Leadership & Culture. 2011 (5)
Transcript of Leadership & Culture. 2011 (5)
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Leadership & Culture: A
suitable case forinterpretation.
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culture Values, norms, guiding beliefs, andunderstandings that are shared bymembers of an organization.
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A Recoll ection: L evels of Cul ture
Personality
Culture
Human Nature
Specific toIndividual
Specific togroup orcategory
Universal
Inherited andLearned
Learned
Inherited
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BEHAVIOURSWhat You See
Cultural StereotypesDoing Business
SYSTEMS & OPERATIONSHow Business is Organised
Management Philosophy/StyleHR Strategies/Personnel Mgmt
CULTURAL BEDROCKBeliefs and ValuesPolitical Influences
Socio-Economic Frameworks
The Iceberg Model of Inter-Cultural BusinessAnalysis
The Water Li ne
Sha l lowWaterLevel
DeepWaterLevel
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The Cultur al Web
Stories Symbols
Structures
Powerstructures
Controlsystems
Rituals/routines Paradigm
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M ani festations of cul tur eThe cul tur al Web
Routinebehaviours
The way that things are donesignals what is importantand valued:
What behaviour do routines
encourage?
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M anifestations of cul tur eThe cultural Web
Training programmes
Assessment criteriaSalutingHandshakes
Routinebehaviours
Rituals
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M anifestations of cul tur eThe cultural Web
Told to outsiders and joiners
TrafalgarRelevant military history
Routinebehaviours
Rituals
Stories
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M anifestations of cul tur eThe cultural Web
Military rich in symbolsLogosFlagsTitlesUniforms
Routinebehaviours
Rituals
Stories
Symbols
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Symbols & the M ilitary
HMS Victory
Battle of Trafalgar 1805
Understoodonly byInsiders
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M anifestations of cul tur eThe cultural Web
Staff movement,intellectual property &
corruptionPerformance metricsReward systemse.g.(Japanese and
loyalty, Indonesian?)
Routinebehaviours
Rituals
Stories
Symbols
Controlsystems
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M anifestations of cul tur eThe cultural Web
Centralisation, delegation
& initiativeMilitary hierarchy/chainof commandJointery??
Routinebehaviours
Rituals
Stories/
Heroes
Symbols
Control
systems
Power/
Organisationstructures
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The Cultural- Web "how we do things around here"
Stories - The past events and people talked about inside and outside the company.Who and what the company chooses to immortalize says a great deal about what it values,and perceives as great behaviour.
Rituals and Routines - The daily behaviourand actions of people that s ignal acceptablebehaviour. This determines what is expected tohappen in given situations, and what is valuedby management.
Symbols - The visual representations of thecompany including logos, how plush the officesare, and the formal or informal dress codes.
Organizational Structure - This includes both the structure defined by theorganization chart, and the unwritten lines of power and influence that indicate
whose contributions are most valued.
Control Systems - The ways that the organizationis controlled. These include financial systems, qualitysystems, and rewards (including the way they aremeasured and distributed within the organization.)
Power Structures - The pockets of real powerin the company. This may involve one or twokey senior executives, a whole group ofexecutives, or even a department. The keyis that these people have the greatest
amount of influence on decisions, operations,and strategic direction.
Pattern/modelof environment
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The Cul tur al Web Aspir ed To
PARADIGMPOWER
ORGANISATION
STORIESSYMBOLS
Successful Hay teamsWorking hardFun place to workBig change managersSalary levels
Informal interaction stylesHaving an office but others
use itFew consultants in the officeConferences at prestigious
locationsOpen, untidy work area s
Consultants are with clientsExcellent induction processesBottom up communicationWith less memosFewer meetingsInfo flows across depts/networksImpromptu gatherings
and parties
Client focusCore business = HR
consultancyHigh expertise in HRTeam oriented
Based on:Client managementExpertiseInterpersonal networks
Meeting billing/selling targets:otherwise high autonomy
Team targetsTeam incentivesMeeting quality objectives
Clear matrixFlexible, responsive toclientsClear accountabilitiesInformal networks
POWER
ORGANISATION
RITUALS &ROUTINES
CONTROLS
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Using Cultur e Webs to I denti fy
F orces Bl ocking and F acili tating Change
The cultural web STORIES SYMBOLS
PARADIGM POWER
CONTROLS ORGANISATION
Rivalry/competition withinorganisation
Lone rangers Working hardFun place to work
Salary levels
Rushing about looking busyHaving an office (but others
use it)Conferences at prestigious
locationsOpen untidy work areasJob evaluation terminology
Core business-job evaluationIndividualism and autonomyGeneralist HR expertiseInstitutionalized incremental
change
Based on access to clientsPlus position, expertise and interpersonal networks
Meeting individual billing andselling targets
Control job evaluationprocedures
Financial incentives
Complex matrixFlexible, responsive to clientsInformal networksBut unclear accountabilities
Using culturewebs to identifyforces blockingandfacilitatingchange.
Hay Managem entConsul tan ts used
culture webs as ameans ofidentifyingrequired changesin culture
Consultants are with clientsMinimal induction processImpromptu gatherings and
partiesMany meetingsLittle bottom-upcommunication
Non-communicationby memo
RITUALS ROUTINES
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Beliefs, values and assumptions underpin cul ture
Routinebehaviours
Rituals
Stories/
Heroes
Symbols
Control
systems
Power/
Organisationstructures
Beliefs, valuesand assumptions
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Cultural change as most challenging
National culture
Organisationalculture
Functionalcultures
Functionalcultures
Functionalcultures
Zones ofuncomfortable
debate
BUT!
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Levels of Values
UniversalSocietal
Individual
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The Cultural Balance
Your cultural normsOthers cultural
norms
You do not sign the contract as speedily aswe would like.
Your organisation is very hierarchical andproduces much bureaucracy
Young people are promoted early on in theircareers in my company
We express our emotions openly duringbusiness meetings
I like to do presentations with interactiveparticipation
but I understand that you prefer to build agood relationship first.
but I realise that your status and authority isvery important in your society.
but I appreciate that you value wisdom throughage and experience in yours.
but I am aware that you keep your feelingsprivate.
but I know that your style is more aboutlistening and giving tangible respect.
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Key dimensions of cultureTrompenaars
Relationship with natureRelationships with people
Universalism v particularism
Individualism v collectivismAffectivityDiffuse v specific
Ach ievement v ascriptionRelationship with time
AdlerHuman nature
Relationship with natureIndividualist/collectivist
Human activity (being/doing)Space (private/public)
Time (past/present/future
HofstedeUncertainty avoidance
Power distanceInvidualism/collectivism
Masculinity/femininity
HallSpace
(personal/physical)
Time(monochronic/polychronic)
Language(high content/low content)
Friendships
ScheinRelationship with nature
Human activityHuman nature
Relationships with people
TimeTruth and reality
Kluckhohn and StrodtbeckRelationship with time
Human activity, Human nature
Relationships with people. Time
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Geert HofstedeDimensions of Culture :
Power Distance
Individualism vs.collectivismMasculinity versusfemininity
Uncertainty avoidanceLong versus short termorientation
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Societal Context
S ocietal culture dimensions:
Tolerance of ambiguity (attitudes to risktolerance)Power distanceIndividualism vs. collectivism
Masculinity v FeminityTime consciousness (future orientation)
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The Hofstede/TrompenaarsCultural Dimensions
Dimension Refers to
Power Distance
Individualism/Collectivism
Universalist/Particularist
Specific/Diffuse
Neutral/Emotional
Uncertainty Avoidance
Short Term/Long Term
Achievement/Ascription
Attitudes to Time
autocracy/democracy; distribution of influence
Focus on individual or group
Principles of right/wrong; personal relationships
Legal processes; personaltrust
Objective interactions; emotional expressions
Attitude to risk, uncertainty, ambiguity
Perspective on investment returns/results
Status; performance
Emphasis on past, present, future
Motivation from self oroutside world
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Hofstedes Findings for Thailand, the UK and Switz.
Country PowerDistance
Uncertainty Avoidance
Individualism Masculinity
Thailand 64 64 20 34
UK 35 35 89 66
Switzerland 34 58 68 70
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Globe Project - F undamental Questions:
Are there leader behaviours, attributes, and organizational practices that
are universally accepted and effective across cultures ?
Are there leader behaviours, attributes, and organizational practices thatare accepted and effective in only some cultures ?
How do attributes of societal and organizational cultures influence thevarieties of leader behaviours and org. practices that are accepted andeffective ?
Can the universal and culture-specific aspects of leader behaviours,attributes, and org. practices be explained in terms of an underlyingtheory that accounts for systematic differences across cultures ?
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GLOBE : Dimensions of Societal Culture
9 Dimensions:1. Assertiveness is the degree to which individuals in orgs. or
societies are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in socialrelationships
2. Future Orientation is the degree to which individuals in orgs.or societies engage in future-oriented behaviours such as
planning, investing in the future, and delaying individual or
collective gratification3. Gender Egalitarianism is the extent to which an org. or a
society minimizes gender role difference while promotinggender enquiry and equality of genders
4. Humane Orientation is the degree to which individuals inorgs. or societies encourage and reward individuals for beingfair, altruistic, friendly, generous, caring, kind to others, andexhibiting and promoting altruistic ideals
5. Institutional Collectivism (Collectivism 1) reflects the degreeto which organizational and societal institutional practicesencourage and reward collective distribution of resources and
collective action
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GLOBE : Dimensions of Societal Culture
6. In-Group Collectivism (Collectivism 2) reflects the degree towhich individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness intheir organisations, families, circle of close friends, or othersuch groups
7. Performance Orientation refers to the extent to which highlevel members of orgs. and societies encourage and rewardgroup members for performance improvement
8. Power Distance is the degree to which members of an org. orsociety encourage and reward unequal distribution of powerwith greater power at higher levels
9. Uncertainty Avoidance is the extent to which members of anorg. or society strive to avoid uncertainty by relying onestablished norms, rituals and bureaucratic practices todecrease the probability of unpredictable future events thatcould adversely affect the operation of an org. or society, andalso to remedy the potential adverse effects of suchunpredictable future events
Categor izat ion of g lo bal leadership com petences in the emp ir ica l research
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g g p p p
GLOB AL LEADERSHIPDIMENSIONS
with competencies
GlobalBusinessExpertise
GlobalOrganizingExpertise
Cross- culturalRelationship
skills
Traits andValues
Global businesssavvy
Technologicalsavvy
Business literacy
Customer orientation
External orientation
Results orientation
Maintain competitiveadvantage Visioning
Cultural sensitivity
Appreciate diversity
Constructive dialogue
Motivate/ reward others
Develop others
Empowering others
Share leadership
Social literacy
Cultural literacy
Inquisitiveness/curiosity
Resourceful
Optimistic
Character/integrity
Energetic
Emotional Intelligence
Resilience to stressTenacious
Stable personal life
Life balance
Personal literacy
Global minded
Open-minded
Thinking agility
Cognitive complexity
Managing uncertainty
Behavioural flexibility
Articulates a tangiblevision
and strategy
Envisioning
Articulates values
Catalyst for culturalChange
Catalyst for strategicchange
Team building
Builds partnerships
Architecting /designing
CognitiveOrientation
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Project GL OBE leadership traits
Universa l ly acceptable t ra i t s Universa l ly unacc eptable t ra i t s Cul tura l ly cont ingent t ra i t s
DecisiveInformedHonestDynamicAdministratively skilledCoordinatorJustTeam builderEffective bargainerDependableWin-win problem solverPlans aheadIntelligentExcellence oriented
RuthlessEgocentricAsocialNon-explicitIrritableNon-cooperativeLonerDictatorial
EnthusiasticSelf sacrificialRisk-takingSincereAmbitiousSensitiveSelf-effacingCompassionateUnique
Wilful
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Cultural dimensions related to change
More disposed to change Less d i spos ed to change
Low uncertainty avoidance Flexibility Mastery Future oriented Internal locus of control Human nature as mutable
High uncertainty avoidance Order Harmony Past oriented External locus of control Human nature as immutable
Factors tha t inf luence im plementa t ion
1. Human nature as trustworthy vs. untrustworthy2. Low or high power distance3. Importance of hierarchy4. Communication styles5. National history
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Societal Clusters by Country Latin America cluster
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Societal Clusters by Country
Latin Europe clusterIsraelItaly
PortugalSpain
FranceSwitzerland (French/Italian)
Eastern Europe clusterHungaryRussia
Kazakhstan AlbaniaPolandGreece
Slovenia
Georgia
Southern Asia clusterIndia
Indonesia
PhilippinesMalaysiaThailand
Iran
Anglo cluster England
AustraliaSouth Africa (white sample)
CanadaNew Zealand
Ireland
USA
Germanic Europe Cluster Austria
Switzerland (Germanic)Netherlands
Germany (former East)Germany (former West)
Arab cultures clusterQatar
MoroccoTurkeyEgyptKuwait
Sub Saharan African clusterNamibiaZambia
ZimbabweSouth Africa (black sample)
Nigeria
Nordic Europe clusterFinlandSweden
Denmark
Latin America clusterCosta RicaVenezuela
EcuadorMexico
El SalvadorColombia
GuatemalaBolivia
Brazil Argentina
Confucian Asia clusterTaiwan
SingaporeHong Kong
South KoreaChinaJapan
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ASIAN VALUES
Source: Based on material in Koh, 1993
East Asians believein strong families
They believe that thefamily is the building
block of society
East Asiansrevere education
This is a valueheld by all
strata of society
East Asian considerhard work a virtue
The chief reasonthis region is
outcompeting Europe
East Asians believe in thevirtues of saving and frugality
They believe that individuals,families and governments
should lead frugal lives
East Asians do notbelieve in extreme
forms of individualismEvery individual is a member ofa nuclear and extended family,
clan, neighbourhood,community, nation and state
There is an Asian version ofa social contract betweenthe people and the state
Governments have an obligation to treattheir people with fairness and humanityCitizens are expected to be law-abiding,
respect those in authority, work hard,save and motivate their children
to learn and be self-reliant
East Asians want theirgovernments to maintain
a morally wholesomeenvironment in which tobring up their children
In some Asian countries,governments have
sought to make everycitizen a stakeholder
in the country
Good governments in Asiawant a free press
They do not believe that such afreedom is an absolute right the press must act responsibly
East Asians practisenational teamwork
Government, business andemployees work cooperatively
for the good of the nation
Taken together, these 10 valuesform a framework th at has enabled
soci et ies in East Asia to achieveeconomic prosper i ty, p rogress ,harmonious re lat ions be tween
citizens, and law and order
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Organisational Culture. Ed Schein:
A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved itsproblems of external adaptation andinternal integration , that has workedwell enough to be considered valid and,therefore, to be taught to new
members as the correct way youperceive, think, and feel in relation tothose problems.
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Surface manifestations of organisational culture eg artefacts, ceremonials
Values
Basic assumptions-eg relationship to environment, nature of reality, truth, human activity
and relationships
Scheins three levels of Org. culture
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Culture and Sub Cultures
Navy ARMY
AF
CivilService
DEFENCE
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Types of organisational culture
Charles Handy, building on the work ofHarrison, identified four types oforganisation in terms of their cultureChange involving a move from one typeto another is particularly challenging
Th l lt
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The role culture
This organisation relies on committees, structures, logic andanalysis. There is a small group of senior managers whomake the final decisions, but they rely on procedures, systemsand clearly defined rules of communication.It might even be regarded as bureaucratic but has athoroughness and solidity that make it a reliable and fair
employer. Expert opinions are treated with caution as theyrepresent outsiders to the organisation. As long as theoutside environment is stable, the organisation can handledifficult situations.However, senior managers often do not see the changes that
are coming and, even if they do, they do not know how tomanage them.Change in such a culture comes through a new set ofmanagers being appointed. Strategic planning in a formal waywould characterize such a culture.Examples ?
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The task cultureThe organisation is geared to tackle identified projects ortasks. Work is undertaken in teams that are flexible andtackle identified issues.The teams may be multidisciplinary and adaptable to eachsituation. Power rests with the team, which may containsome experts to facilitate group decisions. Expert opinions are
valued.The culture is flexible and sensitive to change, but it worksbest on small-team issues. It is less capable of large-scalework such as that required in a major factory.Control relies largely on the efficiency of the team with topmanagement having to allow the group considerable day-to-day autonomy.Strategic planning is both flexible and task-oriented but willfocus largely on the task in hand.
Examples ?
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The personal culture
The individual works and exists purely for her- or himself . The
organisation is tolerated as the way to structure and order theenvironment for certain useful purposes, but the prime area ofinterest is the individual.Such organisations exist infrequently in business, but mayexist in non-profit institutions.Such individuals are not easy to manage and feel little loyaltyto the organisation.Changes are coped with easily or with difficulty depending onthe inclination of the individual.
Strategic planning is largely meaningless except in a verypersonal sense.
Examples ?
.
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The power culture
The organisation revolves around and is dominated byone individual or a small group . Typically, it can resultfrom an entrepreneur setting up a new company. Itmay be buccaneering and risk taking. All decisions referback to the centre and so do beliefs and work styles.Experts are either overvalued or treated with suspicionand disdain. As the organisation grows in size, it becomesincreasingly difficult for the centre to keep control.Either the organisation changes or it spawns a new
subgroup with its own leader who, in turn, reports backto the original centre.The strategic plan , if it exists at all, reflects the individualat the top, her/his whims, interests and passions.
Examples ?
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Exercise1. Do you recognise these organisational types within
Indonesias defence sector? Give examples.
2. Do all sectors of the Indonesias governmental defencesector belong to the same organisational type?
3. Do you think the culture(s) within Indonesias defencesector need to change? If so, to what and how?
4. How would you set about introducing new sorts ofdesired behaviour?
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L eadership ApproachesPremise : ..leadership is culturally bound
The Traits Approach: (universality of leadership traits ?)- Importance of leaders characteristics - Idea that leaders are born with inherited characteristics Drucker leadership cannot be created, taught or learned moved on More attention now on uncovering personality traits common to people found in leadership positions. e.g. drive, self-confidence, cognitive ability, honesty & integrity supplemented by knowledge of the context
and desire to lead Big 5 = extroversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience valid
across cultures (?)* Leadership is essentially an attribution and that legitimacy may be conferred on leaders in part as a result of
followers culturally influenced perception of the leaders traits The Process - Behavioural Approach:
Doubts about the usefulness of trait theories of leadership Extend analysis to a search for models which identified appropriate leader behaviours Link between leadership as a function of behaviour and preoccupation with leadership style - 2 underlying dimensions:- CONSIDERATION centres on attempts to grow and sustain positive relationships with subordinates,
underpinned by respect and a concern for employees welfare and feelings.
- INITIATING STRUCTURE leaders would orient their behaviour towards the tasks of work withion theoverall concern to achieve organisational goals.Leadership Grid (Mouton & Blake): 5 generic leadership styles
- Impoverished management Country club management
- Authority leadership style Middle-of-the-road style
- Team management
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Global knowledge
Sys temSki l l s
Make ethicalDecisionsInfluence
stakeholdersLeadChangeSpanboundaries
ArchitectingBuildcommunity
Interpersonal skil ls
Mindfulcommunication
Create andbuild trust
Multiculturalteaming
Att i tudes and or ien tat ionsGlobal mindset
Cognitive complexity Cosmopolitanism
Threshold trai tsIntegrity Humility Inquisitiveness Resilience
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The phases of cultural adjustment
M anaging the Expatriate Assignment
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The culture-shocked expatriate . (Source : J. Craig (1979) Culture Shock , Times Books International, Singapore.)
STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING MULTICULTURAL TEAMS
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Creating a sense of purpose What is the teams mission? How explicit should this be?What are the teams goals and objectives? To what extent can they be measured?Who should be a member?What are the teams priorities? (Schedule? Budget? Quality?)
Structuring the taskTo what extent should agenda be structured?To what extent should the rules of the game be clearly
spelled out?What needs to be accomplished? By whom?How should time be managed?How important are deadlines?What happens if deadlines are not met?
Assigning roles and responsibilitiesWho does what? Who is responsible for what?Should a leader be assigned?
Based on what criteria?Competence? Interpersonal skills? Hierarchical position?What is the role of leader? To take decisions? Facilitatediscussions? Obtain resources?Who needs to attend meetings and when?
Reaching decisionsHow should decisions be made?By vote? By consensus? By compromise?
Who is expected to make the decision? The leader versus team?
TASK STRATEGIES CULTURAL DETERMINANTS
Task versus relationshipBeing versus doingHierarchy
Individual versus collectiveHigh versus low contextMonochronic versus polychronic
Uncertainty avoidanceMonochronic versus polycronicHigh versus low context
Individual versus collectivePower and statusUncertainty and controlTask versus relationship
Individual versus collectiveHigh versus low context
Hierarchy
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Team Building How is trust developed?How much time for social activities?
Choosing how to communicateWhat is the working language? Who decides?How to address imbalance in levels of fluency?What type of communication technology can be used?What is an effective presentation?
Eliciting participation
How can we ensure participation of all members?To what extent are some members given more credibility than others?Does it appear that the input of some members is being ignored?Who listens to whom?Who interrupts who?
Resolving conflictHow is conflict managed?
Avoided? Confronted?Who accommodates whom? Is collaboration sought?To what extent do we compromise? Is negotiation seen as win/lose,lose/win or win/win?
Evaluating performanceHow and when to evaluate performance?Is evaluation a two-way process?How direct can feedback be?
PROCESS STRATEGIES CULTURAL DETERMINANTS
Task versus relationshipMonochronic versus polychronicHigh versus low context
PowerIndividual versus collectiveHigh versus low contextMonochronic versus polycronic
PowerIndividual versus collective
Task versus relationship
PowerIndividual versus collective
High versus low contextPower
Individual versus collective
HRM MENU: CULTURAL DETERMINANTS
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SelectionWho to hire? How to hire?
Desired behaviours focus on skills/personality?Specialists versus generalists?Necessary qualifications?Level, discipline, or preferred institutions?How important is what you know versus
who you know?
SocialisationWhat kind of initiation rites are acceptable? Team building? What are the messages being sent? Competitions versuscooperation? Individual versus team effort?To what extent will people engage in/reject social events?To what extent should effort be made to ensure
corporate culture is shared? To what extent should the corporate culture be madeexplicit (pins, posters, slogans, etc)?
HRM ISSUES CULTURAL DETERMINANTS
Doing versus beingUncertainty avoidance
Power/hierarchyIndividual versus collectiveTask versus relationship
Task versus relationshipIndividual versus collective
Private versus professional lifeHigh versus low context
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Training
For what purpose?Develop generalist versus specialist perspective?
Acquire company versus skill specific (technical)knowledge?Extent of job rotation?Role of mentorship?Competences versus networking?
How are training needs determined?By company? By individual?Who is sent for training? High -flyers versus rank andfile?
What training methods are most effective?Case approach?Reading and lecture?Experiential exercise?Professor versus student driven?Groupwork?
HRM ISSUES CULTURAL DETERMINANTS
Uncertainty avoidanceIndividual versus collectivehierarchyTask versus relationship
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Performance appraisal To what extent is individual versus team effort
evaluated?To what extent is goal setting (MBO) useful?To what extent do people expect feedback?
And from whom?To what extent will criticism be accepted?
Compensation and rewardsWho gets what?To what extent should pay be linked to performance?What degree of pay differential is acceptable?To what extent are bonuses effective?To what extent should team versus individuals berewarded?How much of salary should be fixed versus variable?To what extent are financial versus non-financialrewardspreferred?
HRM ISSUES CULTURAL DETERMINANTS
Individual versus collective
HierarchyBeing versus doingTime monochronic versus
polychronicHigh versus low context
Equity versus equalityDoing versus beingHierarchyControl over natureIndividual versus collective
Uncertainty avoidanceMasculinity versus femininity
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Career development Who gets promoted?
What determines career success?What type of career paths are desirable?Internal versus external hiring?Within functions/across functions?Within company/industry?
Across companies/industries?
Between government and business?To what extent are people mobile? Willing to move?
At what stage are high potentials identified? At entry? After 5 years?
HRM ISSUES CULTURAL DETERMINANTS
Being versus doing
Individual versus collectiveTask versus relationshipUncertainty avoidance
CULTURE MODELS OF STRATEGY (Exercise)
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CULTURE MODELS OF STRATEGY (Exercise)
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