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35

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Chapter 21

EDUCATION

r-- Education as practiced in Choson Korea was multifaceted and diverse Genshyerally while the objective ofeducation was to produce a moral person according to the Neo-Confucian vision it was practiced with different layers of formality and different foci depending on the class and gender of the students There was formal education for male students at public schools and private academies While womens education was carried out informally and mostly at horne after the invention of the Korean alphabet in the fifteenth century instructional texts for women began to emerge Family instruction however was not confined to women Transmitting knowledge and a sense ofhonorable family tradition from one generation to the next was thought to be a major aspect of education Among elite families this was expressed in letters or instructional pieces that a senior member of the family wrote for a younger member and they ranged from general exhortation to personal guidance of the children in their develshyopment and scholarship With the prevalence of printing in the later Choson impersonal instructional manuals directed to a general audience appeared They included how-to books in specific areas such as etiquette and household management The writers of these manuals were often associated with the pracshytical learning school

IH

Education

YI I THE NEO-CONFUCIAN CURRICULUM

Reading Books Yulgok chanso 270a-110

While the Neo-Confucian curriculum was in public schools in the fourteenth

century or even before it was after the appearance of such seminal scholars as Yi

Hwang (Toegye 1501-157deg) and Yi I (Yulgok 1536-1584) who played an active role

in directing Confucian education by establishing private academies in the sixteenth

that such issues as how to read and what to read received careful attention

Yi Yulgok for example wrote several treatises on the topic The following is the section

Reading Book~ (tokso) from his Important Methods of Eliminating Ignorance

(Kyongmong yogyol) This curriculum a refinement and confirmation of the classical

education that had already been in place remained a mainstay at private academie~

and public schools during the Chason dynasty

1H

A scholar should always preserve his mind and not be overcome by affairs and things When one thoroughly investigates principle and thereby understands goodness the path of ones action becomes clear and one is able to make progress Thus entering the [right] path should begin with investigating prinshyciple and investigating principle should begin with reading books Everything from the way in which the sages and worthies applied their minds to how one should emulate goodness and avoid evil is present in these writings While reading one should maintain an upright posture respectfully facing the book concentrating ones purpose pondering deeply and seeking intensely the meanshying and the purpose of the book For each phrase one should attempt to find a way to put it into practice If I were to read only with my mouth but neither to understand in my mind nor to practice what I read with my body then I would

-

remain untouched by the book What would be the use of reading First read the Elementary Learning noting therein the ways of serving ones

parents respecting ones brothers being loyal to the ruler and being humble to ones elders being reverent to ones teachers and being affectionate to ones friends Consider each of these scrupulously and diligently practice them

Then read the Great Learning and [Chu HsisJ Questions on the Great Learnshy(Ta-hsueh huo-wen) seeking therein the ways of investigating principle

rectifying the mind cultivating the self and governing others Understand each of these things truly and seek to practice them

After this read the Analects mindful striving to seek humaneness as the basis for cultivating and nurturing the self Calmly meditate upon these things and experience them deeply

And then read Mencius investigating therein the theory of discriminating between rightness and profit thereby restraining greed and maintaining the

36 37 MIDDLE AND LATE CHaSON

principle of Heaven Discern things and cultivate and develop

Then read the The Mean (Chung yung) considering therein the virtue of ones nature and emotions ofstriving for the ultimate and of the wondrousness of the birth and growth [of the myriad things] Considering each of these things seek to understand them

Having done this read the Odes learning therein what is perverse and what is right in nature and emotion and how to encourage what is good and thwart what is evil Thoughtfully unravel these things taking them passionately to heart and stand firm in your vigilance

read the Record of Rites seeing in them the modulated expression of Heavens principles and the appropriateness of ceremonies and protocols Inshyvestigate these things developing your own opinion about them

read the Documents discovering there the foundations of the great principles and the methods with which the Two Emperors and the Three Sage Kings governed the empire Trace the origins of these things grasping the basic points

Then read the Changes considering there the auspicious and the clOUS life and death advance and retreat prosperity and decay Observe these points and scrutinize them carefully

And then read the Spring and Autumn Annals observing the sages ment as he praises and commends in his subtle phrases Investigate these things conscientiously and understand him correctly

Read these five books and these five classics scrupulously by turns continshyuously striving for understanding thus making their meanings and their prinshyciples clearer

Then read those books written by the worthy scholars of the Sung including the Reflections on Things at Hand the Family Ritual [of Master Chu] the Heart Classic [of Chen Te-hsiu] the Great Compendium ofthe Two Cheng Brothers Works the Great Compendium ofMaster Chus Works Classified Conversations of Master Chu and other works on the theory of nature and principle Read these works with care whenever possible so that the principles contained therein pervade and penetrate into the depth of your heart leaving no gaps at any time In your remaining hours read history to get acquainted with the events and changes of ancient and present times so as to expand your knowledge and judgment Do not spend even a brief moment reading heterodox works or other mixed up wrong kinds of books

In reading a deliberate and careful method should be followed Ponder each work until you thoroughly penetrate into the meaning of every phrase and have no more questions or doubts Move on to another work only after that It is undesirable to sacrifice depth in favor of quantity speed or extensive coverage

IH

Education

PAK SEMU PRIMER FOR YOUTH

The Primer for Youth (literally First Lessons for the Young and Unenlightened) was

written by Pak Semu (1487-1564) in 1541 and first published in 1545 No copies of this first edition are extant but Paks original manuscript was preserved in the horne of a descendant and is now in possession of An Chungun The earliest extant printed edition from 1759 includes a by King Yongjo dated 1742 and an eDilmme of 1670 by the distinguished Neo-Confucian scholar Song

The main contents of the Primer foeus on the Five Human Relations reflecting the primacy given to these in Chu Hsis Articles of the White Deer Grotto and the len Diagrams of the Sages Teaching by Yi Hwang (Toegye) The Primer concludes with an account of the orthodox tradition (Succession to the Way) as transmitted through the ages in China and Korea - an account based on Chu Hsis preface to The Mean but including an alternative Korean transmission from the sage Kija at the

founding of civilization in Korea The Primer for Youth was widely used as an elementary text for children from the

sixteenth century on An annotated edition was published in 1797 and an illustrated edition (with translation into Korean script) in the twentieth century During the Choson dynasty students at village elementary schools from the ages ofseven to first read the Thousand Character Classic followed by this Primer Chu Hsis Outline and Details of the General Mirror (Tung-chien kang-mu) the Elementary Learning (Hsiao hstieh) the Four Books [Great Learning Mean Analects and Mencius] Three Classics [Odes Documents and Changes] Tang and Sung Literature [Tang-Sung wen] the Tang Code Spring and Autumn Annals Record of Rites and Chu Hsis Reflections on Things at Hand [Chin-ssu lu] Study at this stage mainly included

reading essay writing and calligrapl WTdB

Royal Preface of King Yongjo (1742) to Primer for Youth (Tongmong sonsup pp 5-40)

This book compiled by an Eastern (ie Korean) Confucian scholar begins a general discussion of the Five Human Relations and then discusses in

order parent and child ruler and minister husband and wife elder and younger and friend and friend Commencing from the Supreme Ultimate it records the successive ages from Three Emperors (Sage Kings) Five Lords the Hsia Yin (Shang) Chou Han Tang Sung and the present imperial dynasty [Ming] As for our Eastern country [Korea] it records the history from through the Three Kingdoms reaching up to our own dynasty Though ecoshynomical in its use of language the coverage is broad though small its content is huge How can this not be true since Way ofYao and Shun lwhich would itself suffice 1 consists of nothing more than filialitv and brotherliness Shuns

38 39 MIDDLE AND LATE CHOSON

charge to [his Minister of Education] Chi included the Five Gradations [of Relationship] Thus that this text begins with the Five Human Relations has a broad significance indeed

Ah only if one can be loving to ones parents can one be true to ones ruler deferential toward ones older brother can one be respectful to ones seniors From this perspective among the Five Moral Relations those of filiality and brotherliness come first of all Nevertheless the Odes [No 235] praise King Wen as continuously bright and reverentl Reverence is the method (practice) that encompasses beginning and end and connects the lower with the higher learning Thus the gist of The Great Learning is summed up in reverence while the essential message of The Mean is sincerity Reverence and sincerity are indeed like the two wheels of a cart and the two wings of a bird

Here I inscribe at the head of this compilation the two graphs for sincerity and reverence Only if one is sincere (integrated) can one close the gap between oneself and what one reads in the book Only if one is reverent can one follow the substance [of the teachings] and abide in them How could one in the pursuit of learning be remiss in this [ie reverence and sincerity]

Toward the end of the book I was deeply touched by the passage about our dynastys receiving the honored name of Choson and was moved to exclaim over it Succeeding from reign to reign ever luminous and harmonious are the exceeding humaneness and abundant virtue the profound benevolence and surpassing kindness that have been passed down from generation to generashytion Should our future rulers model themselves on this virtuous example outdoing themselves in wholehearted governance to the full extent of the Way and loving the people with all their heart while always adhering to basic prinshyciple then our state will approach true greatness In so doing we need to be reminded that our Eastern rites and rightness though stemming from the teachshyings of Kija fell into decline after the Three Kingdoms period It was only with the establishment of our dynasty that rites and rightness were restored to their fullness and culture brought to completeness How regrettable indeed that the author of this book failed to mention this You young children Be all the more attentive to it

Preface composed in the first month 1742 and the Office of Publications ordered to disseminate this book widely

_~ Pimcdm Youth

Between Heaven and Earth among all the myriad creatures what especially marks and ennobles humankind is [its consciousness of] the Five Moral Relashy

1 Sources of Chinese Traditions 138

Education

tions Thus Mencius said Between parent and child there is to be affection between ruler and minister rightness between husband and wife differentiashytion between elder and younger precedence between friends trust Human beings who do not understand these Five Moral Relations are hardly different from birds and beasts It is only when parents are compassionate and children filial the ruler right (moral) and the minister loyal (true) the husband harshymonious and the wife compliant elder brother fraternal and younger brother deferential and friends helpful in the mutual achievement of humaneness that one can speak of them as human beings

AFFECTION BETWEEN PARENT AND CHILD

For parent and child affection comes with their Heaven-born nature Being born and cared for loved and instructed one carries on [what one has received] by being filial and caring taught right ways one is not led into wantonness2 One should gently remonstrate [with ones parents ] lest ones kin be liable to some fault in the eyes of their neighbors and the community If the parent does not treat his child as a child [should be treated] if the child does not treat his parent as a parent [should be treated] how can they stand up in the world In any case no one under Heaven is without a rightful father and mother Even if a parent is lacking in compassion the child cannot but be filial In antiquity there was the Great Shun whose father was obstinate and his mother wicked they even tried to kill him but Shun overcame this with filial piety and harshymonized with them gradually leading them to self-control so that they no longer indulged in great wickedness 3 Surely this was the ultimate in the Way of filiality Among the five classes of crimes and three thousand wrongful deeds spoken of by Confucius4 none is greater (more serious) than being unfilial

RIGHTNESS BETWEEN RULER AND MINISTER

The distinction between ruler and minister is as the distinction between Heaven and Earth there is that which should be looked up to and honored and there is that which is lowly and humble That the honorable should direct the lowly and the lowly should serve the honored is a constant of Heaven and Earth and a universal principle of past and present Therefore the ruler embodying prishymary authority is the one who promulgates orders the minister accommodatshying himself to what is primary is the one who advises the ruler concerning

2 Tso Chuan Yin 3 Legge 514 3 Shu Ching Canon ofYao Legge p6

+ Shu Ching Lii hsing Legge 3606


what is good and what is wrong When ruler and minister oin together each exerts himself to fulfill his proper way Out of mutual respect they work together

in order to achieve the acme in governance If the ruler does not exert himself

to fulfill the way of the ruler and the minister does not studiously perform his role as minister they cannot work together to govern the state and all under

Heaven Indeed [for the minister] to say that ones ruler is unable [ie cannot

hope to fulfill the role of the humanc ruler] is to rob him [of his goodness] Mencius 2B2)

Pi Kan sacrificed his life in order to remonstrate with the tyrant Chou of the Shang dynasty over the latters excesses This is the ultimate in integrity for a loyal minister

Confucius said The minister serves the ruler with loyalty [ie fidelity to

principle] [Analects 3=19]

DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN HUSBAND AND WIFE

Husband and wife represent the oining of two families the begetting ofhuman

life and the source of all blessings The proposal of marriage the offering of

wedding gifts and the reception of the bride do honor to the distinction beshy

tween the sexes In taking a wife one does not take someone of the same

surname in the making of a home males keep to the outer [quarters] and do not speak of thc inner [quarters] females keep to the inner and do not

speak of the outer5 the husband is firm in maintaining control in order to

uphold the way of male authority the wife is gentle in correcting him so as to

maintain the principle of female compliance In this way correctness is estabshy

lished in the Way of the Family [household] Otherwise if the husband is

unable to maintain his authority and cannot control her in the proper way if

the wife dominates the husband does not serve him properly disregards the

three obediences [to father husband eldest son]6 or is liable to the seven

grounds of divorce then the Way of the Family is irretrievably lost Only when the husband exercises self-control in guiding his wife and the wife exercises

hers in following her husband harmony and gentleness thus filling their relashy

tionship can his parents enjoy comfort and peace In the past Hsi chileh was out weeding his fields and his wife brought food to him he treated her

the same respect he would a guest that is how the Way of Husband and Wife should be Tzu Ssu said The Way of the Noble Person originates with husshy

band and wife (Chung yung 124)

5 Li chi 1012

6 I-Ii 30 Sang fu chuan

7 Tso chuan Duke He (Hsi) 33 Legge 5223 226

Education

PRECEDENCE BETWEEN ELDER AND YOUNGER

Elder and younger represent the natural moral order in human relations whereby the elder is senior and the younger junior [precedence in time] this

is what the Way of Elder and Younger springs from In all clans and commushy

nities there is the distinction between elder and younger and they are not to be confused Slowly to follow after ones senior is to act as a younger brother

should hastily to rush ahead of ones senior is not to act as a younger brother should If someone is twice ones age treat him as you would your father if

older by ten years or more treat him as you would your older brother if five years or older walk slightly behind him8 If the elder is considerate of the

younger and the younger is respectful toward the elder then there will be no

such defect as the young being treated rudely or the elder being insulted and the Way the Human will be correct How llluch more should older and

younger brothers sharing the same life blood (chi) and being the closest of kin

in bone and flesh show the utmost in fraternal love harbor no ill will or

resentment that overturns the natural moral order In the past Ssu-ma

[in Sung] treated his elder brother Po Kung with the greatest love and conscishyentiousness respecting him as if he were his own revered father and taking

care of him [in his old as if he were a helpless child9 This is how the Way

of Elder and Younger should be Mencius said Any babe in arms knows to

love his parents and any child when grown a little knows to respect his older

brothers (Mencius 7A15)

TRUST BETWEEN FRIENDS

Friends are people of the same kind There are those kinds of friendship that

are beneficial and those that are harmful The three beneficial ones are with

those that are upright those that are sincere and those who have learned much

Those that are harmful are with those that flatter you those that indulge your weaknesses and those that invite deceit (Analects 164) A true friend is a friend

to virtue from the Son of Heaven down to the common man

as achieving virtue without the help of friends Though initially separate once the relationship is established it can make for the utmost intimacy

Thus in choosing friends remember they must be upright persons seek out

those superior to yourself who can be trusted to good advice earnestly and

insistently loyal and true in giving good counsel otherwise one should break

it [the friendship] off If in social intercourse one does not help you to

8 Li chi Chu-Ii Al 2 Legge 168 9 Chu Hsiao hsiieh Shanhsing 5 Uno 44degmiddot

42 43

MIDDLE AND LATE CHOSON

your conduct [Great Learning 3] as a true associate but instead encourages impropriety and licentiousness as if indulging a friend then how could such a friendship last and not deteriorate

In the past Master Yen lO knew well how to engage in friendly intercourse the longer it lasted the more he showed due respect (Analects 516) This is the Way of true friendship as it should be Confucius said If one is not trustworthy

among friends one cannot gain the confidence of the ruler There is a w~ayto be trustworthy among friends but if one is not obedient to ones parents one cannot be trustworthy among friends (Chung yung 20)

GENERAL DISCUSSION

These Five Relations are Heaven-ordained and inhere in all humankind as principle All human conduct is governed by these five but filiality is the source of all

Thus in serving [ones] parents a filial sondaughter brushes his teeth and washes his face at cocks crow the~ goes to his parents and asks in a low key and gentle tone whether their clothes are [too] hot or cold and what they wish to eat and drink He keeps them warm in winter and cool in summer prepares their bed at night and inquires after their health in the morningll he tells them when he is going out and attends them upon return l2 He may not go abroad a great distance but if he does go abroad he must have a fixed destination 13

He does not presume to consider his body his own nor to take over goods and property for himself When parents are loving he rejoices but does not forget [what he owes them] when they treat him badly he holds them in fear but does not hold it against them If they have faults he remonstrates with them but does not disobey them14 if they do not listen even after three appeals he mournfully obeys theml5 and if in anger they beat him though bleeding from it he does not hold it against them While his parents are living he has utmost reverence for them in serving them he has utmost joy in nursing them utmost concern in their death utmost grief and in ancestral rites utmost solemnity16

As for the son who is not filial instead of loving his parents he loves others instead of respecting his parents he respects others In his laziness he does not

10 Official ofstate ofChi in Warring States period reputed author of the Spring and Autumn of Master Yen

11 Record of Rites 116 12 Record of Rites 118

13middot Analects 419 14middot See also Analects 418

15 Record of Rites 240

16 Classic of Filial Piety 10

Education

attend to serving his parents but indulges in gaming and wine-drinking instead of caring for his parents He likes to amass wealth and property for the benefit of his own wife and children instead of caring for his parents He indulges his ears and eyes [ie his senses] to the shame of his parents and is prone to fighting thereby endangering his parents

If one wishes to judge a person whether his conduct be good or not one must first observe whether he be filial or unfilial How can one not be watchful over such and not be vigilant With filiality to ones parents then this can be extended to the relations of rulerminister husbandwife elderyounger and friend and friend However this is not something one knows at birth one must apply oneself to learning in order to understand it - there is no other way one must comprehend the principles of human affairs from past to present preserve them in ones heart and mind incorporate them in ones self Indeed how could one fail to apply oneself to such learning

[The primer continues with a concise account of history from the creation out of the

Supreme Ultimate the contributions of successive sages to civilization the reign of the

sage kings and early dynasties aided by sage ministers the lapse in the practice of

the sages Way in the Chou dynasty Confucius efforts to preserve records of the Way in

the Classics and those of his successors in compiling the Four Books the failure in the

succession to the Way after Mencius the Chins burning of the Confucian books the

rise and fall of dynasties after Han the intrusion of Buddhism and its bewitching of

the people the revival of Confucianism by the Sung masters culminating in the masshy

terful achievement of Chu Hsi in interpreting the Confucian classics the conquest of

China by foreign dynasties and the collapse of civilization after its brief revival under the Ming

[The work concludes with an account of the rise of civilization in Korea with the

founder Tangun and with Kia the bearer of civilization from China It proceeds with

reference to the Three Kingdoms the unification ofSila its fall and succession by Koryo

the later establishment of Choson with its splendid revival of all the arts rites and

morals that sustain high civilization - to such an extent that the Chinese refer to Korea

as little China - a tribute indeed to the transforming effects of Kias legacy]

HKandWTdB

LOCAL EDUCATION

CHO HYONMYONG COUNTY MAGISTRATES GUIDE FOR

PROMOTING EDUCATION

[From Kwirok chip chapter 19]

A county school called hyanggyo was maintained at every county seat during the

Choson dynasty and constant exhortation for education was made throughout the


dynasty Promotion of education was one of the main tasks of the county magistrate in administering his district In 1732 while serving as the governor of Kyongsang provshyince Cho Hyonmyong (1690-1752) wrotc Kwonhak ch01Tflok (County magistratcs

for promoting education) translated below A loyal supporter of King Yongjos policy of grand harmony toward factional politics Cho subsequently hcld the post of chief state councillor the highest office in the central government

Note that official policy aims at thc providing of schools at the local lcvel and at the education of all boys capable of it the curriculum embraces history and a varicty

of literary subjects as well as the Confucian classics Chu Hsis Family Ritual (adaptcd to conditions oflifc in Sung China) and Nco-Confucian moral philosophy Thoughtshyful reflection is emphasized over mere recitation Notc too that preparation for the civil service examinations is allowed as a secondary pursuit but subordinate to hushy

manistic learning YC

-----_

A person who has the highest reputation for scholarship and virtuous conduct within the county irrespective of whether he holds a higher or lower civil degree has received a protection [privileged] appointment or is a scholar with no degree shall be chosen to become the director of education (tohunjang) When thc selection is made the county magistrate shall visit him in person and request his acceptance of the directorship with proper courtesy and rituals

Afler the appointment of thc director the magistrate in consultation with the director shall select and appoint a deputy dircctor (kyoim) from those who arc known for scholarship and good conduct with the lower civil degree of saengwon or chinsa or with no degree

After the appointment of the deputy director the magistrate in consultation the director and the deputy director shall appoint a person with scholarshy

ship and good conduct as the instructor (hunjang) in each sub-county (myon)

In consultation with the director the deputy director and the sub-county instructor the magistrate shall select from members of the scholar families young men who are fifteen years or older and who have superior intelligence good conduct and determination to pursue scholarship and ask to enroll them in the county schooL The number of the scholars shall be five for a small subshycounty ten for a medium sub-county and fifteen for a large sub-county Every effort shall be made to encourage these scholars to enroll in the county school and they shall be provided with provisions firewood and cooking oiL The deputy director shall take charge of their education while the director shall maintain overall supervision

In addition to the scholars cnrollcd in the county school all those who are capable of learning regardless of whether they are from scholar families or

Education

commoner families and with no limit as to their number shall be given instrucshytion under the charge of the sub-county instructor

A list of the scholars enrolled in the county school as well as the students in all sub-counties shall be made and the titles of books each individual has read shall be recorded and posted under his name Other subjects they have studied such as examination-style writing poetry rhyme prose memorials policy quesshytions discussions of the Confucian classics and ancient-style poetry shall also be posted

All scholars and students shall place primary emphasis on studying the classhysics and the righteous writings of the Confucian sages (such as the Four Books and Three Classics Elementary Learning Chu Hsis Family Rituals the Classic ofthe Mind-and-Heart Reflections on Things At Hand the Great Compendium of Human Nature and Principle and the Complete Works of the Two Chengs) If they so wish they may in addition study other works (such as Outline and Details of the Comprehensive Mirror Tso Commentary [Tso chuan] Mirror of the Tang [Tang chien] and Eight Great Writers) Study of the deviationist teachings of Taoism and Buddhism however is prohibited In evaluating the students academic performance higher grades shall be given to those who genuinely comprehend the meaning and put their understanding into actual practice than to those who merely recite the texts

Studies in preparation for the civil service examinations may be allowed Every scholar shall compose two problem essays and three poems every month and the magistrate together with the director shall give an overall grade to each individual every three months The magistrate shall reward the person who earns the highest grade with paper writing brush and ink At the end of each year the work of the highest performer shall be forwarded to the provincial governor to be considered for provincial awards

The sub-county instructor shall admonish any student in his district who is not filial to his parents who is not harmonious with his family members who

engages in gambling who indulges in wine and women who covets money and fortune who is litigious who is inclined to factional disputes who argues against the royal court who takes issue with the government who talks ill of others who stirs up disputes with irresponsible talk who encroaches upon innocent people relying on the protection of influential individuals who seeks favors from the local offices and who is idle in his study and cheats in assigned compositions When admonition is not heeded the student shall be reported to the director for corporal punishment If corporal punishment has no effect on him he shall be reported to the provincial governor for an appropriate punishment

Selections of the director and all other education officers shall be based solely on the scholarship and reputation of candidates with impartiality and without partisan consideration

vr


WOMENS E CATION

While women were excluded from the formal education intended as a prepashyration for public service or scholarship their education was not ignored during

the Choson dynasty Koreans believed that women should be educated so that

they might discharge the duties appropriate to their roles in family and society

As their roles changed in accordance with the restructuring ofthe Korean family

according to the Confucian patrilineal descent group the stfess shifted

being a wife to being a member of a multigenerational family unit a daughtershy

in-law wife mother and mistress of a large household The image of the ideal wife also changed from that of an adviser and helpmate to that of submissive

spouse and caregiver What remained unchanged was a belief in the centrality

of womens roles and the importance of exercising proper judgment in fulfilling those roles

TH

QUE~N SOHYE INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE INNER QUARTERS

[From pp 18]

Instructions for the Inner Quarters [ie for women1(Naehun) was compiled in 475

by Queen Sohye (1437-15deg4) Her selections are taken from various Confucian sources

with accompanying translations into the vernacular Korean script that had only re-

been invented The work is composed of Sohyes preface an epilogue by anshyother royal consort and seven chapters and Comportment Filial Piety Mar-

Husband and Wife Motherhood Amiability and rhrift With its many

injunctions for soft speech and demure behavior the Naehun has often been dislIlissed

by modern scholars as emblematic of the way in which Choson dynasty women were marginalized and oppressed by Confucianism Yet a more dispassionate reading of

Naehun reveals that Sohye thought women had important roles to play in maintaining

the social order and the body politic In chapter 4 Husband and Wife

of women acting as indispensable advisers to their husbands

The likely prototype of Sohyes work is one by the same title of the Ming Empress Hsu (Wen Huang-hou) published in 1407 Sources ofChinese Tradition

1836) Both works are predicated on the same basic Neo-Confucian principle-the

of the Heaven-bestowed moral nature in all humankind male and female the capability of all for cultivating this nature to achieve sageliness and the necessity

of education for women to achieve this goal Both works also stress the key role of women as advisers to rulers and husbands Otherwise Sohye while emphasizing as

does the Ming empress many of the virtues inculcated in traditional Confucian texts for the edification of women has composed her own work without simply

Education

the Chinese model lhis befits the Koreans conception of themselves as independent

interpreters of the Confucian legacy VTdB

Preface

All persons at birth receive the spirit of Heaven and Earth and all are endowed with the virtuous nature as expressed in the Five Constant Relations There is

no difference in the principle of jade and stone yet how is it that orchid and

mugwort differ It depends on whether or not one has done ones utmost in

fulfilling the way of cultivating the self The civilizing transformation of King Wen of Chou was enhanced and

broadened by the wisdom of his consort Tai-ssu The hegemony enjoyed

King Chuang of Chu was largely due to the efforts of his consort Fan-chi Who could do more than these women to serve king or husband But when I read of the laughter ofTa-chip the favoritism of 18 the crying ofLi-chi19 and

the slander of Fei-yenzo I deplored their misdeeds and could read no further This leads me to think that order and disorder the rise and fall [of a family or

are not only related to the wisdom and ignorance men but are also

closely tied to the goodness and badness of women Therefore women must

be taught Generally the minds of men move amid the broad flowing power [of the

Way] and they develop their will from mysterious sources Thus men can on

their own distinguish between right and wrong and sustain themselves how they possibly wait for my teachings before acting Women however are

different They know only the thickness and thinness of thread and do not know

the urgency of virtuous action This is my constant regret Furthermore even a person who has an originally clear nature but has not

seen the teachings of the sages will if elevated to high station be like a monkey

wearing a crown or a person standing in front of a wall Such a person will find

it difficult to behave appropriately or speak properly Thus we can say that the

teachings of the sages cannot be repaid with even a thousand pieces of gold Also there are difficult things and easy things The Mencius says If when

asked to take Mount Tai under your arm and leap across the Northern

17 Consort of Chou Hsin the last Shang ruler notorious for his misgovernment 18 Concubine of King Yu twelfth ruler of the Chou dynasty supposedly led the king into

dissolution and neglect of government 19 Consort of Hsien-kung ruler of the state of Chin of the Spring and Autumu

attempted to poison the crown prince and replace him with her own son 20 Consort of Emperor Cheng of the Former Han her iealousy led to the death of a number

of imperial

60 61


tigate the geographical facts Ifyou then employ thelll effectively in your poetry

you will be famous in your age and enjoy a reputation that extends into the future An example of such success can be found in the reprinting by the Chinesc of Yu Tukkongs (b 1749) Sixteen Poems on Ancient Subjects from Korea I started compiling my Matters Big and Small in the Eastern Nation (Tongsajol) with the same intention As we are separated by a gulf I cannot lend you this now You would do well to consult the sections on Korea included in the Histories of the Seventeen Chinese Dynasties

EP

ETIQUETTE AND HOUSEHOLD MANAGEME

Practical advice on deportment and household management had always been considered a part of education in Choson society In the later part of the dynasty these concerns grew far more pronounced and led to separate genres ofwriting It is notable that the intended audience for these writings also changed they are addressed to anonymous readers

III

YI TONGMU SMALL MANNERS FOR SCHOLARS (SASOOL)

Small Manners for Scholars published in 1775 is one of the best-known books on etiquette that became popular at this time It consists of eight chapters fivc for men

two for women and one for children The subject matters are comprehensive ranging from speech food and clothing to human relations They clearly reflect an expanding concept of education similar to an all-encompassing civilizing processJ4 In the title small is to be understood in thc sense of elementary not petty following Chu Hsis Elementary Learning (Hsiao hsiieh)

The author Yi Tongmu (1741-1793) a renowned scholar of the practical learning school was one of the four famed editors of the Royal Kyujang Library which oversaw the publication of books and an important member of

Northern School which promoted the study ofscienee and economy His stress on the importance of daily life is revealed in this work

III

34middot See Norbert Elias The Civilizing Process vol 1 (New York Uri zen Books 1978)

Education

Manners for Men

PERSONALITY AND GENERAL BEHAVIOR (15A-B)

When a family member falls ill rather than inquiring into how one might nurse him or her if one becomes more concerned with ones own anxieties saying If I did not have a wife or children would I have this worry or Monks have no dependents How enviable - this is most stupid it harms the ways of hushymanity a thing that one should be most careful not to fall into

Being polite is an emblem of good behavior but if it becomes excessive and loses its original meaning it becomes the behavior of the cowardly and the cunning

A strong person is defeated by self-idolatry a weak person loses by selfshyabnegation

SPEECH (17B-lOB)

A talkative person damages his dignity diminishes his sincerity harms his spirit and spoils his dealings

In speech do not say things that are untrue or fabricated What is valued in speech is clarity meticulousness simplicity hence avoid abstruseness exshyaggeration and

If sharp vulgar flippant words are about to issue from your mouth quickly repress them contain them in your breast so tllat they will not escape your lips If you do not not only will you be humiliated but you will encounter disaster How can one not be fearful

Do not boast that you are good-looking Neither should you flatter others for their appearance nor criticize or revile them for a bad appearance

At the wedding of a relative do not flippantly discuss the relative superiority or inferiority of the bride and groom

Once your son or daughter is married abandon all the discussions you had of the spouse of your child

CLOTHING AND FOOD (11lA-17B)

Even when it is cold do not wear a short jacket over your robe Even when it is hot do not loosen the collar of your jacket wear only a short jacket take off your socks or roll up your trousers

If some delicacies happen to come into the house unexpectedly even a small amount share them with all old and young high and low if you wish to maintain harmony

62 63


When you see a fat cow dog pig or chicken do not immediately speak of slaughtering cooking and eating it

If you wish to offer someone the turnip or melon that you have been eating first cut out with a knife the portion marked by your teeth

At a dinner gathering do not flippantly comment that this or that dish is sour or salty Even after returning home do not criticize the food

It is ungracious to serve the guest only vegetables while the host eats meat While the degree of generosity depends upon the economic state of the houseshyhold one should treat all guests equally If the host is old and ill it may be excusable for him to eat good rice and meat by himself One should instruct family members however that all guests should be treated equally Nor is it a generous custom for the host to eat alone inside while a guest eats tmaccomshypanied If the guest happens to be a person of low or base status then this is not applicable It is an uncivilized habit for the host to receive the dinner tray before the guest even when the guest is of the same age - not to mention when he is of higher status

When you eat at a table with others do not take the meat dish or the cakes placed at the far end and place them before you just because you like them When each a separate tray do not go after the food of others after you have finished your own

When you are having a meal with others do not eat too much mustard or vinegar sauce or other things that will make you sneeze or shed tears Nor should you eat too much turnip which will cause you to belch

When you arc having a meal with others do not speak of smelly or things such as boils or diarrhea If someone is still eating do not go to the bathroom even if you have the urge

Even when the food is bad do not compare it to urine pus or body dirt Do not stir your soup with a spoon so as to crush fish When eating noodle

soup do not allow noodles that you have chewed to fall loudly into the soup When you have rice in your mouth even when you bite into sand do not spit it out on the table Do not let fish bones fall into the soy sauce

Do not suck or chew on the meat bone or chew or break the leg bones of pheasant you might be pierced by the bone Do not gnaw ribs juices might stain your elothes Do not dip rice into a crab it makes one look abstemious

When you eat turnips pears or chestnuts do not make chewing sounds Eating noodle soup or porridge do not make sucking sounds and when you drink water do not make a swallowing sound

When eating a meal neither eat so slowly as to appear to be eating against your will nor so fast as if to be taking someone elses food Do not throw chopshysticks on the table Spoons should not touch plates making a clashing sound

If thc drink is strong do not frown and breathe noisily Nor should you drink too fast or lick your lips with your tongue

Education

CONDUCT (ZlA-7A)

In coming and going entering and retreating do it respectfully and calmly do not arrive like a shower or leave like a whirlwind

Do not wave a fan violently making the sounds of a loud wind and do not walk with your shoes trailing

If a shallow and narrow-minded person makes a lot of money he invariably yearns for luxury If such a person is praised by his elders he becomes boastful of his abilities were he to be selected at the monthly examinations at the Nashytional Academy he would become arrogant If such a person achieves more than this then his faults will become even greater How sad

When a man sees a woman in beautiful clothcs in thc street he turns his head and eyes her carefully Some even gaze sideways at the coverlet of the palace woman or the coat of a village woman This is a vulgar habit On these occasions remain at a distance do not roll your eyes carry yourself properly

In the company of many do not whisper just to one If you happen to find yourself in a small and dirty room in someone elses

home even if it is exceedingly unpleasant do not cover your nose and frown or leave immediately If you cannot bear this kind of thing how can you endure harder things

When you are with others do not scratch itchy spots pick your teeth or nose cut your fingernails peel dirt from your skin or shed drops of sweat Do not show your topknot or take off your socks Do not take off your clothes to hunt for lice or fleas or throw [them 1into burners or flames creating smoke or an odor Do not allow others to see the bloody fingernails you get from them Do not think that I am being harsh I must warn you of these things

When sleeping do not push off the quilt turn your face bend your neck or stretch your arms or legs too much Do not speak in your dreams or snore or send flcas and lice to the person sleeping beside you

THINGS OF WHICH ONE MUST BE CAREFUl (29B-15B)

There is no one who does not love his own body and his own life Yet when it comes to food or women one forgets that his life can be harmed There are those who otherwise maintain integrity and loyalty but when it comes to food and women they fail miserably Therefore one must read medical books and maintain care and restraint in these matters the benefits will equal those of studying the Classic of Odes and the Record of Rites

When a femalc relative sends someone to convey greetings you should get up and listen to her messages standing

Do not carelessly refer to the names or the courtesy names ministers famous scholars the elderly or the head of the household Do not call your sons or daughters by such vulgar names as dog or pig


Do not carelessly find fault with or criticize the writings of the ruler or of someone elses wife

When we see a fool a poor person a hunchback a country bumpkin or a person in mourning garb we often ridicule them and make fun of them This is not the behavior of a humane person Children in particular laugh at people we should scold them and teach them not to do it

Taking medicine when you are not ill is intended to prolong life but instead it harms life Although moving their graves is intended to bring comfort to your ancestors doing it often for no particular reason brings discomfort to them Nowadays these practices have become common Everyone should reflect on them

When you hear a rumor that someone is dead you should not tell others definitely that so-and-so is dead

TEACHINGS AND PRACTICES (37B )

Romances and novels teach cunning and licentious behavior one should not read them and one should forbid children to read them Sometimes you meet a person who speaks of these novels at length even urging that you read them This is really pathetic how can ones ignorance reach such depths are those who confuse the Romance of the Three Kingdoms with Chen Shous official history One should be aware of the strict distinction between them

HUMAN RELATIONS (313B-14B)

Because husband and wife notice the smallest mistakes in each other it often happens that one criticizes and scolds the other One should bring the others attention to his or her mistakes calmly and should not scream or make a feroshycious face blaming and resenting the other At times like these parents grow concerned and worried and children become hurt and resentful Be mindful of your parents and sympathetic to your children ponder your own faults so that you can be in harmony with your spouse

Disharmony between husband and wife is caused by the fact that the band adhering to the adage that the sky is high and the earth is low insists that he is high and mighty and oppresses his wife not allowing her wishes while the wife keeps to the principle of equality thinking that she is the same as her husband If this is the case how can either concede to the other When get along together it does not become so bad When they disagree however curses fly obsessed with their own pride they invariably drop their manners and forget respect This is because they do not know that although Heaven is high and Earth low each makes an equal contribution in nurturing myriad things While it is true that the husband and the wife are equal the distinction

Education

of the strong and the soft should be maintained Carelessness will lead to the loss of respect

Due to the ungenerous customs and harsh mores that have prevailed lately people cherish sons and devalue daughters Although they are ofdifferent sexes sons and daughters are of the same flesh and bone how can parents love be thick and thin Because of the expenses connected with a daughter - her dowry and wedding are costly - the birth of a daughter is viewed as signifying the ruin of a family If a young daughter dies some even console the parents remarking upon the money she saved them by dying It is a pity that morality and human bonds are dismantled in this fashion

RELATIONS WITH OTHERS (412A-14B)

When you arrive from a distance at a poor relations home if they urge you to stay for a meal you must accept it with gratitude it is not right to refuse their favor bluntly thinking only of the trouble it would cause them Even if you do this out of consideration for them you are behaving cold-heartedly

If a famous person happens to drop by your house or send you a letter greeting you must not boast of this to others or engage in name-dropping

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS (55B-6A)

One should not remain inept or in managing ones life It is not the way of a humane person to be to protect ones wife and children not to mention ones parents

Mountains and rivers flowers and birds calligraphy and painting or ceramshyics and antiques are superior to wine women or monetary gain if you by refinement and tastes But if one grows obsessed with these [fine ambitions can go astray life plans can be ruined If the situation reaches exshytremes and you seize the things of others and they seize yours this is even worse than the harm wrought by wine women or greed

Womens Manners

PERSONALITY AND CONDUCT (61A-5B)

Gentleness and propriety signify a womans virtue diligence and frugality her fortune

Women are born with a good nature [but] hampered by temperament and blinded by greed they frequently are unaware of excesses and error If you can restore their original nature by correcting or nourishing them they will become


wise and clearheaded Many women are clever and quick-witted they enter the life of virtue and are easily moved [by goodnessJ leaching them will bring much quicker results than teaching slow-witted men You neednt say much just alert them to the main points

Thcre are women who upon hearing something unpleasant without evalshyuating the rights or wrongs of what is said or the high or low [standing] of the person who said it lose thcir tempers turn red in neck and face and cease speaking with proper judgmcnt This is not auspicious behavior I have seen many women like this they are either not treated well by their husbands or they die young or they become widows or they cannot rear children

LANGUAGE (67B-8A)

If you scold and admonish your servants often and ceaselessly order them about your orders will not be obeyed and your servants and slaves will leave your service or betray you

The newlywed woman should not speak of her husbands family affairs to hcr natal family My late younger sistcr was poised and quiet Mter she had married into thc So family she never once spoke ofher husbands family during the ten years that they struggled in povcrty She can serve as a model for womanhood

CLOTHING AND FOOD (610A)

When suffering from a minor illness do not stop combing your hair or washing your face Even in poverty one must wear freshly laundered clothes That a woman should value neatness and cleanliness does not mean that she should put on makeup as a way of pleasing her husband One with too much makeup and excessively pretty clothes is unvirtuous one with disheveled hair and a dirty face is lazy

CONDUCT (617B)

Attending a wedding or a feast do not be shy arrogant lazy snobbish obseshyquious or envious Do not laugh showing your teeth talk shaking your hands or wantonly eat cakes or meat Do not lower your head as if in distress do not ITown as if in anger and do not walk across the tables Do not discuss whether other womens rouge or powder is thick or thin ask the price of jewelry or clothing or whisper or look sidcways as if scheming Only when you are serious and quiet poised and warm discriminating and alert will you be able to preshyserve dignity and decorum

Education

EDUCATION (728)

do not educate your sons your family will be ruined if you do not educate your daughters anothcrs family will be ruined Thus it is entirely the fault of

parents if they do not instruct children If blinded by parental love and fondness you do not discipline them this will cause bottomless harm and disaster If my children do not heed my instruction they will bc no different from beasts or wild birds How can we not be mindful

HUMAN RELATIONS (7=9B)

Women often lovc their daughters more than their sons and sons-in-law more daughters-in-law Sometimes this reaches an extreme and creates disorder

This shows a narrow perspective Even if daughters-in-law come from families of disparate wealth you should

not treat them differently If you do the one from the poor family will become resentful the one from the rich arrogant Disharmony and disorder in the family will result

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS (7l4A-19A)

That women are too fond of charity is not a good thing It is not that you must be parsimonious rather even if your charitable works receive praise it is not right to squander the properly that was cntrusted to you by the head of the family Even in helping the poor relations or indigent ncighbors do it after informing the head of the family

One must not indulge oneself with vernacular Korean novels neglecting household chores and duties There are women who consume a familys fortune in borrowing these novels from lending libraries These narratives are all about jealousy and sex not infrequcntly they cause women to fall into licentiousness How can we say that those cunning writers are not unfolding stories of romance and unusual evcnts to incite longing and to move sentiments

lH

YI PINGHOGAK PREFACE TO ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WOMENS

DAILY LIFE

Kyuhap chongso 11-2J

In the late Choson period encyclopedias devoted to specific fields of knowledge beshy

came popular The Encyclopedia of Womens Daily Life stands out as the most comshy

prehensive guide to household management The author Yi Pinehoeak (17~O-IRu)

68 69 MJDJ)lg ANI) LATE (1I0~6N

was born in Seoul as the daughter ofYi Changsu and married S6 Yubon the brother

of S6 who wrote the Imwon kyoneie chi (Treatise on forestry and economv) one

of the major works of the

Life illustrates the

her natal family as well as her husbands family were actively engaged Unlike many

writings authored by women it was published in woodblock print which a

wide circulation We do not know the date of publication but it probably appeared

not long after 1809

Although the preface ends with the conventional phrase that it was written for

female members of the family it was intended for a general readership as can be

ascertained in her explanation of why she wrote the book despite the adage that what

a woman does should not go beyond the inner quarters The coverage is indeed

rclopedic the discussion ranges from making soy sauce to how to roast chestnuts

without burning them frOlll how to choose and grow flowers in the garden to the

method of buying the best chickens from the way to stop bleeding to how to cure

hepatitis It is notable that the author is confident of the comprehensiveness of her coverage and of the usefulness of each item

JH

In the fall of the kisa year Eastern Lake Between meDaring meals from time to time I visited my

I came across writings of practical use in our lives These were writings little known to the world and whenever I came

upon them I thoroughly investigated them I did this for the sole purpose of broadening my knowledge and easing my solitude Then I remembered the adage that intelligence unwritten was not as useful as even stupid writing Were I not to write down what I had learned that knowledge would not be saved from oblivion nor could it benefit humanity From the writings I have come across I have selected the most concise and useful and adding my own words I have comniled them into five chapters

is the discussion of wine and 5 soy sauce and wine to how to cook rice dishes fruit desserts and every side dish there is nothing that is not included The second concerns sewing and weaving I have included how to measure drape and tailor an outer garment of a scholar and formal court robes as well as how to dye weave embroider and nurture silk cocoons I have also added such miscellaneous skills as how to mend chinaware and how to light lanterns The third enumershyates the joys of rustic life The major tasks of running a country household beginning with managing the fields planting flowers and bamboo to tending horses and cows and growing chickens are all included The fourth consists of the I have discussed prenatal

how to cut the

Education

and what to do in various medical I have also appended for the fetus and the medicines one should take and taboos

one should observe The fifth chapter concerns strategies for dealing with natshyural forces I discuss the way to keep the foundational ground of the purified and uncontaminated and all the popular remedies including charms to drive away unwanted ghosts and spirits In this way I hope to assist the readers in preventing unexpected misfortune and at the same time to enable them to stay away from shamans or fortune-tellers and not be deceived by them

I wished to make each item clear and detailed so that anyone who opens book is able to follow the instructions therein and to put them into practice

I have included the titles of books from which I drew my knowledge in and if I added my own I marked them as new

~tlhrlna all this information into a book I entitled it the EncycLOpeaza Womens Daily Life (Kyuhap Of course it is said that what a woman does should not go beyond the inner quarters Even in the case of a woman who is extraordinarily talented and knowledgeable about thc ways of the old and new for her to express herself in writing with the hope that others might see and hear about it is contrary to the way of a person who keeps her beauty within With my unenlightened stupidity how could I dare think of expressing myself in writing Nevertheless although this book has many items all of them are concerned primarily with maintaining a healthy life and with crucial methshy

of managine a household are in fact all indispensable to dailv life investigate and sh~dv Thus with

ace I Written on the day of the winter solstice

JH

142 MIDDLE AND LATE CHOSON

Europeans do have a remarkable talent for technology They easily surpass the Chinese in that area But that achievement makes them arrogant and they think that they can convert the whole world to their way of thinking Thev need to think again

The heavens are so vast that the universe appears boundless Yet we ean locate the center of the universe that point around which it revolves That is the North Pole The earth is also quite large extending so far in all directions that it too appears infinite in size Yet it also has a center the site from which the entire earth is governed That terrestrial center is There are also many different ways human beings can behave and interact so many that they appear countless But above them all is the Supreme Ultimate the Way ofways

The North Pole rules over the multitude of stars so the multitude of stars all bow in the direction of the North Pole The center of the earth rules ten thousand regions so all of those regions recognize the paramount position of China The Supreme Ultimate reigns over all creation so all creation is brought together under the Supreme Ultimate This is the one orinciole that unites everything in Heaven on earth and among people

DB

Chapter 24

SOCIETY

Choson dynasty society combined the Chinese ideal of the meritocracy of Confucian virtue with the native Korean tradition of a hereditary social hiershyarchy The result was a society largely divided along hereditary lines but those divisions were justified with Confucian rhetoric A few of the more astute obshyservers of late Choson dynasty society noticed that contradiction and offered suggestions for mitigating it However respect for lineage and family backshyground had been so strong for so long on the peninsula that no respectable scholar could advocate completely ignoring ancestry in making government appointments or assigning social status Reformers therefore usually offered only minor correctives to the existing social order either by suggesting that Korea begin to imitate the Chinese more closely or by proposing practical measures for counteracting the negative effects the rigid inheritance of status had on the ability of the court to utilize the talents and abilities of its

subjects to the fullest extent For example in one corrective to an overemphasis on family ties community

compacts began to be promoted as a way to encourage communal solidarity as well as communal adherence to Confucian ethical principles Mutual aid across family and social status boundaries and a shared recognition of what constitutes proper behavior would it was hoped create common interests where hereditary status differentiation might otherwise create conflict


Reformers also turned their attention to the two groups that suffered the most from the rigid social hierarchy slaves and secondary sons Confucian idealists were particularly bothered by the fact that most slaves and secondary sons suffered from serious and pennanent discrimination because of the faults of their distant ancestors Such a hereditary handicap seemed to them to conshytradict the Confucian assumption of the innate goodness of all human beings and to ignore clear evidence that such men could better contribute to their government and their society if they were allowed to exercise their abilities to the fullest extent possible

However women were among the groups that did not benefit from the Confucian reformers attempts to modifY Korean society so that it would conshyform more closely to the Chinese pattern As Korean men became aware that Korean women had more rights and responsibilities than their Chinese counshyterparts did they took steps to scale back those rights and responsibilities parshyticularly in matters of inheritance and ritual

Nor did commoners benefit since there was justification in Confucian phishylosophy for maintaining a strict distinction between scholars who worked with their minds and others who worked with their hands Moreover the undershydeveloped state of commerce in Choson Korea deprived commoners of opporshytunities to acquire the economic power they could have used to challenge the domination of Confucian scholars over society Frustrated by hereditary and financial barriers to changes in their position in society and possibly angered

incompetency or even corruption among their hereditary superiors some grew restless In the seventeenth eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries that restlessness led to a few tentative peasant rebellions

Nevertheless despite the criticism of reformers and the restlessness of some commoners the social hierarchy remained largely intact until it shattered under

impact of the modern world at the end of the dynasty Even after slavery receded into relative insignificance by the nineteenth century and even after some commoners managed to purchase scholarly titles the basic social strucshyture of the Choson dynasty remained the same A small hereditary elite of Confucian scholar-officials continued to monopolize office-holding and domshyinate land-owning while preserving the status distinctions that set it apart from the rest of society

DB

COMMUNITY COMPACTS

The Neo-Confucian scholar-officials of the Choson dynasty saw in the comshymunity compact (hyangyak) a convenient instrument for the realization of the ideal rural community where people would encourage each other to practice virtue and help each other in times ofneed and disaster An institution borrowed

Society 145

from the Neo-Confucian movement in China the community compact beshycame popular among many scholar-officials during the sixteenth century and Yi I (1536-1584) was one of its most influential promoters Yi I prepared the bylaws for two community compacts one for Sowon (now Chongju) in Chungchong province and another for Haeju in Hwanghae province Transshylated here are the preamble to the Sowon Community Compact and portions of the Haeju community compact bylaws For Haeju Yi I envisioned an exshytended organization encompassing many aspects of rural life including edushycation and a community granary Although Chu Hsis revised version of the Lii Family Community Compact is included as a part of the Haeju Compact Yi I extensively revised it to adapt it to Korean rural conditions

YC

YI I COMMUNITY COMPACT FOR SOWON COUNTY

[From Yulgok chi5ns(J 162a-b1

Preamble

The community compact is an ancient institution whereby people in the same community rendered aid to one another in keeping watch and ward helped one another in sickness and sustained one another in their comings and goings Children also received their education in school at various levels in order to enhance their filial piety and nurture harmoniollsness among brothers Good government and healthy mores were able to prevail during the Three Dynasties l

entirely becallse of this institution Since then however morality has declined the Way has become obscure and the people have lost their sense of direction

decorum and customs have deteriorated at all levels It is indeed lamentable

Being inexperienced I have many flaws as the magistrate of this county Nevertheless I am determined to help transform the morality of the people When I consulted with the community leaders to find a good way to achieve this goal they all said that there is no better way than to promulgate the comshymunity compact Yi Chungyong a former magistrate of this county has already drawn up a community compact and this was later revised by Yi In another magistrate to suit the local conditions Regrettably however Yi In was recalled by the court and the community people became discouraged as the compact was never put into practice Continuing in the footsteps of these two former magistrates I have drawn up a new compact taking the earlier compact as well

1 The Three Dynasties of ancient China are the Hsia the Shang and the Chou

MIDDLE AND LATE CHaSON

as that of the Lu family of Sung China into consideration by simplifYing the complicated and supplementing the undefined Although I cannot claim that my version is perfect it includes almost all the element~ that encourage good deeds and discourage evil acts I believe that unless the magistrate exerts his utmost effort in his duties he cannot demand anything from the director of the

compact and that unless the director is a man of probity he cannot exhort the village members to do good deeds Whether the village members turn to good or to evil will depend upon the compact director and the director is moved to urge his people to behave properly will upon the magistrate I therefore should seek good advice and work more diligently so that the director and his staff will follow my wishes will abide by the regushylations and will exhort the village members If the village members do not disagree and bend like grass in the wind of virtue the mores of Sewen county

surely be transformed We should remember this always YC

YI I COMMUNITY COMPACT FOR HAEJU COUNTY

Yulgok chOnso 1612a-26b 32a-341 45a-46a]

Articles of Organization

ARTICLE I When the compact is inaugurated the organizational charter shall be circulated among those who are like-minded and a certain number of individuals who are circumspect and righteous shall be selected as the charter members They shall meet at the local academy to discuss and adopt the charter and shall then select the director the associate directors the officer of the

and the treasurer ARTICLE II The director shall be a person who commands respect from all people for his seniority virtue and scholarship There shall be two associate directors chosen from those who combine scholarship and good deeds The positions of officer of the month and trcasurer shall filled by rotation among the members The officer of the month shall bc chosen from among those who are able to command the services of slaves and servants and the treasurer shall be a scholar enrolled in the academy Both the director and the associate dishyrcctors shall not be removed except in case of death or incapacitation The position of officer of the month shall rotated at every general meeting and the post of treasurer shall be rotated once every year ARTICLE III The community compact shall maintain three registers-the Applications the Record of Good Deeds and the Record of Wrongful Conduct The officer of the month shall take charge of these registers and report their

Society 147

contents to the directors at the general meetings and then these registers shall be transferred to the incoming officer of the month ARTICLE IV The inaugural meeting shall be held at the academy where paper tablets for the sages and worthies are set up all shall join in burning incense and bowing twice to them Carrying the letter of the pledge the officer of the month shall then sit at thc left side of the director As the director the associate directors and all others who are present kneel down the officer of the Illonth shall read aloud the pledge When he is finished all the directors and those present shall bow twice Those who join afterward shall also follow the same rituals ARTICLE V An individual who wishes to join later shall be provided with the compact which he is allowed to consider for several months and only after he becomes certain that he can fulfill all the obligations it entails shall he be allowed to apply for membership The new applicant shall write a statement of his desire for membership for presentation to the director when the general meeting is convened The director shall then consult with the members re-

the applicants admissibility and upon approval a written response shall be given to the applicant allowing him to attend from the next general meeting onward If an applicant is a person whose character is not well known or is a person who had committed an imprudent act in the past he shall be given a copy of the compact to study thoroughly and shall be allowed to only after he has demonstrated his willingness to abide by the compact through his deeds for one or two years and has also convinced all the members that he is reformed ARTICL E VI There shall be a general meeting on the first day of every other month - namely the first third fifth seventh ninth and eleventh When there is an occasion eelebration or mourning a special meeting may be convened ARTICLE VII If a member cannot attend a gcneral meeting on account of illness he must submit a written statement and have it delivered to the officer of the month on the morning of the meeting and the letter shall be circulated among the mcmbers If the rcason given for such an absence is found to be false the officer of the month shall report that to the director and it shall be dealt with as a violation of the compact rules ARTICLE VIII The Record of Good Deeds and the Record of Wrongful Conduct shall be made only after a member has joined the compact wrongful conduct committed before joining the compact shall not be recorded and shall never again be raised and only when someone docs not change his conduct and instead repeats his earlier mistakes shall his acts be recorded in the Record of Wrongful Conduct Recorded misconduct shall be removed from the Record onlv after the entire membership reaches agreement that the person


who committed that misdeed has clearly become aware of his mistake and has amended his conduct Recorded good deeds on the other hand shall not be erased even after a member has also committed a wrongful act Only after someone has engaged in such heinous behavior as acting unfilially toward a parent behaving inharmoniously toward a brother forming an unlawfullicenshytious liaison or disgracing himself by stealing shall his good conduct be erased from the record and the evildoer himself be expelled from the compact ARTICLE IX When the officer of the month learns of a members good or bad deed he shall make note of it after determining the details and shall report it to the next general meeting If the officer of the month knows of such a deed and does not report it the director and the associate directors shall investigate the reason for his inaction as well as the matter itself and this shall be dealt with as a violation of the compact rules ARTICLE X Upon joining the compact every new member shall submit one bolt of clothZ and one peck of rice to be stored at the private academy under the charge of the treasurer A reliable and honest man shall be chosen as the storage keeper to manage the receipts and disbursements of the cloth and rice which shall be used for occasions of celebration and mourning In addition every member shall pay dues of one peck of rice at every eleventh months meeting and the treasurer shall manage this fund which is to be used for defraying the expenses of the compact If there is a surplus it shall be loaned to the people at 20 percent interest as in the village granary system If there is a shortage additional payments shall be called for as needed after consultations with all the members Cloth shall not be collected as dues However if the cloth collected from the new members runs out each member shall be asked to contribute one additional bolt If too much rice accumulates it may be traded for cloth to facilitate better storage If what is stored becomes plentiful the members can agree not to collect dues ARTICLE XI For occasions of celebration among the members the compact shall make contributions as follows for a big celebration five bolts of cloth and ten pecks of rice for a medium celebration three bolts of cloth and five pecks of rice and for a small celebration one bolt of cloth and three pecks of rice Occasions for big celebration include success in the higher civil service exshyamination and occasions for medium celebrations include success in the lower civil service examination while small celebrations may be called for on occashysions such as capping ceremonies for youths first official appointments and official promotions For weddings a contribution of three bolts of cloth and five pecks of rice shall be made ARTICLE XII When a funeral occurs in a members family the compact

2 A common medium of exchange

Society 149

shall provide two forms of aid - donations of goods and donations of labor In the case of a funeral of a compact member the treasurer shall report it to the directors then deliver three bolts of hemp cloth In addition each member shall contribute half a peck of rice and three straw bags for use at the funeral The representative sent to offer a sacrifice at the funeral shall be accompanied by five bolts of cloth and ten pecks of rice from the stores under the charge of the treasurer along with a letter of condolence To assist in the funeral cereshymony each member shall send one adult male slave carrying enough food to sustain himself for three days

For the funeral of the father or the mother of a member the compact shall first deliver two bolts of hemp cloth and each member shall contribute threeshytenths of a peck of rice and two straw bags The compact shall then send three bolts of cotton cloth and half a peck of rice To assist in the funeral ceremony each member shall send one adult male slave carrying enough of his own food

for two days For the funeral of a wife or a son of a member the compact shall first deliver

one bolt of hemp cloth and each member shall contribute one-tenth of a peck of rice and one straw bag Then the compact shall send one bolt of cotton cloth and three-tenths of a peck of rice For the funeral ceremony each member shall send one adult male slave with enough food for one day ARTICLE XIII In case a member loses his entire house in a fire each memshyber after consultation shall contribute three rolls of roofing straw and two pieces of timber and shall also send one adult male slave with enough food for three days to help build a new house ARTICLE XIV In sending a representative to offer a sacrifice at the funeral of a member the compact shall collect three-tenths of a peck of rice from each member in order to prepare wine viands rice cakes and fruit for the altar It is important that they be prepared in time ARTICLE XVIII The collection of all the goods and the use oflabor services shall be under the charge of the officer of the month In order to convene a general meeting the officer of the month shall first consult with the director and with the senior members among the former officers of the month and then decide on the date after a meeting with the associate directors Then the notishyfication signed by the associate directors and the officer of the month shall be sent out

The Revised Lii Family Community Compact

Although this compact is modeled after the Lti Family Community Compact there are many differences in the regulations

The community compact has four major aims first mutual encouragement of virtue and virtuous acts second mutual correction of wrongful conduct


a tuna for emergency relief (When the amount of rice stored is sufficient it is not necessary to collect furthCL)

REGULATIONS OF THE COMMUNITY GRANARY

ARTICLE I The deputy director and the clcrks shall take charge of the reshyceipts and disbursements of the grain from the community granary Grain shall be distributed every year to help those who are destitute When grain is repaid an interest of two-tcnths of a peck shall be added to each peck loaned Transshyactions should be carried out fairly and recorded clearly so that there can be no dispute afterward The clcrks shall be replaced after the spring disbursement and the fall collection ARTICLE II If someone is not a mcmber of the community granarycompaet he may not receive grain from the community granary However if a person vcry close to a member or a servant who is not a member seeks food a member may borrow grain for that nonmember under his own name making sure that the borrower understands that he has to pay back the loan after the fall harvest If the borrower cannot pay it back the member shall be responsible for paying the debt ARTI C LE II I If the stored grain has not yet reached the stage of accruing interest the interest charge shall be three-tenths of a peck In years whcn harshyvests are abundant members shall submit ten pecks of grain (five pecks for servants) to augment the stored grain If the existing grain is already sufficient

is no need to collect additional amounts ARTICIE IV The disbursement of the grain from the community granary shall be made on the first eleventh and twenty-first days of every month startshying from the eleventh day of the first month until the grain runs out On these dates the deputy director and the clerks shall be present at the grain storage where the grain will be distributed Repayments of borrowed grain shall likewise be made on the first eleventh and twenty-first days of the ninth month through the eleventh month ARTICLE V For paying back the borrowed grain ten households shall form a unit and the unit head shall take charge of cncouraging prompt paymcnt Any unit head who does not work hard to ensure prompt payment may be liable to punishment ARTICLE VI Anyone who fails to pay back grain debt by the end of the eleventh month shall be liable to heavy punishment and his unit head shall be liable to medium punishment If anyone fails to pay back grain debt until after the twelfth month he shall be expelled from the compact and his unit head shall be liable to heavy punishment If the grain collected in payment docs not meet quality standards the debtor shall be liable to appropriate punshyishment depending on the quality and shall be asked to make amends

Society 157

ARTICLE VII Anyone who wishes to join the compact after the compact is organized may do so after paying twenty pecks of grain but a servant shall pay ten pecks ARTICLE VIII If a member receives an appointment in the provincial adshyministration he shall assist the community granary by contributing five bolts of cloth if appointment is for a provincial governorship and three bolts if it is a county magistracy ARTICLE IX For grain loans to be procured the head of a five-household unit should determine thc amounts and purposes of the desired loans from its members one day in advance and shall report their needs to the deputy director and the clerks early in the morning on the following day The deputy director and the clerks shall then determine the amount to be loaned

YC

SLAVERY

Slavery has been one of the most important and yet grossly underrated problems in the social history of Korea Historians have always recognized the existence of slavery in Korea but they have been reluctant to give it its due as a special feature of Korean society Slavery was by no means unique to East Asia but the establishment in Korea of hereditary slavery sometime in the mid- to late tenth century and the rise in the number of chattel slaves to about a third of population within a century or two after that date was in fact unique in the countries of the Chinese cultural sphere

Census data from extant household registers reveal that between the early seventeenth and the late eighteenth centuries about 30 percent of the Korean population were slaves Even though raw statistical evidence for earlier periods is missing qualitative evidence suggests that the same proportion of the popushylation could have been slaves as early as the tenth or eleventh centuries Even though the majority of cultivators remained commoner peasants who funcshytioned either as landlords independent smallholders tenants or hired laborers (or a combination of all three) slaves were crucial to the economy and lifestyle of the ruling class in both the Koryo and the Choson dynasties Korea deserves to be called a slave society if only because in the slave societies of ancient Greece Republican and Imperial Rome and the antebellum South of the United States slaves constituted no more than 30 percent of the total population Nevertheless the existence of a slave society in that period does not necessarily mean that a slave mode of production in the Marxist sense existed from the eleventh to the late eighteenth century rather agricultural production was based primarily on the private ownership of land and the extraction of surplus was derived primarilv from tenancv and secol1(iarilv from hirp(l bhnr Sbpo


both official and private who werc used in cultivation paid fixed rent entered into sharecropping arrangements or paid a personal tribute tax to their master that was equivalent to rcnt In some cases they might own or purchase their own land in addition but the amount was undoubtedly small

The adoption of hereditary slavery in the tenth century probably did not result in an immediate increase in the slave population However the adoption of the matrilineal rule in 1039 restricted the inheritance of slave status by offspring of mixed slave-commoncr marriages to the childrcn of slave mothers This indicates that slave owners were manipulating the laws to increase the number of slaves under their control by laying claim to ownership of the offshyspring of any of their own whether they were married to slaves or comshymoners In addition deteriorating economic conditions appear to have driven commoner peasants to commend themselves as slaves to prominent and influshyential families in order to escape the depredations of the tax collectors and their creditors It is more than likely that the number of slaves in the total population reached the 30 percent mark sometime in the eleventh century and remained at about that level until the last quarter of the eighteenth century a period of seven hundred years

The introduction of hereditary slavery and the growth ofthe slave population occurred in the midst of the era of Buddhist religious preponderance and was in no way limited or restricted by Buddhist protest In fact monastic estates joined with the landlord elite in using slaves to cultivate their lands When advocates of Neo-Confucian learning challenged and overturned the dominashytion of Korean society by Buddhism in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Neo-Confucian ideologues never made hereditary slavery an item in their critical agenda In fact they confiscatcd the slaves of the Buddhist monastic estates only to convert them to official slaves and only on one or two occasions did they challenge the propriety of hereditary slavery on moral grounds

It was only in the sevcnteenth century that Yu Hyongwon (1622-1673) launched a blistering attack on hereditary slavery on the grounds that it was inconsistent with the moral teachings of Confucian classics and the instishytutional precedents set by the sages of Chinese antiquity His aversion was not to slavery itself since he believed that it was justifiable as a punishment for serious crimes but to hereditary slavery because it inflicted the sins of the father on the innocent children Yet because slavery was so ingrained in Korean society Yu was forced to find ways to mitigatc the shock of instantancous manshyumission for the yangban slave masters as in the essay below

Other scholars such as Yi Ik (1681-1763) and Yu Suwon (1694-1775) also indicted the evils of slavery in Korean society The rising critique of slavery had some effects on policy By 1780 the slave population had declined to bclow 10

percent and in 1801 King Sunjo (1800-1834) manumitted almost all official slaves in government service The abolition of hereditary slavery however

Society 159

not occur until 1886 and thc abolition of slavery itself only took place under the Kabo Reform cabinet of Kim Hongjip in 1894 a cabinet put in place by the Japanese who dominated Korean politics during thc prosecution of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895

lP

YU HYONGWON SLAVES

Pangye surok 264a-9a]

I have found that the name slave first appeared when criminals were confisshyand enrolled as slaves for a crime

a law in ancient times where someone innocent of a crime was forced to beshycome a slave In addition the ancients never extended the penalty ofthose who had been enslaved for their crimes to their descendants how much less so if they were innocent of any crime

According to the law in our country no one ever asks whether a person is of a crime or not We only investigate his line ofdescent through previous

generations and make people slaves for a hundred generations That is even ignorant and low people can control the life or death of others Suppose that a man of worth and talent appears among the slaves He too is fettered and made the slave of another person How could this be reasonable

I do not know when this law was first devised but I believe that it must have gradually become more widespread in the early Koryo period By the time

Choson dynasty when our laws were formulated they forced people into slavery and once people were enslaved there was no way for them to get out of slavery It was for this reason that the size of the slave population has increased to the point where 80 or 90 percent of the population are slaves while barely 10 or 20 percent are commoners

Under the present law the children of mixed slavecommoner marshyriages are supposed to adopt the status of their mother but if the father is a slave and thc mother a eommoncr then the children adopt the fathers status and become slaves This means that once someone has become a slave there is no way out for him or his descendants In addition because military service is even more onerous than slavcry many people marry their sons and daughters to private slaves with the result that the commoner population is gradually getting smaller Under this law before a few hundred years pass the country definitely will have no commoners left at all Even the 10 or 20 percent of the population that barely exist as commoners are only slaves who have run off to a distant place and gone into hiding or are the destitute offspring of yangban and their concubines)


It would be all right if we could continue the matrilineal succession law and apply it equally and uniformly (Note This means that if a child is born to a commoner woman then that child becomes a commoner) But if

~ is put into practirp institutions of government and washes away is clear that the law governing slavery

in ancient times under feudalism because the ruler granted fiefs to his vassals the high officials had no concern about being left without support In China at the present time there are also hired servants and workers so that the families of the scholar-officials also have people working for them

(Note Even though there are slaves in China all of thelll hire themselves out as laborers The Chinese do not have a system that requires inspection of a persons lineage to see if he is a slave or not Generally speaking it is said that when they use someone to do work for them they only hire slaves or use hired commoner laborers for a limited period of time)

But in our country this slave law has in existence for a very long time and having slaves has become a long-established custom All the scholarshy

it would be difficult for their families if chanes in this custom must come about

lower orders of becoming warmer and the practice of hiring workers

Only after that takes place can you then abolish slavery (Note What I mean by abolishing it indeed does not mean a sudden and

total abolition of presently existing slaves Just order that slavery stop with the slaves that exist at the present time Those who are currently recognized as slaves will continue to be recognized as slaves until they die but the law proshyviding for the inheritance of slavery will be abolished If we were to enact this law then we ought to establish a time limit on the law and allow the current masters to make a report to the magistrate of the slaves bom to them before the enactment of this law and the magistrate will make a file of their names and keep it in his office After this time no further petitions to recognize existing slaves will be allowed)

there are naturally both noble and base and the base are employed by others This

and an unchanging situation After the law is abolished situation of the families of the high officials will no different from today What will change is that once the of hired labor is adopted then the worthy and the ignorant and the noble and the base will each his proper share of things and people will be encouraged to be virtuous and righteous But under the system of hereditary slave service whether one is rich or poor has nothing to do with whether one is noble or base and

Society 161

so that people in that situation are encouraged to fight and steal things And this is what makes the two systems different )

At the present time our country regards slaves as chatteL but same as we are Under

In ancient times when someone aSKea now Wealtl1y a country was reply was always in the number of horses that country had What this means

is that even though the Son of Heaven and the feudal lords had the responsishyfor managing people they never said that people were their private

property

But in our country at the present time the custom is that when you ask a man how wealthy he is he always answers by telling you how many slaves and how much land he owns Therefore you can also see how mistaken and sick our laws and customs are

It is basically not hard to understand that the slave law in our country is wrong in principle but people in general are all blinded by their immediate private interests and all of them think that it is too hard to abolish the slave law The ruler is the person who governs the people in the name of Heaven The country is our country people are our people How could things have

group of our own people were made into slaves and made to suffer harm That harm has been extended to and relatives and the poison flows among the masses of the common people until it causes disease to the country You do not have to wait for me to tell you this before you realize what is right and wrong That is why I want to abolish that law something that will not be that hard to do

JP _ _---l

YI CHUNGHWAN THE STATUS SYSTEM

[From Chongnon in Taengni chi p 357]

Yi Chunghwans to the best places to live in Korea is also one of Koreas first cultural t7PI)Omnho As such it includes rle~~rinti(mlt of the social mores and social structure prevailing on the peninsula in the mid-eighteenth

As an educated Confucian scholar well versed in Chinese literature Yi was well aware that Korea did not conform to the ideal social structure delineated in Confucian

writings Korean was far more complicated than the hierarchy of scholars

peasants artisans and merchants Confucianism assumed Yi shared with his fellow

Confucians in China the belief that a civilized community should be divided into

several separate and distinct social classes ranked hierarchically and each assigned its

own class-specific rights and responsibilities He also agreed that it was important that


that such an articulated social hierarchy provided the basic framework essential for

social stability Such a division of the rights and responsibilities of society along class

lines was called myongbun (maintaining clear distinctions of social status) a term

borrowed from Chinese tradition However Koreans interpreted those distinctions

differently and divided up Korean society into categories different from the Chinese

Here is Yis description of how Korean society was actuallv structured

The --llU~Ull was founded on the of Ildl1111l~ clear disshytinctions of social status The reason however that the appellation of scholarshyofficials (sadaebu) is applied to so many people today is that leaders are selected solely on the basis of their family background regardless of their ability

People are differentiated in numerous ways The families that produce high officials for the court are those of the royal house and the scholar-officials Ranked below the scholar-officials are those holders of titles degrees and merit who reside in the countryside and are without any official duties Below them are scholars of illegitimate birth military officers interpreters mathematicians

and officers of the military reserve One rung lower on the social ladder are petty householders assigned to moners At the of both government-owned and privately owned

The class of lowly persons (hain) consists of people ranging from slaves to petty officials in the governments central and local administrations The chungshyin (middle people) consists ofpersons of illegitimate birth and those specializing in the various professions The title holders and the scholar-officials are both known as literati (yangban) However title holders constitute one social stratum of the literati and scholar-officials another higher stratum And scholar-officials themselves are further differentiated into the great families and the merely

so many different ranks and grades separating people tend not to have a very large circle of between social classes can be quite rigid changes do

occur over time in the social status of a family The descendants of a scholarshyofficial may fall to commoner status and a commoner family may slowly climb the social ladder and eventually produce a scholar-officiaL

FK

) r-- SECONDARY SONS

clear distinctions of social status could refer broadly to the genshypreference for maintaining clear distinctions between

classes within a hierarchical social order or it could be used in a narrower sense to refer specifically to one expression of class discrimination unique to Korea

Society 163

severe discrimination against those whose fathers were literati but whose mothshyers were concubines In contrast to the way the Chinese treated sons of conshycubines Koreans insisted on denying them most of the normal benefits ofbeing born as a male in a noble household

Under Choson dynasty regulations sons of concubines were barred from the civil service examinations and therefore from the high-status government

earned by successful performance in those examinations within their fathers house they had to accept an inferior status before a

even a younger one For example they were not supposed as father for to do so would imply that they too were

true sons with as much claim to their fathers affection as sons of high-status mothers

Yu Suwon was critical of the way his fellow Koreans discriminated against sons of concubines First of all he argued such discrimination wasted potential talent that could be useful to the state Secondly China did not engage in such discrimination and therefore Korea should not either He made the same points against the barriers Korea had raised against allowing commoners or members of the chumin to vie with the legitimate sons of vam~ban for

YU SUWON SECONDARY SONS AND PUBLIC OFFICE

[From Non saso myongbun in Usa 29a-12bJ

Someone asked me China does not practice the principle of maintaining clear distinctions of social status it

I responded How could that be He said That principle arose back when there was a need to UI~llllbUI~1I

between the legitimate sons ofaristocratic families and the rest of decent society In China today however neither family background nor legitimacy of birth are all that important in selecting people for government office Moreover the children and grandchildren of an official can join the descendants of merchants in pursuing profit in the marketplace How can they be said to be concerned about distinctions by name and rank

I answered Even though Chinese do not consider the illegitimacy of birth as important a factor for official recruitment as talent they have very strict about how a concubine children are to be treated and observe the distinctions the children of a concubine and a to an automatic appointment to a lower-level civil service position Nor may the child of a concubine inherit the headship of his family When their fathers


epitaph is written their mother is recordcd as thc concubine so-and-so who gave birth to so-and-so How can you say then that the Chinese do not guish between those of legitimate and those of illegitimate birth

Hc then said to me Nowadays those secondary sons who have the slightest bit of self-confidence are likely to think little of their relatives oflegitimate birth

ignore the principle of distinction by social status If wc allow them the same access to official service legitimate sons now enjoy will we ever be able to stop worrying about their lack of proper respect for men of legitimate

I answered If we bar them from official service we do not show respect for them as fellow human beings This will incite some of the more ignorant among them to despair and desperation so much so that will no longer accept their proper station in life but will become unruly and rebellious and then others of illegitimate birth will follow suit But if we treat secondary sons as potential scholar-officials and in so doing ask them to abide by the laws of propriety how could they act othcrwise Trcat people properly first and then

will act properly If after we have treated them badly we ask them to be respectful and obedicnt how could they not feel resentful and hateful Moreshyover their resentment will grow and they will turn rebellious and perverse Because our prohibition of their official service is so absolute their accumulated resentments will make them recalcitrant and recalcitrance will become a habit

He countered How can we permit a son who is born of a lowly concubinc to live the same way as a son born of a legitimate wife

I answered him In his family he is indeed a son of a lowly concubine But the statc should only whether he is wise or ignorant in order to employ him

I Tu Yen Fan Chung-yen [989-1052] and Chu Shou-chang were all born of concubines4 How could we prohibit such talented people from becomshy

officials Heaven produces men ofbrilliance and straightforwardness so that may be employed to work under the rulcr How can we not employ them

simply because we want to distinguish between those with a respcctable family background and those whose family background is not so respectable

He then asked me If that is the case should we then not give secondary sons an equal right to inheriting the headship of their family so that they are treated no differently from the legitimate children and grandchildren

I answered him Heaven and the king are both very high and very strict We have never failed to call Heaven Heaven and our king king How then can we have a son whom we do not dare allow call his father father That is not in accordance the principle of maintaining clear distinctions of status

4 Four famous Chinese government officials of past dynasties Chou served at the highest levels of the government of Eastern Chin (317-420) The other three were high officials in Sung

China (960-1279)

Society 165

If a younger brother acted impolitely to his older brother or a nephew treated his uncle with disdain then ethics would be nonexistent How could wc tolerate

a thing A legitimate brother or nephew should treat a secondary elder brother or an uncle as an elder brother or father respectively However a secondary elder brother should perform the rites appropriate for a concubines son toward his legitimate brothers mother remembering his humble origin Even if he is of a higher generation he should perform the rites appropriate for ordinary children toward a legitimate son or nephew who is in line to inherit the hcadship of the family Only then will ethics be illuminated and decorum be put into practice

The ethics governing relations between father and son come from Hcaven As such they are an integral part of human nature and cannot be artificially denied - so much so that if a secondary son cannot call his father father great harm is done to human relations Still ordinary people are left so unenlightshyencd that they do not think of this practice as strange How lamentable it is People who have spoken on this matter often express rcgret for the lost talent of secondary sons who are barred from official employment But such an exshyprcssion of loss is merely derived from their concern for profitability There is nothing more important to a countrys governance than to understand human relations How can we support ethics that do not permit a father to be a father and a son to be a son

FK ) YI SUDUK A PETITION ON BEHALF OF SECONDARY SONS

194-97]

Most of the Confucian scholars who were bothered by the discrimination against secondary sons confined their expressions of dissatisfaction to essays meant to be cirshyculated among the Confucian scholarly elite However some such as Yi Sudtlk (1697shy

1775) a government official during King Yongjos reign (1724-1776) followed the example set by 1600 secondary sons in 1568 and 988 secondary sons in 1695 and memorialized the throne directlv to ask that such discrimination be ended

In Fifth Rank Military Officer Yi Suduk submitted to the king a petition requesting that secondary sons be allowed to take thc state examinations He also requested that restrictions on their appointment to government posts be lifted The contents of the petition are summarized as follows

In the past we were very hospitable to the worthy scholars of neighboring countries honoring them with the proper ceremonies and being quite generous with the eifts we presented to them Our only worrv was that they would not


come to pay their visits Yet now we make laws that place limitations on talented men of our own country in the worry that they will perhaps become appointed to government positions If an emergency were to occur we would have trouble finding enough men capable of dealing with that situation That would not be due to any real lack of capable men in our country but only to the fact that we are not able to take advantage of all the talent among our population

Even more strangely people of obscure and inferior ancestry from the reshymote countryside are at times appointed to great government positions and yet secondary sons of renowned families and upper-class families are completely and forever restricted from such posts using this criterion to decide whom to appoint and whom to discard is absurd in the extreme

If a secondary son happens to have scholarly inclinations and desires to study at the National Academy he will have to sit in the back no matter how old he is though the other students are assigned seats according to their age This being so there is not a place in the world where secondary sons can make their mark or even have their existence recognized Those who have any selfshyrespect at all never entertain any hope of winning an appointment to public office and instead withdraw from the world closing their doors and staying by themselves Those who are forced to go out into the world appear dejected and lifeless and look as if they were guilt-ridden because of some great sin

Even those who become government officials cannot closely attend to the king and therefore are not able to completely fulfill the proper obligations of a subject toward his king Moreover when they are children they do not dare

their father father and so the moral relationship between father and son also becomes denigrated Worst ofall there are fathers who ignore the existence of their sons by their secondary wives and instead adopt distant relatives to carry on the family line This destroying of moral relationships and this violation of heavenly principles is extremely serious

Alas even if this discrimination against secondary sons had been instituted by the sages of old its evil effects would still have become clear over time Besides So Son was no sage but a mean-spirited individuaP Nevertheless after

succeeded in having this immoral proposal adopted we have respected policy and followed it ever since Over the last three hundred years we have prevented many talented men from being able to use their talents an extremely perverted practice indeed Truly this is something we do not want any of our neighboring countries to know about

Perhaps one may argue that if secondary sons are allowed to take the exams social ranking will become confused However this is not the case In the

5 In 1415 under King Taejongs reign So Son (1367-1433) proposed a prejudicial treatment discriminating against those born of concubine mothers

Society 167

opinion of the former High State Councillor the late 0 Yungyom [1559-1636] The distinction between primary sons and secondary sons is a distinction that

needs to be made within a family In the kings court in making appointshyments to public offices all we should be concerned about is that we select those who are wise and capable If by appointing secondary sons to a high-status office we violate the social hierarchy that is because that social hierarchy is too rigid Any confusion of social status that results is not the fault of secondary sons Since a respected high court official has already spoken decisively on matter for others to contradict him is a cause for grave concern

On the other hand if someone says we should learn from our experience with the secondary son Yu Chagwang and the trouble he caused and beware of secondary sons I would have to laugh The trouble he caused is nothing compared to the harm done by KimAllo [481-1537] Yun Wonhyong [d Nam Kon [1471-1527] and countless others who were not secondary sons How can we take the actions of just one man even if that man is Yu Chagwang as an excuse to bar all secondary sons from public office

1 might add that even if starting today secondary sons were allowed to compete for civil service positions I do not think we would see an immediate effect tomorrow However the overall impact if the doors that have been blockshying the appointment of secondary sons to government posts are opened wide would be that more talented men would be encouraged to develop their talents and abilities Once they learned the good news that discrimination against them

been lifted forever they would be even more encouraged Who knows might not another Huo Chu-ping or Han Chi [1008-1075]6 emerge from among these secondary sons

I have humbly selected some memorials and proposals made by several different officials in the past and have added to them the records ofsome debates over some of the difficult points concerning this issue and have brought all this together for your perusal I am convinced that if you sincerely and carefully go over this material you will come to a firm and fair conclusion about what needs to be done

I respectfully offer this concise and short petition together with these acshycompanying documents However due to old age and ill health 1 am unable to go to the palace myself and have therefore taken the liberty of doing as Yi I did before me and have boldly ordered my servant to deliver this forthwith I pray that Your Majesty will talk this over with your ministers and quickly hand down an edict ending this discrimination against secondary sons

MP

6 Two men who rose to positions of prominence in the Han and Sung dynasties respectively thoueh they both were bom of mothers of low social status

36 37 MIDDLE AND LATE CHaSON

principle of Heaven Discern things and cultivate and develop

Then read the The Mean (Chung yung) considering therein the virtue of ones nature and emotions ofstriving for the ultimate and of the wondrousness of the birth and growth [of the myriad things] Considering each of these things seek to understand them

Having done this read the Odes learning therein what is perverse and what is right in nature and emotion and how to encourage what is good and thwart what is evil Thoughtfully unravel these things taking them passionately to heart and stand firm in your vigilance

read the Record of Rites seeing in them the modulated expression of Heavens principles and the appropriateness of ceremonies and protocols Inshyvestigate these things developing your own opinion about them

read the Documents discovering there the foundations of the great principles and the methods with which the Two Emperors and the Three Sage Kings governed the empire Trace the origins of these things grasping the basic points

Then read the Changes considering there the auspicious and the clOUS life and death advance and retreat prosperity and decay Observe these points and scrutinize them carefully

And then read the Spring and Autumn Annals observing the sages ment as he praises and commends in his subtle phrases Investigate these things conscientiously and understand him correctly

Read these five books and these five classics scrupulously by turns continshyuously striving for understanding thus making their meanings and their prinshyciples clearer

Then read those books written by the worthy scholars of the Sung including the Reflections on Things at Hand the Family Ritual [of Master Chu] the Heart Classic [of Chen Te-hsiu] the Great Compendium ofthe Two Cheng Brothers Works the Great Compendium ofMaster Chus Works Classified Conversations of Master Chu and other works on the theory of nature and principle Read these works with care whenever possible so that the principles contained therein pervade and penetrate into the depth of your heart leaving no gaps at any time In your remaining hours read history to get acquainted with the events and changes of ancient and present times so as to expand your knowledge and judgment Do not spend even a brief moment reading heterodox works or other mixed up wrong kinds of books

In reading a deliberate and careful method should be followed Ponder each work until you thoroughly penetrate into the meaning of every phrase and have no more questions or doubts Move on to another work only after that It is undesirable to sacrifice depth in favor of quantity speed or extensive coverage

IH

Education

PAK SEMU PRIMER FOR YOUTH

The Primer for Youth (literally First Lessons for the Young and Unenlightened) was

written by Pak Semu (1487-1564) in 1541 and first published in 1545 No copies of this first edition are extant but Paks original manuscript was preserved in the horne of a descendant and is now in possession of An Chungun The earliest extant printed edition from 1759 includes a by King Yongjo dated 1742 and an eDilmme of 1670 by the distinguished Neo-Confucian scholar Song

The main contents of the Primer foeus on the Five Human Relations reflecting the primacy given to these in Chu Hsis Articles of the White Deer Grotto and the len Diagrams of the Sages Teaching by Yi Hwang (Toegye) The Primer concludes with an account of the orthodox tradition (Succession to the Way) as transmitted through the ages in China and Korea - an account based on Chu Hsis preface to The Mean but including an alternative Korean transmission from the sage Kija at the

founding of civilization in Korea The Primer for Youth was widely used as an elementary text for children from the

sixteenth century on An annotated edition was published in 1797 and an illustrated edition (with translation into Korean script) in the twentieth century During the Choson dynasty students at village elementary schools from the ages ofseven to first read the Thousand Character Classic followed by this Primer Chu Hsis Outline and Details of the General Mirror (Tung-chien kang-mu) the Elementary Learning (Hsiao hstieh) the Four Books [Great Learning Mean Analects and Mencius] Three Classics [Odes Documents and Changes] Tang and Sung Literature [Tang-Sung wen] the Tang Code Spring and Autumn Annals Record of Rites and Chu Hsis Reflections on Things at Hand [Chin-ssu lu] Study at this stage mainly included

reading essay writing and calligrapl WTdB

Royal Preface of King Yongjo (1742) to Primer for Youth (Tongmong sonsup pp 5-40)

This book compiled by an Eastern (ie Korean) Confucian scholar begins a general discussion of the Five Human Relations and then discusses in

order parent and child ruler and minister husband and wife elder and younger and friend and friend Commencing from the Supreme Ultimate it records the successive ages from Three Emperors (Sage Kings) Five Lords the Hsia Yin (Shang) Chou Han Tang Sung and the present imperial dynasty [Ming] As for our Eastern country [Korea] it records the history from through the Three Kingdoms reaching up to our own dynasty Though ecoshynomical in its use of language the coverage is broad though small its content is huge How can this not be true since Way ofYao and Shun lwhich would itself suffice 1 consists of nothing more than filialitv and brotherliness Shuns







_~ Pimcdm Youth



Education



































5 Li chi 1012



Education





























42 43





GENERAL DISCUSSION










Education



















HKandWTdB

LOCAL EDUCATION


PROMOTING EDUCATION










-----_







Education








vr


WOMENS E CATION










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[From pp 18]
















Education



Preface























of imperial

60 61




EP



III






III


Education

Manners for Men





SPEECH (17B-lOB)










62 63















Education

CONDUCT (ZlA-7A)























Education









Womens Manners







LANGUAGE (67B-8A)





CONDUCT (617B)


Education

EDUCATION (728)










lH


DAILY LIFE













not long after 1809









JH





how to cut the

Education








JH





DB

Chapter 24

SOCIETY











DB

COMMUNITY COMPACTS


Society 145


YC



Preamble















Society 147






Society 149













Society 157


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SLAVERY










Society 159


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_~ Pimcdm Youth



Education



































5 Li chi 1012



Education





























42 43





GENERAL DISCUSSION










Education



















HKandWTdB

LOCAL EDUCATION


PROMOTING EDUCATION










-----_







Education








vr


WOMENS E CATION










TH


[From pp 18]
















Education



Preface























of imperial

60 61




EP



III






III


Education

Manners for Men





SPEECH (17B-lOB)










62 63















Education

CONDUCT (ZlA-7A)























Education









Womens Manners







LANGUAGE (67B-8A)





CONDUCT (617B)


Education

EDUCATION (728)










lH


DAILY LIFE













not long after 1809









JH





how to cut the

Education








JH





DB

Chapter 24

SOCIETY











DB

COMMUNITY COMPACTS


Society 145


YC



Preamble















Society 147






Society 149













Society 157


YC

SLAVERY










Society 159


lP

YU HYONGWON SLAVES





















Society 161





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MP





























5 Li chi 1012



Education





























42 43





GENERAL DISCUSSION










Education



















HKandWTdB

LOCAL EDUCATION


PROMOTING EDUCATION










-----_







Education








vr


WOMENS E CATION










TH


[From pp 18]
















Education



Preface























of imperial

60 61




EP



III






III


Education

Manners for Men





SPEECH (17B-lOB)










62 63















Education

CONDUCT (ZlA-7A)























Education









Womens Manners







LANGUAGE (67B-8A)





CONDUCT (617B)


Education

EDUCATION (728)










lH


DAILY LIFE













not long after 1809









JH





how to cut the

Education








JH





DB

Chapter 24

SOCIETY











DB

COMMUNITY COMPACTS


Society 145


YC



Preamble















Society 147






Society 149













Society 157


YC

SLAVERY










Society 159


lP

YU HYONGWON SLAVES





















Society 161





property




JP _ _---l























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MP


42 43





GENERAL DISCUSSION










Education



















HKandWTdB

LOCAL EDUCATION


PROMOTING EDUCATION










-----_







Education








vr


WOMENS E CATION










TH


[From pp 18]
















Education



Preface























of imperial

60 61




EP



III






III


Education

Manners for Men





SPEECH (17B-lOB)










62 63















Education

CONDUCT (ZlA-7A)























Education









Womens Manners







LANGUAGE (67B-8A)





CONDUCT (617B)


Education

EDUCATION (728)










lH


DAILY LIFE













not long after 1809









JH





how to cut the

Education








JH





DB

Chapter 24

SOCIETY











DB

COMMUNITY COMPACTS


Society 145


YC



Preamble















Society 147






Society 149













Society 157


YC

SLAVERY










Society 159


lP

YU HYONGWON SLAVES





















Society 161





property




JP _ _---l























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Society 163



























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194-97]















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MP








-----_







Education








vr


WOMENS E CATION










TH


[From pp 18]
















Education



Preface























of imperial

60 61




EP



III






III


Education

Manners for Men





SPEECH (17B-lOB)










62 63















Education

CONDUCT (ZlA-7A)























Education









Womens Manners







LANGUAGE (67B-8A)





CONDUCT (617B)


Education

EDUCATION (728)










lH


DAILY LIFE













not long after 1809









JH





how to cut the

Education








JH





DB

Chapter 24

SOCIETY











DB

COMMUNITY COMPACTS


Society 145


YC



Preamble















Society 147






Society 149













Society 157


YC

SLAVERY










Society 159


lP

YU HYONGWON SLAVES





















Society 161





property




JP _ _---l























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Society 163



























China (960-1279)

Society 165





194-97]















Society 167








MP



WOMENS E CATION










TH


[From pp 18]
















Education



Preface























of imperial

60 61




EP



III






III


Education

Manners for Men





SPEECH (17B-lOB)










62 63















Education

CONDUCT (ZlA-7A)























Education









Womens Manners







LANGUAGE (67B-8A)





CONDUCT (617B)


Education

EDUCATION (728)










lH


DAILY LIFE













not long after 1809









JH





how to cut the

Education








JH





DB

Chapter 24

SOCIETY











DB

COMMUNITY COMPACTS


Society 145


YC



Preamble















Society 147






Society 149













Society 157


YC

SLAVERY










Society 159


lP

YU HYONGWON SLAVES





















Society 161





property




JP _ _---l























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Society 163



























China (960-1279)

Society 165





194-97]















Society 167








MP


60 61




EP



III






III


Education

Manners for Men





SPEECH (17B-lOB)










62 63















Education

CONDUCT (ZlA-7A)























Education









Womens Manners







LANGUAGE (67B-8A)





CONDUCT (617B)


Education

EDUCATION (728)










lH


DAILY LIFE













not long after 1809









JH





how to cut the

Education








JH





DB

Chapter 24

SOCIETY











DB

COMMUNITY COMPACTS


Society 145


YC



Preamble















Society 147






Society 149













Society 157


YC

SLAVERY










Society 159


lP

YU HYONGWON SLAVES





















Society 161





property




JP _ _---l























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Society 163



























China (960-1279)

Society 165





194-97]















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MP


62 63















Education

CONDUCT (ZlA-7A)























Education









Womens Manners







LANGUAGE (67B-8A)





CONDUCT (617B)


Education

EDUCATION (728)










lH


DAILY LIFE













not long after 1809









JH





how to cut the

Education








JH





DB

Chapter 24

SOCIETY











DB

COMMUNITY COMPACTS


Society 145


YC



Preamble















Society 147






Society 149













Society 157


YC

SLAVERY










Society 159


lP

YU HYONGWON SLAVES





















Society 161





property




JP _ _---l























FK




Society 163



























China (960-1279)

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194-97]















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MP












Education









Womens Manners







LANGUAGE (67B-8A)





CONDUCT (617B)


Education

EDUCATION (728)










lH


DAILY LIFE













not long after 1809









JH





how to cut the

Education








JH





DB

Chapter 24

SOCIETY











DB

COMMUNITY COMPACTS


Society 145


YC



Preamble















Society 147






Society 149













Society 157


YC

SLAVERY










Society 159


lP

YU HYONGWON SLAVES





















Society 161





property




JP _ _---l























FK




Society 163



























China (960-1279)

Society 165





194-97]















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MP





LANGUAGE (67B-8A)





CONDUCT (617B)


Education

EDUCATION (728)










lH


DAILY LIFE













not long after 1809









JH





how to cut the

Education








JH





DB

Chapter 24

SOCIETY











DB

COMMUNITY COMPACTS


Society 145


YC



Preamble















Society 147






Society 149













Society 157


YC

SLAVERY










Society 159


lP

YU HYONGWON SLAVES





















Society 161





property




JP _ _---l























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Society 163



























China (960-1279)

Society 165





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MP










not long after 1809









JH





how to cut the

Education








JH





DB

Chapter 24

SOCIETY











DB

COMMUNITY COMPACTS


Society 145


YC



Preamble















Society 147






Society 149













Society 157


YC

SLAVERY










Society 159


lP

YU HYONGWON SLAVES





















Society 161





property




JP _ _---l























FK




Society 163



























China (960-1279)

Society 165





194-97]















Society 167








MP






DB

Chapter 24

SOCIETY











DB

COMMUNITY COMPACTS


Society 145


YC



Preamble















Society 147






Society 149













Society 157


YC

SLAVERY










Society 159


lP

YU HYONGWON SLAVES





















Society 161





property




JP _ _---l























FK




Society 163



























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Society 165





194-97]















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DB

COMMUNITY COMPACTS


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YC



Preamble















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Society 149













Society 157


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Society 159


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YU HYONGWON SLAVES





















Society 161





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China (960-1279)

Society 165





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Society 167








MP


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