture site


Figure 6-7 Steps in the Repair of a Fracture.

Dead bone

Bone fragments

Spongy bone of internal callus

Periosteum Internal callus

External callus

External callus

Cartilage of external callus


Checkpoint (6-4)

11. Describe bone remodeling.

12. Why would you expect the arm bones of a

weight lifter to be thicker and heavier than those

of a jogger?

13. What general effects do the hormones PTH,

calcitriol, and calcitonin have on blood calcium

levels?

14. What is the difference between a closed fracture

and an open fracture?


Osteopenia and Aging (6-5)

• Osteopenia

• Inadequate ossification that naturally occurs as part of the

aging process

• Starting between the ages of 30 and 40:

• Osteoblastic activity slows and osteoclastic activity

increases

• Osteoporosis

• Loss of bone mass that impairs normal function and can lead

to more fractures

• More common in women and accelerates after menopause

• Due to a decline in circulating estrogens


Checkpoint (6-5)

15. Define osteopenia.

16. Why is osteoporosis more common in older

women than in older men?


Surface Bone Markings (6-6)

• Are landmark features on the surfaces of bones

• Include projections

• Where tendons and ligaments attach

• Where bones articulate

• Include depressions, grooves, and openings

• Where blood vessels and nerves pass through the bone


Table 6-1 An Introduction to Bone Markings (1 of 2)


Table 6-1 An Introduction to Bone Markings (2 of 2)


Skeletal Divisions (6-6)

• Axial skeleton includes:

• The skull and associated bones

• The thoracic cage with the ribs and sternum

• The vertebral column

• Appendicular skeleton includes:

• The pectoral girdle and the upper limbs

• The pelvic girdle and the lower limbs


Figure 6-8 The Skeleton.

Skull

Clavicle

Scapula

Humerus

Ribs

Vertebrae

Radius

Ulna

Sacrum Hip bone Carpal bones

Coccyx

Metacarpal bones

Phalanges

Femur

Patella

Tibia

Fibula

Tarsal bones

Metatarsal bones Phalanges

Anterior view Posterior view


Figure 6-9 The Axial and Appendicular Divisions of the Skeleton.

AXIAL SKELETON

Skull

Skull and associated

bones

Thoracic cage

Vertebral column

Associated bones

Vertebrae

Sacrum

80

Cranium

Face

Auditory ossicles

Hyoid

Sternum

Ribs

Coccyx

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Clavicle

Scapula

Humerus

Radius

Ulna

Carpal bones

Metacarpal bones

Phalanges (proximal,

middle, distal)

Hip bone (coxal bone)

Femur

Patella

Tibia

Fibula

Tarsal bones

Metatarsal bones

Phalanges

Lower

limbs

Pelvic

girdle

Upper

limbs

Pectoral

girdle 29

25

8

14

6

1

1

24

24

26 1

1

126

2

2

4

2

2

2

16

10

60

28

2

2

2

2

2

2

14

10

28

60

Hyoid 1


Checkpoint (6-6)

17. Define bone markings (surface features).


The Axial Skeleton (6-7)

• Framework for support and protection of the

brain, spinal cord, and organs in the ventral body

cavity

• Provides surface area for attachment of muscles

that:

1. Move the head, neck, and trunk

2. Perform respiration

3. Stabilize elements of the appendicular skeleton


The Skull (6-7)

• Houses brain and sense organs for sight, smell,

taste, and balance

• Total of 22 bones

• 8 form the cranium

• Forming cranial cavity, which houses brain

• 14 are facial bones

• Also includes associated bones, 6 auditory ossicles, and

one hyoid bone


The Frontal Bone (6-7)

• Forms the forehead and the roof of the orbits, or

eye sockets

• Supra-orbital foramen

• Forms a passageway above each orbit for blood vessels and

nerves

• Frontal sinuses

• Are air-filled cavities above the orbit

• Lined with mucus membrane

• Connect with the nasal cavity


The Parietal Bones (6-7)

• Are posterior to frontal bones and form the roof of

the cranium

• Coronal suture

• Where the parietal and frontal bones interlock

• Sagittal suture

• Where the parietal bones interlock at the midline of the

cranium


The Occipital Bone (6-7)

• Forms the posterior, inferior part of the cranium

• Lambdoid suture

• Where the occipital and parietal bones interlock

• Foramen magnum

• Surrounds the connection between the brain and the spinal

cord

• Occipital condyles

• The articular surfaces that sit on the first vertebra


The Temporal Bones (6-7)

• On either side of the cranium and zygomatic

arches, housing the ossicles in middle ear

• Squamous sutures

• Where the temporal and parietal bones interlock

• Key bone markings

• External auditory meatus

• Mandibular fossa

• Mastoid process

• Styloid process


The Sphenoid Bone (6-7)

• Forms part of the floor of the cranium

• The bridge between the cranial bones and the facial bones

• Contains a pair of sinuses, the sphenoidal

sinuses

• "Wings" of the bone extend laterally from a central

depression, the sella turcica

• Which houses and protects the pituitary gland


The Ethmoid Bone (6-7)

• Anterior to the sphenoid, forms part of the cranial

floor

• Forms the medial surfaces of the orbits and is the roof and

sides of the nasal cavity

• Crista galli projects upward toward the brain and

the inferior cribriform plate

• Has holes in it allowing for olfactory nerves to pass into the

nasal cavity


The Ethmoid Bone (6-7)

• Contains ethmoidal sinuses

• Projections into the nasal cavity toward the nasal

septum

• Called the superior and middle nasal conchae

• Perpendicular plate extends down from the crista

galli between the conchae

• To form part of the nasal septum


Figure 6-10 The Adult Skull, Part I.

Coronal suture

PARIETAL BONE

FRONTAL BONE

SPHENOID

Supra-orbital foramen

NASAL BONE

LACRIMAL BONE

ETHMOID

Infra-orbital

foramen

MAXILLA

ZYGOMATIC BONE

Squamous suture

Lambdoid suture

External acoustic

meatus

Mastoid process

TEMPORAL BONE

MANDIBLE

Zygomatic

arch

Styloid process

Zygomatic process of temporal bone

Temporal process of zygomatic bone

Coronoid process

OCCIPITAL BONE


The Maxillae (6-7)

• Also called the maxillary bones

• Articulate with all other facial bones except for the

mandible

• Forms the floor and medial sides of the rim of the

orbits, the walls of the nasal cavity, and the

anterior roof of the mouth (bony palate)

• Maxillary sinuses

• Drain into nasal cavity

• Lighten the weight of the bones


The Palatine and Vomer Bones (6-7)

• Palatine bones form the posterior surface of the

bony palate, or roof of the mouth

• Superior surfaces form the floor of the nasal cavity

• Superior tips form part of orbital floor

• Vomer articulates with paired palatine bones and

forms part of the nasal septum


The Zygomatic Bones (6-7)

• Articulate with the frontal bone and the maxillae,

forming the lateral wall of the orbit

• Temporal process of the zygomatic

• Curves laterally and posteriorly to articulate with the

zygomatic process of the temporal bone

• Forming the zygomatic arch


The Nasal and Lacrimal Bones (6-7)

• Nasal bones form the bridge of the nose between

the orbits

• Articulating with the frontal and maxillary bones

• Lacrimal bones are found within the orbit on the

medial surfaces

• Articulating with the frontal, ethmoid, and maxillary bones


The Inferior Nasal Conchae and Nasal Complex

(6-7)

• Inferior nasal conchae project from lateral walls of

nasal cavity

• Changing airflow to improve sense of smell

• The nasal complex is made of all the bones that

form the nasal cavity and the paranasal sinuses

that drain into it

• Nasal septum divides the cavity into right and left


Figure 6-13 The Paranasal Sinuses.

Frontal sinus

Ethmoidal sinuses

Sphenoidal sinus

Maxillary sinus


The Mandible (6-7)

• The lower jaw

• Vertical process on either side

• The ramus extends up toward the temporal bone

• Posterior process of the ramus, the condylar

process

• Articulates with the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone

• Anterior coronoid process is the attachment

point:

• For the temporalis muscle that closes the jaw


Figure 6-11a The Adult Skull, Part II.

PARIETAL BONE

SPHENOID

TEMPORAL BONE

ETHMOID

PALATINE BONE

LACRIMAL BONE

ZYGOMATIC BONE

NASAL BONE

MAXILLA

INFERIOR NASAL CONCHA

MANDIBLE

Coronal suture

Supra-orbital foramen

Optic canal

Superior orbital fissure

Temporal process of zygomatic bone Mastoid process of temporal bone Infra-orbital foramen Middle nasal concha (part of ethmoid) Perpendicular plate of ethmoid VOMER

Nasal septum (bony portion)

Anterior view

FRONTAL BONE

Sagittal suture


Figure 6-11b The Adult Skull, Part II.

FRONTAL BONE

ZYGOMATIC BONE

VOMER

SPHENOID

Styloid process

Mandibular fossa

External acoustic meatus

Lambdoid suture

OCCIPITAL BONE

External occipital protuberance

MAXILLA

PALATINE BONE

Zygomatic arch

TEMPORAL BONE

Mastoid process

Occipital condyle

Foramen magnum

Inferior view


Figure 6-12a Sectional Anatomy of the Skull.

Crista galli Cribriform plate

Sella turcica

FRONTAL BONE

ETHMOID

SPHENOID

TEMPORAL BONE

PARIETAL BONE

OCCIPITAL BONE

Superior view of a horizontal section through the skull, showing the floor of the cranial cavity


Figure 6-12b Sectional Anatomy of the Skull.

FRONTAL BONE

SPHENOID Sphenoidal

sinus (right)

Frontal sinus Crista galli

NASAL BONE

ETHMOID

PALATINE BONE

MAXILLA MANDIBLE

PARIETAL BONE Sella turcica

TEMPORAL BONE

Lambdoid suture

OCCIPITAL BONE Styloid process


Figure 6-12c Sectional Anatomy of the Skull.

FRONTAL BONE

Frontal sinuses

ETHMOID Sphenoidal sinuses

SPHENOID NASAL BONE

PALATINE BONE (bony palate)

MAXILLA (bony palate)

Superior

Middle Nasal conchae of ethmoid INFERIOR

NASAL CONCHA

A sagittal section through the skull, with the nasal septum removed to show major features of the wall of the right nasal cavity


The Hyoid Bone (6-7)

• Small and U-shaped

• The only bone in the body not directly articulated

with another bone

• Is suspended from the styloid processes of the

temporal bones

• Serves as attachment for muscles of the larynx,

the tongue, and the pharynx


Greater horn

Lesser horn

Body

Figure 6-14 The Hyoid Bone.


The Skulls of Infants and Children (6-7)

• Fetal development of skull bones occurs around

the developing brain

• At birth:

• The cranial bones are connected with connective tissue

called fontanelles

• Flexible soft spots that allow for easier delivery of the

head

• By age 4:

• The fontanelles disappear and skull growth is finished


Figure 6-15 The Skull of a Newborn.

Coronal suture

FRONTAL BONE

PARIETAL BONE

Sphenoidal fontanelle

Squamous suture

Lambdoid suture

OCCIPITAL BONE

NASAL BONE

MAXILLA

SPHENOID

MANDIBLE TEMPORAL BONE

Mastoid fontanelle

Lateral view

FRONTAL BONE

PARIETAL BONE

Coronal suture

Frontal suture Anterior fontanelle

Sagittal suture

PARIETAL BONE

Lambdoid suture

OCCIPITAL BONE

Occipital fontanelle

FRONTAL BONE

Superior view


The Vertebral Column (6-7)

• Also called the spine

• Has 24 vertebrae

• A fused sacrum

• A fused coccyx

• Provides weight-bearing column of support and

protection of spinal cord


The Vertebral Column (6-7)

• Cervical region (neck) has 7 cervical vertebrae

• Thoracic region has 12 thoracic vertebrae

• Lumbar region has 5 lumbar vertebrae

• Sacral region has 5 fused vertebrae in the

sacrum

• Coccygeal region also made of 3–5 fused

vertebrae in the coccyx


Spinal Curvature (6-7)

• Primary curves

• Project posteriorly and include the thoracic and sacral

curves

• Are present at birth

• Secondary curves

• Project anteriorly and include the cervical and lumbar

curves

• Develop several months after birth


Spinal Curvatures (6-7)

• Abnormal curves

• Kyphosis (exaggerated thoracic curve)

• Lordosis (exaggerated lumbar curve)

• Scoliosis (abnormal lateral curve)


Figure 6-16 The Vertebral Column.

VERTEBRAL REGIONS SPINAL CURVES

Cervical Cervical

Thoracic Thoracic

Lumbar Lumbar

Sacral

Sacral Coccygeal

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6

C7 T1

T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9

T10 T11

T12

L1

L2

L3

L4

L5


General Vertebral Anatomy (6-7)

• Vertebral bodies

• Bear weight and are separated from each other by

intervertebral discs

• Vertebral arches

• Form posterior margin of vertebral foramina, which form the

vertebral canal

• Have walls called pedicles and roofs called laminae


General Vertebral Anatomy (6-7)

• Transverse processes project laterally or

dorsolaterally from the pedicles

• Spinous process projects posteriorly from the laminae

• The inferior and superior articular processes

arise at junction of pedicles and laminae on both

sides of the vertebrae

• Contact one another at the articular facets

• Forming the intervertebral foramina


The Cervical Vertebrae (6-7)

• C1–C7

• Body relatively small, and is oval and concave in

shape

• Vertebral foramina gradually decrease in diameter,

but are relatively large

• Spinous process is stumpy, with notched tip

• Transverse processes have transverse foramina

• That protect blood vessels to and from the brain


The Cervical Vertebrae (6-7)

• C1 is the atlas

• Holds up the head

• Articulates with the occipital condyles

• Allows for a specific "nodding yes" movement

• C2 is the axis

• Has a projection up toward the atlas, called the dens, or

odontoid process

• Allows for rotational "shaking the head no" movement


Figure 6-18 The Atlas and Axis.

Dens

(odontoid process)

Transverse

ligament

The atlas/axis complex

Atlas (C1)

Axis (C2)

Articulates

withoccipital

condyles

Articulates

with atlas


The Thoracic Vertebrae (6-7)

• T1–T12

• Has heart-shaped body

• Has a long, slender spinous process that points

inferiorly

• Has costal facets that articulate with the ribs


The Lumbar Vertebrae (7-6)

• L1–L5

• Vertebral body is significantly larger, thicker, and

more oval

• Has a massive, stumpy spinous process

• Has a bladelike transverse process


Figure 6-17 Typical Vertebrae of the Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Regions.

Spinous process

Lamina

Superior articular process

Superior articular facet

Transverse foramen

Vertebral foramen

Vertebral arch

Pedicle

Transverse process Vertebral

body

Cervical vertebra, superior view

Spinous process

Transverse process

Transverse costal facet for inferior rib

Lamina

Superior articular

facet Vertebral foramen

Pedicle

Vertebral body

Superior costal facet for superior rib

Thoracic vertebra, superior view

Spinous process Superior articular facet

Lamina Superior articular process

Transverse process

Transverse process

Pedicle

Vertebral foramen

Vertebral body

Lumbar vertebra, superior view


Figure 6-17a Typical Vertebrae of the Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Regions.

Spinous process

Lamina


Superior articular facet

Transverse foramen

Vertebral foramen

Vertebral arch

Pedicle

Transverse process Vertebral

body

Cervical vertebra, superior view


Figure 6-17b Typical Vertebrae of the Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Regions.

Spinous process

Transverse process

Transverse costal facet for inferior rib

Lamina

Superior articular

facet Vertebral foramen

Pedicle

Vertebral body

Superior costal facet for superior rib

Thoracic vertebra, superior view


Figure 6-17c Typical Vertebrae of the Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Regions.

Spinous process Superior articular facet

Lamina Superior articular process Transverse

process Transverse process

Pedicle

Vertebral foramen

Vertebral body

Lumbar vertebra, superior view


The Sacrum (6-7)

• Has five fused vertebrae

• Protects organs in pelvic cavity

• Has lateral articulations with pelvic girdle

• Narrow caudal area is the apex; superior surface is the

base

• Which has the sacral promontory

• Sacral canal runs down posterior surface

• Sacral foramina on either side of median sacral crest


The Coccyx (6-7)

• Three to five fused vertebrae

• Provides attachment for muscles of the anal

opening


Figure 6-19 The Sacrum and Coccyx.

Entrance to sacral canal

Articular process

Sacral promontory

Median sacral crest

Sacral foramina

Base

Sacral hiatus

Coccyx

Posterior view Anterior view

Apex


The Thoracic Cage (6-7)

• Made of thoracic vertebrae, the ribs, and the

sternum

• Forming the walls of the thoracic cavity

• Seven pairs of true ribs, called vertebrosternal

ribs

• Connect to sternum with costal cartilages

• Five pairs of false ribs, pairs 8–10, are

vertebrochondral ribs

• Last two pairs are floating ribs, or vertebral ribs


Three Parts of the Sternum (6-7)

• Also called the breastbone

1. The superior broad part is the manubrium; articulates with

the clavicle of the appendicular skeleton

2. The long body

3. The inferior tip, the xiphoid process


Figure 6-20 The Thoracic Cage.

Jugular notch

Clavicular articulation

Manubrium

Body

Xiphoid process

Costal cartilages

Vertebrochondral ribs

(ribs 8–10)

Floating ribs (ribs 11–12)

Anterior view, showing the ribs, costal cartilages, and the sternum

False ribs (ribs 8–12)

True ribs (ribs 1–7)

T

Sternum

Sternum

Jugular notch

Manubrium

Body

Xiphoid process

Costal cartilages

Floating ribs

False ribs (8–12)

True ribs (1–7)

Anterior view of the ribs, sternum, and costal cartilages, shown diagrammatically

T 11

T 12

12

11

10 6

7

8

9

5

4

3

2

1

1


Checkpoint (6-7)

18. The mastoid and styloid processes are found on which

skull bone?

19. What bone contains the depression called the sella

turcica? What is located in the depression?

20. Which bone of the cranium articulates directly with the

vertebral column?

21. During baseball practice, a ball hits Casey in the eye,

fracturing bones directly above and below the orbit.

Which bones were broken?

22. What are the functions of the paranasal sinuses?

23. Why would a fracture of the coronoid process of the

mandible make it difficult to close the mouth?


Checkpoint (6-7)

24. What signs would you expect to see in a person suffering

from a fractured hyoid bone?

25. Joe suffered a hairline fracture at the base of the dens.

Which bone is fractured, and where would you find it?

26. In adults, five large vertebrae fuse to form what single

structure?

27. Why are the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae so large?

28. What are the differences between true ribs and false

ribs?

29. Improper administration of CPR (cardiopulmonary

resuscitation) could result in a fracture of which bone(s)?


The Pectoral Girdle (6-8)

• Connects the upper limbs to the trunk

• Includes the clavicle and the scapula

• Clavicle

• S-shaped bone articulates with manubrium at sternal end

and with the acromion process of the scapula


The Scapula (6-8)

• A broad triangular bone with superior, medial,

and lateral borders

• The three tips are the superior, inferior, and lateral

angles

• Lateral angle, or head of the scapula, has the glenoid cavity

• Which articulates with the humerus to form the shoulder

joint


The Scapula (6-8)

• Subscapular fossa

• A depression in the anterior surface where the subscapularis

muscle is attached

• Coracoid process

• The smaller process

• Posterior and larger is the acromion process

• Which articulates with the distal end of the clavicle

• Scapular spine

• Divides the scapula into the supraspinous fossa and the

infraspinous fossa


Figure 6-21 The Clavicle.

LATERAL

Acromial end

Facet for articulation with acromion

Sternal end

MEDIAL


Figure 6-22 The Scapula.

Acromion

Coracoid process

Superior border

Subscapular fossa

Lateral border

Body Scapular spine

Medial border

Lateral border

Medial border

Inferior angle

Glenoid cavity

Coracoid process

Acromion

Supraspinous fossa

Superior border

Coracoid process

Acromion

Neck

Scapular spine

Infraspinous fossa

Lateral border

Posterior view Lateral view Anterior view

Body


The Upper Limb (6-8)

• Contains the bones of the arm

• The humerus

• Proximal area of the limb from the scapula to the elbow

• Contains the bones of the forearm

• The radius and ulna

• Contains the bones of the wrist and hand

• The carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges


The Humerus (6-8)

• Proximally, the round head articulates with the

scapula

• Greater tubercle is a rounded projection on

lateral surface of head

• Lesser tubercle lies anteriorly

• Is separated from the greater tubercle by the intertubercular

groove


The Humerus (6-8)

• The proximal shaft is rounded with deltoid

tuberosity along lateral border

• Distally, the medial and lateral epicondyles

project to either side

• Smooth condyle articulates with radius and ulna

• Medial trochlea extends from coronoid fossa to

olecranon fossa


The Humerus (6-8)

• The capitulum forms the lateral region of the

condyle

• The shallow radial fossa is proximal to the

capitulum


Figure 6-23 The Right Humerus.

Greater tubercle

Intertubercular groove

Lesser tubercle

Greater tubercle

Head

Anatomical neck

Surgical neck

Deltoid tuberosity

Groove for radial nerve

Shaft

Lateral epicondyle Olecranon

fossa Coronoid

fossa

Medial epicondyle

Radial fossa

Trochlea Capitulum Trochlea

Condyle

Anterior surface Posterior surface


The Ulna and Radius (6-8)

• Olecranon process of the ulna is the point of the

elbow

• The trochlear notch articulates with the trochlea

of the humerus

• The coronoid process forms the inferior lip of the

notch


The Ulna and Radius (6-8)

• The ulnar shaft ends distally in the short styloid

process

• Which sits on the distal end of the radius

• The neck of the radius is between the head and

the radial tuberosity

• Radial head articulates with capitulum of humerus

and radial notch of ulna

• Styloid process of radius articulates with wrist


Figure 6-24 The Right Radius and Ulna.

Olecranon

Trochlear notch

Coronoid process

Radial notch

Ulnar tuberosity

Head of radius

Neck of radius

Radial tuberosity

RADIUS ULNA

Interosseous membrane

ULNA

Lateral view of ulna,

showing trochlear

notch

Distal radio-ulnar joint

Ulnar head

Styloid process of ulna

Styloid process of radius

Anterior view


The Bones of the Wrists and Hands (6-8)

• Carpal bones

• The proximal row includes:

• The scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, and pisiform bones

• The distal row includes:

• The trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate bones

• Five metacarpal bones

• Form the palm of the hand and articulate with the phalanges

• The pollex is the thumb


Figure 6-25 Bones of the Right Wrist and Hand.

ULNA

Styloid process

of ulna

Lunate

Triquetrum

Pisiform

Hamate

Metacarpal

bones

RADIUS

Styloid process of radius

Scaphoid

Trapezium

Trapezoid

Capitate

Proximal

Middle

Distal

Phalanges

I

II III IV V


The Pelvic Girdle (6-8)

• Articulates with the thigh bones

• More massive than the pectoral girdle

• Firmly attached to the axial skeleton

• Consists of two large hip bones or coxal bones

• Each a fusion of three bones

• The ilium, the ischium, and the pubis

• Hips articulate with the sacrum at the sacroiliac joints, with

the femur at the acetabulum


The Hip Bone (6-8)

• The ilium is superior and the largest component

• Superior margin forms the iliac crest

• The ischium has a rough projection

• Called the ischial tuberosity or seat bone

• The ischium branches over to the pubis

• Creating the circle of the obturator foramen

• Pubic bones articulate at the pubic symphysis


The Pelvis (6-8)

• Consists of the hip bones, the sacrum, and the

coccyx

• Stabilized by a network of ligaments

• Differences in the characteristics of the male

versus female pelvis

• In females, the pelvis is better suited for pregnancy and

delivery

• Females have a broader lower pelvis, a larger pelvic outlet,

and a broader pubic angle


Figure 6-26 The Pelvis.

L

Sacrum Ilium

Hip bone

Ischium Pubis

Coccyx

Sacroiliac joint

5

Iliac crest

Pelvis, anterior view Acetabulum

Pubic tubercle

Obturator foramen

SACRUM

ILIUM

PUBIS

Pubic symphysis

ISCHIUM

Adult male pelvis, anterior view

Ilium

Hip bone

Pubis

Ischium

Ischial tuberosity

Right hip bone of the pelvis, lateral view


Figure 6-27 Differences in the Anatomy of the Pelvis in Males and Females.

Pelvic outlet, relatively narrow

or less

Male

or more

Pelvic outlet, relatively broad

Female

90˚ 100˚


The Lower Limb (6-8)

• Contains the bones of the thigh

• The femur is the longest bone in the body

• Contains the patella or kneecap

• Contains the bones of the leg

• The tibia and fibula

• Contains the bones of the ankle and foot


The Femur and Patella (6-8)

• Greater and lesser trochanters

• Extend laterally from neck and shaft

• Linea aspera

• Attachment for adductor muscles

• Large epicondyles on distal end

• Inferior surfaces form lateral and medial condyles

• The patella is the kneecap, sliding over the

anterior surface of the knee joint


Figure 6-28 The Right Femur. Articular surface of head

Greater trochanter

Greater trochanter

Neck

Lesser trochanter

Linea

aspera

Patellar surface

Lateral epicondyle

Medial epicondyle

Lateral epicondyle

Lateral condyle

Medial condyle

Lateral condyle

Anterior surface Posterior surface

Shaft of femur


The Tibia (6-8)

• Larger, medial shin bone with own lateral and

medial condyles

• That articulate with condyles of femur

• Anterior margin

• Extends down the anterior tibial surface

• Medial malleolus

• A large distal process that articulates with the ankle


The Fibula (6-8)

• Runs parallel and lateral to tibia

• Articulates with tibia inferior to the lateral tibial

condyle

• Does not articulate with the ankle

• Lateral malleolus is distal end of fibula

• Interosseus membrane connects tibia and fibula


Figure 6-29 The Right Tibia and Fibula.

Lateral tibial condyle

Head of fibula Medial tibial condyle

Tibial tuberosity

Interosseous membrane

Anterior margin

TIBIA

FIBULA

Lateral malleolus (fibula)

Medial malleolus (tibia)

Inferior articular surface


The Bones of the Ankle and Foot (6-8)

• Seven ankle or tarsal bones include:

• The talus, calcaneus, navicular, and cuboid, and the medial,

intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms

• Only the talus articulates with the tibia and fibula

• The largest is the calcaneus, or heel bone

• The metatarsals and phalanges are in the same

pattern as in the hand

• Big toe is hallux


Figure 6-30a The Bones of the Ankle and Foot.

Calcaneus

Trochlea of talus

Cuboid

Talus

Navicular

Cuneiform bones

Lateral Intermediate Medial

Metatarsal bones

Hallux

Proximal phalanx

Distal phalanx

Phalanges

Proximal

Middle

Distal

Superior view, right foot

IV V

III II I


Figure 6-30b The Bones of the Ankle and Foot.

Medial cuneiform

bone

Navicular Talus

Metatarsal bones Phalanges

Medial view, right foot

Calcaneus


Checkpoint (6-8)

30. In what way would a broken clavicle affect the mobility of the scapula?

31. The rounded projections on either side of the elbow are parts of which bone?

32. Which of the two bones of the forearm is lateral in the anatomical position?

33. Which three bones make up a hip bone?

34. The fibula neither participates in the knee joint nor bears weight. When it is fractured, however, walking becomes difficult. Why?

35. While jumping off the back steps of his house, 10-year-old Cesar lands on his right heel and breaks his foot. Which bone is most likely broken?


Categories of Joints (6-9)

• Classified by structure

• Based on anatomy of joints

• Includes fibrous, cartilaginous (both with limited

movement), and synovial (freely movable)

• Classified by function

• Based on range of motion

• Includes synarthrosis (immovable), amphiarthrosis

(slightly movable), and diarthrosis (freely movable)


Table 6-2 A Functional and Structural Classifi cation of Articulations


Immovable Joints or Synarthroses (6-9)

• Can be fibrous or cartilaginous

• Sutures of the skull connected with dense

connective tissue

• Gomphosis

• A ligament binding each tooth in the socket

• Synchondrosis

• A rigid cartilaginous connection

• For example, between the first pair of ribs and the sternum


Freely Movable Joints or Diarthroses (6-9)

• Synovial joints with a wide range of motion

• Usually found at the ends of long bones

• Ends of bones covered with articular cartilages

• Surrounded with a fibrous joint capsule

• Inner surfaces are lined with the synovial membrane

• Synovial fluid in the joint reduces friction


Freely Movable Joints or Diarthroses (6-9)

• Some synovial joints have additional padding

• In the form of menisci

• For example, in the knee

• Fat pads can also act as cushions

• Ligaments join bone to bone

• May be found inside and/or outside the joint capsule

• Bursae are packets of connective tissue

containing synovial fluid

• They reduce friction and absorb shock


Figure 6-31 The Structure of Synovial Joints.

Marrow cavity

Spongy bone

Periosteum

Fibrous joint capsule

Synovial membrane

Articular cartilages

Joint cavity (containing synovial fluid)

Compact bone

Bursa

Joint capsule

Synovial membrane

Meniscus

Intracapsular ligament

Patella

Quadriceps tendon

Articular cartilage

Fat pad

Patellar ligament

Joint cavity

Meniscus

Femur

Tibia

Synovial joint, sagittal section Knee joint, sagittal section


Checkpoint (6-9)

36. Name and describe the three types of joints as

classified by the amount of movement possible.

37. In a newborn, the large bones of the skull are

joined by fibrous connective tissue. Which type

of joint are these? These skull bones later grow,

interlock, and form immovable joints. Which type

of joint are these?


Types of Synovial Joint Movement (6-10)

• Gliding

• When two opposing surfaces slide past each other

• For example, the carpal bones

• Angular movement includes:

• Flexion which decreases the angle of two long bones

• Extension increases the angle

• Hip and shoulder flex by moving anteriorly

• Extend by moving posteriorly

• Hyperextension is extension beyond anatomical position


Angular Movement (6-10)

• Abduction

• Moves a limb away from the midline

• For example, separating the fingers

• Adduction

• Moves a limb toward the midline

• For example, bringing the fingers together

• Circumduction

• Moves the limbs in a loop


Figure 6-32 Angular Movements.

Extension

Flexion Hyperextension

Flexion

Extension

Flexion

Hyperextension

Extension

Hyper- extension

Flexion

Abduction

Adduction

Abduction

Adduction

Abduction

Extension

Abduction

Adduction

Adduction

Adduction Abduction

Flexion/extension Abduction/adduction

Adduction/abduction Circumduction


Figure 6-32a Angular Movements.

Extension

Flexion Hyperextension

Flexion

Extension

Flexion

Hyperextension

Extension

Hyper- extension

Flexion

Extension

Flexion/extension


Figure 6-32b Angular Movements.

Abduction

Adduction

Abduction

Adduction

Abduction

Abduction

Adduction

Adduction

Abduction/adduction


Figure 6-32c Angular Movements.

Adduction Abduction

Adduction/abduction


Figure 6-32d Angular Movements.

Circumduction


Rotational Joint Movements (6-10)

• Involves turning around the longitudinal axis of the

body or limb

• For example, turning the head

• Rotation of the distal end of the radius across the

ulna is a form of rotation

• Pronation

• The palm is facing the front and is then rotated to the

back

• Supination

• Is the opposite, turning the palm forward


Figure 6-33 Rotational Movements.

Pronation

Supination Pronation

Supination

Medial

(internal)

rotation

Lateral

(external)

rotation

Right

rotation Left

rotation

Head rotation


Special Joint Movements (6-10)

• Inversion twists the sole of the foot inward

• Eversion twists it outward

• Dorsiflexion elevates the sole at the ankle,

putting the heel down

• Plantar flexion is to point the toes

• Opposition is moving the thumb toward the palm

to grasp

• Reposition returns it from opposition


Special Joint Movements (6-10)

• Elevation and depression

• Occurs when a structure moves superiorly and inferiorly

• For example, closing and opening your mandible

• Lateral flexion

• Is a bending of the vertebral column to the side


Figure 6-34 Special Movements.

Eversion Inversion Opposition

Retraction Protraction Depression Elevation Lateral flexion

Dorsiflexion

(flexion at ankle)

Plantar

flexion

(extension at ankle)


Types of Synovial Joints (6-10)

• Gliding joints

• Have flat or slightly curved faces

• Movement is slight

• Hinge joints

• Permit angular movement in one plane

• Like opening and closing a door

• Pivot joints

• Permit rotation only

• Like turning the head or supinating and pronating the palm



• Condylar joints

• Occur where an oval surface nests with a depression on the

other bone

• Allowing for angular motion in two planes, along or across

the length of the oval

• Saddle joints

• Have two bones that each have a concave face on one axis

and convex on the other

• Allowing for circumduction, but not rotation



• Ball-and-socket joints

• Occur where the end of one bone is a round head that nests

within the cup-shaped depression in the other bone

• Allow for a wide range of motion

• For example, the hip and shoulder joints


Figure 6-35 Synovial Joints

Movement: multidirectional in a single plane

Movement: angular in a single plane

Movement: rotational in a single plane

Movement: angular in two planes

Movement: angular in two planes, and circumduction

Movement: angular, rotational, and circumduction

Gliding joint

Hinge joint

Pivot joint

Condylar joint

Saddle joint

Ball-and-socket joint

Manubrium

Humerus

Ulna

Atlas

Axis

Scaphoid

bone

Ulna Radius

Metacarpal

bone of

thumb

Scapula

Humerus

SPOTLIGHT FIGURE 6-35

Synovial Joints

Trapezium


Checkpoint (6-10)

38. Give the proper term for each of the following

types of motion:

(a) moving the humerus away from the longitudinal axis of

the body,

(b) turning the palms so that they face forward, and

(c) bending the elbow.

39. Which movements are associated with hinge

joints?


Intervertebral Articulations (6-11)

• From the axis to the sacrum

• Include gliding joints between the superior and

inferior articular processes

• And symphyseal joints between the vertebral bodies

• Separated and padded by intervertebral discs

• Made of a tough outer fibrocartilage surrounding a gelatinous

core


Figure 6-36 Intervertebral Articulations.

Intervertebral foramen

Superior articular

facet

Posterior ligaments


Inferior articular process

Intervertebral

Disc

Inner gelantinous layer

Outer fibrocartilage layer

Spinal cord

Spinal nerve

Anterior longitudinal ligament


The Shoulder Joint (6-11)

• Most range of motion of any joint

• Therefore, more likely to dislocate

• Ball-and-socket structure with many bursae

• Muscles that surround and move the shoulder joint

form the rotator cuff

PLAY ANIMATION Humerus Circumduction

art_humerus_circumduct.mpg


Figure 6-37 The Shoulder Joint.

Ligaments interconnecting clavicle and scapula

Tendon of supraspinatus

muscle

Acromion

Joint capsule

Subdeltoid bursa

Synovial membrane

Humerus

Joint capsule

Joint cavity

Articular cartilages

Coracoid process

Scapula

Clavicle


The Elbow Joint (6-11)

• Hinge joint is found between the humerus and

ulna

• A weak joint is between the humerus and radius

• Very stable due to interlocking of humerus and

ulna

• Very thick joint capsule and very strong ligaments

PLAY ANIMATION Elbow Flexion/Extension

art_elbow_flex_extension.mpg


Figure 6-38 The Elbow Joint.

Coronoid fossa

Joint capsule

Coronoid

process

Synovial membrane

Tendon of

biceps brachii

Ulna Radius Articular cartilage

Bursa

Olecranon

Trochlea

Triceps

tendon

Joint capsule

Olecranon fossa

Humerus


The Hip Joint (6-11)

• Ball-and-socket joint between the head of the

femur and the acetabulum of the coxal bone

• Is very dense and strong

• Due to extensive joint capsule, supporting ligaments, and

strong surrounding muscles


Figure 6-39 The Hip Joint.

Greater

trochanter

Reinforcing

ligaments

Joint

capsule

The hip joint is extremely strong and stable, in part because of the massive joint capsule and surrounding ligaments.

Acetabulum

Articular cartilage

Synovial membrane

Joint capsule

Fat pad

Ligament of the

femoral head

Joint

capsule Femur

This sectional view of the right hip shows the structure of the joint and the position of the ligament of the fermoral head.


The Knee Joint (6-11)

• Complex joint between distal femoral and proximal

tibial condyles

• And between the patella and femur

• Has multiple joint capsules

• And condyles are cushioned by the medial and lateral

menisci

• Multiple ligaments from different angles support

the knee

• Patella is within quadriceps tendon

• Patellar ligament links to tibial anterior surface


Figure 6-40 The Knee Joint.

Quadriceps tendon

Patella

Fibular collateral ligament

Patellar ligament

Tibia

Joint capsule

Tibial collateral ligament

Anterior view of the right knee joint, superficial layer

Patellar surface

Posterior cruciate ligament Fibular

collateral ligament

Lateral meniscus

Cut tendon

Fibula

Medial condyle

Tibial collateral ligament

Medial meniscus

Anterior cruciate ligament

Lateral condyle

Tibia

Deep anterior view of the right knee when flexed


Checkpoint (6-11)

40. Would a tennis player or a jogger be more likely to

develop inflammation of the subdeltoid bursa? Why?

41. Daphne falls on her hands with her elbows slightly

flexed. After the fall, she can't move her left arm at the

elbow. If a fracture exists, which bone is most likely

broken?

42. Why is a complete dislocation of the knee joint an

infrequent event?

43. What signs would you expect to see in an individual who

has damaged the menisci of the knee joint?


Skeletal Support of Other Body Systems (6-12)

• Balance between bone formation and recycling

creates dynamic interactions with other systems

• For example, bones:

• Provide attachments for muscles

• Interact with cardiovascular and lymphatic systems

• Are under the control of the endocrine system

• Digestive and urinary systems play a role in calcium and

phosphate balance


Figure 6-41

The skeletal system provides structural support and protection for

the body. The skeleton

also stores calcium,

phosphate, and other

minerals necessary for

many functions in other

organ systems. In addition, the lipids in the yellow marrow serve as an energy reserve and blood cell production occurs in the red marrow.

Synthesizes vitamin D3, essential for calcium and phosphorus absorption (bone maintenance and growth)

Provides structural

support

Body System Skeletal System SYSTEM INTEGRATOR

Skeletal System Body System

Inte

gu

m-

en

tary

The SKELETAL System

Mu

scu

lar

(Pag

e 2

41)

Resp

irato

ry

(Pag

e 5

32)

Rep

rod

ucti

ve

(Pag

e 6

71)


Checkpoint (6-12)

44. Describe the functional relationship between the

skeletal system and the integumentary system.

Lecture Slides prepared by Meg Flemming Austin … 105/Ess...• Name the components and functions...

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Transcript of Lecture Slides prepared by Meg Flemming Austin … 105/Ess...• Name the components and functions...