ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘIĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ

KHOA SƯ PHẠM TIẾNG ANH

BỘ MÔN CỬ TUYỂN

KỶ YẾU HỘI NGHỊ KHOA HỌC(NĂM HỌC 2009-2010)

HÀ NỘI- 4/2010

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MỤC LỤC Trang

GIVING FEEDBACK ON ASSESSMENT AND LEARNING

Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy 1

GLOBAL ENGLISH AND THE ROLES OF NON-NATIVE-SPEAKER

TEACHERS

Nguyễn Diệu Linh 9

GAMES AS PART OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING

Nguyễn Hồng Hạnh & Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy 12

HỌC THUYẾT VÔ THỨC CỦA SIGMUND FREUD VÀ VIỆC DẠY VÀ HỌC

NGOẠI NGỮ

Nguyễn Thị Bích Ngọc 21

AN ANALYSIS ON THE USE OF PERSUASIVE LANGUAGE IN PRESIDENT

BARRACK OBAMA’S INAUGURATION SPEECH

Nguyễn Diệu Hồng, Lương Thị Hương Thảo & Đỗ Thị Trà Mi 29

BACKCHANNEL IN THE ENGLISH MIXED-SEX CONVERSATIONS IN

THE CONTEXT OF VIETNAM: A DISCUSSION OF FREQUENCY, GENDER

TYPICAL EXPRESSION, AND LEVEL OF SUPPORT

Đinh Thị Vinh Quy, Hoàng Vân Trang & Đỗ Phương Thúy 39

PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ENGLISH AND

VIETNAMESE : A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS ON ENGLISH AND

VIETNAMESE PLOSIVE CONSONANTS

Hoàng Thị Mỵ 57

ii

GIVING FEEDBACK ON ASSESSMENT AND LEARNING

Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy (1967)

Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh

Vài nét về tác giả

Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy hiện là giảng viên khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh, trường Đại học Ngoại

Ngữ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội. Tốt nghiệp thủ khoa trường Đại học Sư phạm Ngoại ngữ (tên

cũ của ĐHNN, ĐHQGHN) với tấm bằng cử nhân loại giỏi, Thanh Thủy đã được giữ lại trường

làm giảng viên từ tháng 1 năm 1989. Với lòng say mê nghề sư phạm và sở thích nghiên cứu về

ngôn ngữ, văn hóa, các phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh cho cả người lớn và trẻ nhỏ, Thanh

Thủy đã hoàn thành khóa học thạc sĩ chuyên ngành Phương pháp Giảng dạy tiếng Anh tại

trường năm 2000 và nhận tấm bằng Thạc Sĩ Giáo Dục Học do Bộ trưởng Bộ Giáo Dục và Đào

Tạo cấp. Tác giả còn là cộng tác viên của Nhà Xuất Bản Giáo Dục, NXB Oxford, và Hội Đồng

Anh tại Việt Nam trong các dự án bồi dưỡng phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh cho giáo viên

tiểu học Việt Nam.

Email: phamthithanhthuy67@yahoo.com or msthuy.pham@gmail.com

Mobile: 098 913 1406

Tóm tắt bài viết:

Kiểm tra đánh giá (KTĐG) là một bộ phận cấu thành của mọi phương pháp dạy học, là một

thành tố không thể thiếu được trong dạy học nói chung, dạy học ngoại ngữ nói riêng. Có thể

nói dạy học và KTĐG là hai mặt của một vấn đề, tác động lẫn nhau và phụ thuộc lẫn nhau.

Một trong những yếu tố làm cho KTĐG đặc biệt quan trọng trong một qui trình đào tạo là

những thông tin phản hồi (feedback) vì chúng cho biết về mức độ đạt được mục tiêu của

người học, về quá trình dạy học của giáo viên, cách học và hiệu quả học của sinh viên; Vì thế

thông tin phản hồi giúp giảng viên điều chỉnh cách dạy và giúp sinh viên chủ động tổ chức

quá trình học của mình để đạt mục tiêu đã đề ra một cách hiệu quả nhất.

Cho đến nay đã có nhiều nghiên cứu trong và ngoài nước về vai trò quan trọng của KTĐG, về

các phương thức KTĐG, và nhiều vấn đề liên quan đến KTĐG. Ngay trong trường ta cũng đã

có rất nhiều đề tài NCKH các cấp về KTĐG và có hẳn một Hội nghị Trao đổi Công tác kiểm

tra đánh giá thường xuyên được tổ chức vào năm 2006. Tuy nhiên chưa có nhiều bài viết về

các thông tin phản hồi (feedback) nói chung và cách phản hồi (giving feedback) nói một

cách cụ thể. Vì vậy bài viết dưới đây của tác giả sẽ đề cập đến việc phản hồi cho sinh viên.

Nội dung chính của bài viết sẽ gồm những phần như sau:

Phần giới thiệu: tác giả nêu những lý do cơ bản tại sao lại cần phản hồi cho sinh viên.

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Phần nội dung chính gồm 4 ý lớn : 1) Thứ nhất, tác giả đưa ra định nghĩa về feedback; 2) Thứ

hai, tác giả đề câp đến 2 loại feedback chính là evaluative feedback (loại phản hồi chỉ nêu nhận

xét tốt/xấu, đúng/sai, hay khen/chê) và informative feedback (phản hồi có thông tin về những

lỗi của sinh viên để họ chữa lỗi nhằm vươn lên trong học tập); 3) Thứ ba, tác giả đề cập tới một

số kỹ thuật căn bản trong việc phản hồi cho người học (tecniques of giving feedback) như làm

mẫu (modeling), nhắc lại (echoing), gợi mở, khơi gợi (eliciting), gợi ý (promting/ giving a

cue), đặt câu hỏi (questioning), sửa sai (correcting), v.v. 4) Thứ tư, tác giả chia sẻ với độc giả

một số trình tự sửa lỗi cho sinh viên (giving spoken feedback) mà tác giả cho là hiệu quả.

Cuối bài viết tác giả có tóm tắt lại những điểm chính cần nhớ để đưa phản hồi một cách hiệu

quả giúp người học đạt được tiến bộ trong học tập. Đồng thời tác giả cũng đưa ra một số gợi ý

cho những nghiên cứu tiếp theo.

INTRODUCTION

In teaching and learning a subject in general, English language in particular, feedback plays an

important role because learners learn best when ...

they understand clearly what they are trying to learn in order to reach their their

desired goal. and what is expected of them. This can be done through assessment

techniques such as sharing criteria with learners, effective questioning and feedback. 

they are given feedback about the quality of their work, what and how they can do to

make improvements or to fill/close the gap between their knowledge now and their desired

goal

they are fully involved in deciding what needs to be done next, and who can give them

help if they need it.

To see the importance of feedback, the writer tries to do some research in this topic. In this

paper, the writer briefly talks about the following four main points:

• the definition of feedback on assessment and learning

• two main types of feedback

• some different feedback techniques

• some procedures for correcting an error / giving spoken feedback

1. What is feedback?

There are different ways of defining feedback, but the following definition in the writer’s

opinion, fits in the learning and teaching context.

• Feedback is part of assessment.

• It is based on evidence from assessment.

• It provides learners with information about their current level of skill or knowledge,

their behaviour, or achievements

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Example:

Teacher Observation: A student says ‘The farmer work in his field yesterday’ – The teacher

notices that the student has left ‘ed’ off the end of the verb.

Teacher Judgement: incorrect verb form

Teacher Action (feedback): Teacher queries T: ‘work?’ => The student self corrects: ‘oh

no, worked’ => the teacher confirms it is correct.

2. Two Main Types of Feedback

According to the learning and assessing purposes of feedback, it can be divided into two main

types: evaluative feedback and informative feedback.

2.1. Evaluative feedback:

The teacher makes a judgement of the value of a learner’s response, piece of work, or the

student’s behaviour.

E.g. Very Good; 8/10; D-; Well-done, etc.

Evaluative feedback may involve:

• Giving rewards

E.g. smiley faces, getting good marks, or being clapped by the class, etc.

• Giving punishments

E.g. unsmiley faces, losing marks or not getting marks, being made to do the work again

etc.

• Expressing Approval and Disapproval

Positive

Verbal: Fantastic! Well done. I am pleased with you.

Non verbal: smiling, thumbs up, etc.

Negative

Verbal: Don’t talk rubbish; your spelling is really bad.

Non verbal: frowning, thumbs down, etc.

2.2. Informative feedback:

The teacher describes for learners their achievement, or tells them what needs to be improved

or changed.

E.g. You remembered it; You noticed it.

“… There are more than one, so don’t forget to put the –s.”

Informative feedback may involve:

• Telling a student that his/her response is correct or not

• Saying why an answer is correct or not correct

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• Telling students what they have achieved/ not achieved in relation to learning

objectives

• Suggesting a way of improving

• Getting students to suggest how they can improve

(Adapted from Gipps, Callum & Hargreaves 2000, page 92)

3. Some techniques of giving feedback

When the teacher wants to give feedback to her/his students, s/he can use one or more than one

of the following techniques.

Modeling

The teacher says out the correct answer and asks the student (who has given a wrong response)

to repeat it after her/him.

Example: (Here the student mispronounces the word should, and the teacher corrects him)

S: I have a headache. I [sould] take an aspirin.

T: [should]. Read after me. [should]. I [should] take an aspirin.

S: [should]. I [should] take an aspirin.

T: That’s good.

Echoing

The teacher repeats exactly the wrong response using her intonation as a signal to show the

student that there is something wrong in his/ her answer, and then he will try to self -correct.

See Example a-1 in the table below.

Eliciting

The teacher agrees with the correct part of the student’s answer, but tries to signal the

wrong part in an indirect way. See Example b-2 in the table below.

Encouraging

The teacher tries to say or signal that the student is very near the point or can almost give

the right answer. See Example c-3 in the table below.

Prompting / giving a cue

The teacher tries to give the student clues in many ways so that the student can see their

mistakes and correct them. See Example d-4 in the table below.

Praising

The teacher gives a rewarding comment in response to the student’s correct answer. See

Example e-5 in the table below.

Questioning

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Like prompting, the teacher gives the student a clue by asking him/her again, so that the

student pays more attention to his/her answer and recognizes the mistake/s. See the Example

g-6 in the table below.

Correcting

The teacher sees the student’s mistake, and corrects it in a direct way. See Example h-7 in the

table below.

etc.

Here are some examples of these techniques:

Techniques Examples

a. Echoing

T- What did you do yesterday?

S- I goed to the cinema.

T- goed?

S- Oh, I went to the cinema.

b. Eliciting

T- What did you do yesterday?

S- I goed to the cinema.

T- “… to the cinema”.

Good, but it should be “I….”

c. Encouraging

T- What did you do yesterday?

S- I goed to the cinema.

T- You nearly got that. Say it again.

d. Prompting

T- What did you do yesterday?

S- I goed to the cinema.

T- You goed or you went?

S- Oh, I went to the cinema.

e. Praising

T- What did you do yesterday?

S- I went to the cinema.

T- Very good.

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g. Questioning

T- What did you do yesterday?

S- I goed to the cinema.

T- Did you say “I goed”?

h. Correcting T- What did you do yesterday?

S- I goed to the cinema.

T- You went.

S- Oh, yes. I went to the cinema.

4. Possible Procedures for Correcting an Error or giving spoken feedback

Teachers should be very flexible in using various feedback techniques or combining them,

depending on different contexts. However, they should always remember to give feedback to

students’ learning, especially when learners make mistakes or give wrong responses. The

writer would like to share some possible procedures for correcting an error made by a student.

One important thing teachers should also remember is that they should always ask the student

to repeat the correct answer and praise for his/her effort, because this can motivate the

student’s learning.

The table below shows you three different procedures. They are of equal importance, but to

apply which procedure depends on the teacher and their own context of learning.

Possible Procedures for Correcting an Error

Incorrect Response

Encourage self correction

Ask another student to answer

Get 1st student to repeat

Model the correct answer

Incorrect response / No response

Student calls a friend for help

Give clues or help

Praise for effort

Student repeats

Examples:

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Example 1: Two students are practicing the structure “You should…” for giving advice. The

teacher is listening to them and correcting S2’s mistake by modeling.

S1 I have a headache

S2 You [sould] rest now.

T Should. Now repeat after me. Should, you should…..

S2 should, you should

T That’s good. Now say the whole sentence again, please. You should rest now.

S2 You should rest now.

T (to S2) Excellent. What about you? How are you feeling now?

Example 2: Two students are practicing the structure “You should…” for giving advice. The

teacher is listening to them and encouraging students to peer-correct their mistakes.

S2 I’m feeling very hot. I think I have a fever.

T (turns to student 1) So what’s your advice to him?

S1 You should taking an aspirin now.

T taking? Should … taking?

S1 Yes, should taking an aspirin now.

T No, it’s not correct. (turns to student 2) Can you help her?

S2 should take

S1 Oh, I see.

T Can you say the sentence again?

S1 You should take an aspirin now.

T You remembered it. Well-done!

CONCLUSION

1. Key points to remember about feedback

Feedback is vital for learning and it is part of assessment for learning. Here are some key

points to remember about feedback:

• Feedback should be timely-given and specific.

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E.g. “I liked your presentation because you made your points so clear!”

• Informative feedback helps learners to improve and learn. It involves them in their own

learning, encourages them to self correct. Teachers give informative feedback to help and

support students to close the gap and move forwards.

• Positive evaluative feedback (praise and rewards) can motivate learners but teachers

should not overuse them but they have to link praise or rewards to evidence of why the

response is good.

• Negative feedback should be made balanced (sandwich feedback).

E.g. (Student: I goed to my friend’s house) T: That’s nice, but you went to your friend’s

house.

2. Recommendation for further research

Giving feedback to students about their learning, their performance, their achievements, etc. is

a must for teachers if they want their learners to improve their learning. Although spoken

feedback is usually more effective than written feedback, it seems impossible for teachers to

given spoken feedback to every student at all time. That is why they should learn how to give

written feedback as well. Due to the time constraints, this writing does not look at written

feedback, but the writer hopes to deal with it in other studies.

REFERENCES

Authors:

Gipps, C.; Callum, B. & Hargreaves E. 2000. What Makes a Good Primary School Teacher?

London; Routledge

Ionanou_Georgiou, S & Pavlou, P. 2003 Assessing young learners. Oxford University Press.

Moon, J. 2000 Children learning English. Macmillan

Other materials and slides from British Council Primary Innovations Training Workshops in

Hanoi, December 14-18.

Websites:

http://www.qca.org.uk/qca_4334.aspx (U.K.) Assessment for learning guidance

http://www.itscotland.org.uk/assess/for/keyfeatures/feedback.asp (Scotland)

http://formativeassessment.wordpress.com/

http://www.nicurriculum.org.uk

8

GLOBAL ENGLISH AND THE ROLES OF

NON-NATIVE-SPEAKER TEACHERS

Nguyễn Diệu Linh

Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh

Vài nét về tác giả

Tốt nghiệp Khoa Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa Anh Mĩ, Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội

năm 2006, Nguyễn Diệu Linh hiện đang công tác tại bộ môn Cử tuyển của khoa Sư phạm tiếng

Anh. Tác giả cũng đang theo học chương trình Thạc sỹ về Ngôn ngữ ứng dụng của Đại học

Dalarna, Thụy Điển. Lĩnh vực nghiên cứu mà tác giả quan tâm là Phương pháp giảng dạy ngôn

ngữ. Email: mislinh@gmail.com.

Abstract

In the context of globalization there are brand new varieties of English namely Global English.

It has greater and greater influences on Teaching English as a Foreign English – the ownership

of English, learners’ targets and the focus of foreign language learning process. These effects

modify the roles the non-native-speaker teachers in adjusting materials, providing models and

settling conflicts.

Global English

For the past few decades English has gained its popularity as the lingua franca for economic

and scientific exchange (Warschauer 2000). According to Power (2007) the number of non-

native users of English has tripled that of native ones. In the context of globalization, these

non-native speakers use English to communicate with not only the traditional custodians of this

language – the British or Americans – but people from other non-English speaking cultures as

well. During that communication process, the language is not only passively absorbed but also

actively shaped by the new users. As a result, it turns into an international language namely

Global English.

Influences of Global English on Language Teaching

First of all, the birth of Global English has signaled the transformation in ownership of

English. The language which used to be the property of a few powerful countries (i.e. the

United Kingdom, the United States of America) now belongs to all those who master it

regardless their mother tongues. In other words, these new English users also own ‘rights to be

heard in matters affecting the language’ (Llurda 2004).

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Moreover, Global English means less emphasis is put on ‘the native speaker as the model in

language teaching’ (Llurda 2004) as the targeted audience is now expanding beyond this

limited community. For examples, Vietnamese learners can use English to communicate with

people from cultures where English is also a foreign language. Thus, there is a shift in the

target of the non-native learners – from authencity (trying to be perfectly native-like) to

ownership (attempting to make themselves understood when using the foreign language)

(Warschauer 2000).

In addition, time and attention in language teaching class is proposed to be devoted to learners’

explorations of their own culture as much as to those of the English-speaking ones (McKay

2000, 2003). In future, they will act as the bridges between two cultures and these in-class

activities will give them opportunities to ‘share their own culture with other speakers of

English’ (Llurda 2004).

According to Alptekin (2002) there is also a change in the production of instructional materials

in terms of communicative competence. Learners will no longer study the ‘pragmatic and

discourse particularities of the native-speaker community’ only (for example, polite structures

in the American English or informality in the British variety). The focus of their learning will

be effective communication in international settings (Warschauer 2000).

Roles of Non-native-speaker Teachers in Language Teaching

In the context of globalization arise the concern over learners’ original identity as Warschauer

(2000) puts it ‘we are not living in a global village, but in customized cottages globally

produced and locally distributed’. Teachers of Global English will play an active role in

adjusting the available learning materials provided by native speakers according to their local

learners’ cultural and educational backgrounds as well as to meet the communication needs

that the learners are expected to perform later. They have an advantage over the native

counterparts as they are bilingual and are able to switch between their mother tongues and the

target language, which ‘enhances their understanding of the demands of the learning situation’

(Llurda 2004).

Furthermore, non-native-speakers used to be learners of English themselves. They provide

better models than the natives in guiding learners’ foreign language acquisition process

through the sharing of learning tips from their own mistakes and experiences.

Teaching a foreign language – in this case Global English- does not necessarily mean

assimilate the learners with the native culture. Therefore, the foreign language teacher does not

have to ‘be the ambassador of the English culture in the classroom’ or ‘teach the language and

10

introduce the social convention, ideologies, and cultural expectations of the English-speaking

community’ (Llurda 2004). In fact, the learners are embracing a new culture along with

acquiring the foreign language. Therefore, whenever there are conflicts, the non-native-

speakers will be much more ‘negotiators’ than ‘ambassadors’. The teachers are expected to be

in charge of providing their students with the use of Global English in multifaceted reality and

assist them ‘to express their own identity through this newly acquired voice.’ (Llurda 2004)

In conclusion, non-native-speaker teachers play an important role in assisting their learners

during their acquisition of Global English as well as enhance the learners’ skills to

communicate effectively with other non-native partners.

References

Alptekin, C. (2002) Towards intercultural communicative competence in ELT. ELT Journal

56.1:57-64

Llurda, E. (2004) Non-native-speaker teachers and English as an International Language.

International Journal of Applied Linguistics. Vol. 14. No. 3

McKay, S. (2000) Teaching English as an international language: implications for cultural

materials in the classroom. TESOL Journal 9.4:7-11

Power, C. (2007) Not the Queen’s English. Newsweek: International Editions

Warschauer, M. (2000) The changing global economy and the future of English teaching.

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL)

.

11

GAMES AS PART OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

LEARNING AND TEACHING

Nguyễn Hồng Hạnh

Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy (1967)

Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh

Vài nét về nhóm tác giả

Nguyễn Hồng Hạnh tốt nghiệp Khoa Anh, hệ Sư phạm, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học

Quốc Gia, Hà Nội năm 2005; hiện đang giảng dạy thực hành tiếng và Hoa Kỳ học tại Khoa Sư

phạm tiếng Anh, Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Quốc Gia, Hà Nội. Trong lĩnh vực nghiên cứu,

Nguyễn Hồng Hạnh đặc biệt quan tâm đến ngành Hoa Kỳ học và ngành Ngôn Ngữ học.

Email: honghanh315@gmail.com

Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy hiện là giảng viên khoa Sư phạm Tiếng Anh, trường Đại Học Ngoại

Ngữ, Đại Học Quốc Gia Hà Nội. Tốt nghiệp thủ khoa trường Đại Học Sư Phạm Ngoại Ngữ

(tên cũ của ĐHNN, ĐHQGHN) với tấm bằng cử nhân loại giỏi, Thanh Thủy đã được giữ lại

trường làm giảng viên từ tháng 1 năm 1989. Với lòng say mê nghề sư phạm và sở thích nghiên

cứu về ngôn ngữ, văn hóa, các phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh cho cả người lớn và trẻ nhỏ,

Thanh Thủy đã hoàn thành khóa học thạc sĩ chuyên ngành Phương Pháp Giảng Dạy tiếng Anh

tại trường năm 2000 và nhận tấm bằng Thạc Sĩ Giáo Dục Học do Bộ trưởng Bộ Giáo Dục và

Đào Tạo cấp. Tác giả còn là cộng tác viên của Nhà Xuất Bản Giáo Dục, NXB Oxford, và Hội

Đồng Anh tại Việt Nam trong các dự án bồi dưỡng phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh cho giáo

viên tiểu học Việt Nam.

Email: phamthithanhthuy67@yahoo.com or msthuy.pham@gmail.com

Mobile: 098 913 1406

Introduction

To an English Language teacher, one of the most difficult challenges is to create an

environment where positive attitudes toward the language flourish. There are many different

tools used by class instructors in the effort of motivating students, such as the use of visual-

aids, competitions and awards, etc. Among all these tools, it is worth mentioning that games

for language learning have become one of the most commonly-used and helpful instruments of

creating an effective language-learning environment which makes students want to come back

for more. In other words, games as warm-up activities play an important role in creating the

atmosphere for the whole lesson to function properly and effectively (Hadfield, 1992). In the

scope of this paper, the writers will focus on the important roles of games in a language class

as a tool of inspiring positive attitudes and motivation toward language study. Besides, an

12

attempt has been made to introduce some practical procedures and useful techniques for

teachers to organize games in their language lessons.

1. Role of positive attitudes and motivation in language learning

Research over the last three decades has consistently underlined the important role of

motivation in successful language learning. According to Krashen (1985), attitudes can act as

barriers or bridges to new language learning and are the "essential environmental ingredient"

for this process. He has also proposed that learning can only happen if certain affective

conditions such as positive attitudes, self-confidence, low anxiety exist and that when these

conditions are presented, input can pass through the "affective filter" and be used by the

learner. It has also been noted that learners who feel that self-identity is being threatened in

any way in the learning environment, can experience language anxiety (Horwitz, Horwitz, &

Cope, 1986). Other studies suggested that attitudes and motivation are positively related to the

tendency to the pursuit of language study. Bartley (1969) demonstrated that those with less

positive attitudes toward the second language dropped out of further language study the

following year while those who continued language study had more favorable attitudes. In

conclusion, there is an obvious link between language learning and positive attitudes and

motivation. It is, therefore, important for teachers to create an effective language-learning

environment, in which, anxiety levels are low and comfort level are high; students are

motivated to participate and to take risk in using their second language in the classroom.

2. Definition of games in a language class

Games as part of language learning have long been of interest of many linguistics and

philosophers. According to Wittgenstein (2001), language game is forms of language simpler

than the entirety of a language itself. It consists of language and the actions into which the

language is woven and connected by family resemblance. Specifically, a game in a language

class is the same as a game at the playground in a sense that it is entertaining and engaging.

However, it also needs to be a challenging activity in which the learners play and interact with

each other in the language that they are learning (Wright, Betteridge, & Buckby, 2006). It is

clear that these concepts define games in language learning as activities that involve both

playing and learning the language at the same time.

3. Roles of games in a language class

There is a common perception that all learning should be serious and solemn in nature and that

if one is having fun and there is hilarity and laughter, then it is not really learning. This is, in

fact, a misconception. It is possible to learn a language as well as enjoy oneself at the same

time, and one of the best ways of doing this is through games. Although the time period for an

activity is often very short (just up to ¼ of the class time), it plays an important role in creating

the atmosphere for the whole lesson to function properly and effectively (Hadfield, 1992).

This is particularly true when language learning is a hard work and there will inevitably be

13

times when students lack energy or fell unready for the lesson, and that is when they need to

be warmed up (Hadfield, 1992). Specifically, a game can function as an introduction to the

theme, which leads the students into the lesson naturally and skillfully. Apart from providing

teachers with oral fluency practice, it also helps them to add humor into the class atmosphere

as a stimulus which encourages many students to sustain their interest in language learning.

Moreover, games can also motivate the students, involve them into the lesson and prepare

them for the coming activities so that they can finish the next activities successfully.

Besides the role of motivating learners, games promote active use of the target language and

plenty of meaningful repetition. Repetition is a natural part of language learning as a complex

process. Therefore, if we can use games to incorporate content, language, rhetorical structures,

and processes that have already been addressed in earlier classes, learners will become more

familiar with the content and more comfortable as they tackle new and more challenging one.

This approach also gives learners as sense of accomplishment and success (Williams, 2005).

Below is an example of games that help learners to learn new structures by repeating them.

Game: GETTING TO KNOW EACH OTHER

Level: Post-elementary and above

Language: Introducing oneself and others using “I am ….” and “I like…..”, learning friends’

names

Preparation: Set a friendly classroom atmosphere by putting on some music, if you wish.

Procedure:

1. Sit the learners in the circles of about eight.

2. Give the class a moment or two to choose something which is important to them and

can be referred to in one or two words. You can begin as a model. Introduce yourself by

saying, for example, I am Martine and I like playing football.

3. The next learner in the circle repeats what the first learner said and adds his or her own

information.

Learner one: You’re Martine and you like football. I’m Rubino and I like watching

movies.

4. The third learner repeats what the first two learners said and then adds his or her own

information. And so it continues round the circle.

5. To make it more challenging (i.e. for intermediate-level students), the person who has

just spoken should choose the next speaker by pointing at them. This may not be their

neighbor but someone sitting in the other side of the circle. In this way, it is a little more

difficult to remember the information.

14

(Adapted from “Games for Language Learning”)

Games provide hidden language practice in which the focus is on the task, not on the language.

In other words, language use is authentic and the game is the real world. Therefore, in this real

world all aspects of language can be practiced, from pronunciation to the development of the

four basic skills. Many teachers tend to think games should be used mainly to practice

speaking skill, but actually they are a very effective tool to drill other language skills. The

following game is an example of how games can be used in a listening lesson or a

pronunciation one as well.

Game: BINGO

Level: Elementary and above

Language: Listening for chosen words or phrases within a given topic, and reacting as they

are heard

Preparation: Decide on a group of words that you wish to practice, totaling not more than

about 25, and write them on the board. You may choose to practice numbers, for instance:

either sequences (e.g. 1-25) or a selection of numbers which present listening problems (e.g.

13 and 30, 19 and 90). Or, instead of numbers, you may wish to use minimal pairs (e.g.

pin/pen, box/books, etc.). Alternatively, brainstorm with learners on to the board a number of

words related to an area of vocabulary you would like to revise.

Procedure:

1. Show the learners how to make a Bingo grid – a rectangle about 10 cm x 15 cm

divided

into four parts (or more for older and/or more proficient learners, picture below)

2. Tell the learners to write down any four of the items (words or numbers) from the

board

on to their Bingo grid.

3. Read out the words on the board in any order, making a note of them as you do so. If

the learners hear a word that they have written on their Bingo grid they should cross it

out. The first learners to cross out all four items on their list calls out ‘Bingo’, and reads

out the list to prove the claim. This person is the winner.

Teacher’s note:1. You can ask learners to add other types of information such as family,

home area, job, favorite things to do when not working, favorite food, reason

for learning English, and something really nice which has happened recently.

2. Learning names is a necessary condition to establishing familiarity and

trust and confidence in the other classmates.

3. In order to establish a true communicative classroom atmosphere you must

include yourself in all of these activities.

15

MOUSE SHIP SHEEP

HAT HAD BEAN

NINE NICE BAT

4.

(Adapted from “Games for Language Learning”)

Moreover, games as part of a language lesson create opportunities for learners to work as

individual, in pair or in group, which brings about many advantages for their learning process.

As games in a language class are often played in pair or in group, the paper only focuses on

the benefits of these two arrangements. Long (1983) has argues that when second language

learners focus on meaningful tasks the learners receive

a comprehensive input from his or her partner

a chance to ask for clarification as well as feedback on his or her input

adjustment of the input to match the level of the leaner’s comprehension

the opportunity to develop new structures through this process of interaction

In addition to the benefits of pair work activities, group work has a number of advantages

in changing the interactional dynamics of games in language class. According to Richards

(2005), successful group work

reduces the dominance of teacher over the class

increases the amount of student participation

increases the opportunities for individual students to practice and use new features

of target language

Teacher’s note:1. To make the game more challenging you might want to put each item in to

a sentence so that the learners must listen carefully for the words. For example,

Brenda’s hat is a new and cute one.

2. If you wish you could continue until you have read out all the words to

enable all the learners to complete their grid and to be able to shout out Bingo!

3. More examples of items you can use in bingo

Phonetics: For example, you read out mouth; they cross out mouth but not

mouse

Opposites: For example, you read out big and they cross out small.

16

promotes collaboration among learners

enables the teacher to work more as a facilitator and consultant

gives learners a more active role in learning

Most importantly, a positive group work atmosphere can have positive effect “on the morale

motivation, and self-image of its members, and thus significantly affect their learning, by

developing in them positive attitude to the language being learned, to the learning process, and

to themselves as learners” (Hadfield, 1992: 10).

According to Hinkel (1999:2), “applied linguistics and language teachers have become

increasing aware of the a second or foreign language can rarely be learned or taught without

addressing the culture of the community in which it is used.” Games in language teaching and

learning, in fact, can function as a gateway to cultural and intercultural understanding. For

example, playing traditional games from cultures linked with the target language can help

students experience those cultures without having to be there. Following is a game that is

designed to teacher learners about American holidays by using greeting cards.

Game: NAME SIX

Level: Elementary and above

Language: Names of American holidays

Preparation: Varieties of greeting cards and a soft object (such as a small pillow, stuffed

animal, etc.).

Procedure:

1. Introduce varieties of greeting cards and their functions to students.

2. Arrange six chairs in a circle and choose one learner to stand outside the circle. Give

someone in the circle the prepared soft object

3. The learner outside the circle may say "Name six kinds of greeting cards." The first person

sitting in the circle begins naming six kinds of greeting cards and, at the same time, passes the

soft object to the next person. The object is for the player to name 6 cards before the soft

object comes back to him/her. Otherwise, the person has lost and it's his/her turn to stand

outside the group.

(Adapted from http://iteslj.org)

Moreover, games help to raise language awareness among learners by reinforcing new sounds,

words or structures introduced in another part of the class.

Last but not least, games promote the development of many other skills such as concentration

and memory. They increase confidence, social cohesion in the class and a different

relationship between learners and teacher as well as among learners themselves.

4. A common procedure to conduct games in a language class

There are several different ways for teachers to carry out games in their class. This depends on

the nature of the game they want their students to play, whether it is a class, individual, pair or

group work. For pair work, teaches will have little difficulty in organizing and keeping the

17

game under control. For group work, however, it will take more time and efforts to help

learners to become familiar with working with other people as a team. Once the teacher has

succeeded in doing this, a game can be normally introduced in the following steps:

1. The teacher explains the game to the whole class

2. The teacher and one or two learners demonstrate parts of the game or a group of

learners can do the trail in front of the class

3. The teacher writes any key language or/and instructions on the board if necessary

4. The teacher removes key languages, etc from the board

5. The game continues

This procedure can be adjusted accordingly to the students’ level and the content of the

activity.

(Adapted from “Games for Language Learning”)

5. Some suggested techniques for teachers to successfully conduct games in their

language class

5.1 Considering games as central to language learning and teaching

Because of its essential role in providing intense and meaningful practice of language, it is

recommended that language teachers take games seriously in their lesson plan rather than

considering it a way of passing the time (Wright, Betteridge, & Buckby, 2006). Instructions

and expectations of the teachers should be clear. Learners will appreciate the clarity in how the

game should be played and what language focus should be used. This will help the learners

play the games as the best as they can.

5.2 Being creative and innovative

When a language teacher takes games seriously, he or she will feel the need of being creative

and innovative in preparing games for the students just as much as they are in other parts of

the lesson. It is the facts that some teachers may prefer certain games and even do not imagine

themselves using other ones at all. Once the teacher is not comfortable with the game, then the

learners will not be likely to feel easy. However, according to Hadfield (1992), if a teacher is

open to experimenting new things, he or she may later enjoy some pleasant surprise. In other

words, the teacher should dare to deviate occasionally from the humdrum routine and do

something refreshing and different in the class. Designing and conducting a game can be a

serious job but they do not require too much effort. It is rewarding to both learners and teacher

in many ways such as the joy on the students' faces, the mirth, the hilarity, and the enthusiasm,

which are indispensable in a successful learning process.

5.3 Keeping the learners exposed to the target language

As mentioned before, games in a language class are not only necessarily fun but also

challenging the learners’ language competence. This means when a learner wants to be part in

18

the game they have to interact by talking, listening, understanding, and expressing themselves

to the others. By doing this, the learners are actually “experiencing language rather than

merely studying it,” (Wright, Betteridge, & Buckby, 2006).

5.4 Repeating target language items

As a part of the learners’ language learning process, a target language item should be exposed

to them repeatedly and naturally. Besides drill exercises, games are an effective tool in

providing teachers and learners an enjoyable context in which a particular language form is

frequently used. Moreover, according to Spaventa (1980), emotions are normally expressed in

games, and thus the meaning of the language is more vividly experienced. Therefore, it is

necessary for teachers to design and conduct games that have a solid language focus.

5.5 Giving every single learner opportunity to use the language

It is very important that teachers ensure each and every leaner has their opportunity for oral

practice of the target language. Specifically, no learners should be given a dominant role in the

game even if that one is a team leader. Only by doing this can a language teacher get all of the

students involve in the learning process, which actually “goes beyond what is possible in class

work” (Wright, Betteridge, & Buckby, 2006).

5.6 Avoiding correcting learners’ mistakes

It is totally possible for students to make mistakes when they take parts in games. Those

mistakes can be those of grammar, pronunciation or idiom. However, most language experts

believe that errors are a natural and inevitable part of the language learning process. Errors are

not bad; they are a sign of language development (Corder, 1967,1982) Therefore, As long as

the learners understand what they are expected to do and the language is not beyond their

competence, mistakes are acceptable.

6. Conclusion

It is worth noticing that games are an essential part in language learning and teaching. This

fact has been clearly proven by many linguistics and language teachers. From the writers’

teaching experience, games have become an effective tool in making language lessons

motivating and enjoyable. Within the limit of this study, some suggestions to approach and use

games in a language class are introduced so that both students and teachers can make the best

of the time and effort they spend on these activities. For teachers who have a tight working

schedule, a pool of interesting language games can be found in the two books “Games for

Language Learning” and “Classroom Dynamics”.

REFERENCES

Andrew, W, David, B. & Michael, B. (2006). Games for language learning. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

19

Allan G. R. (1991) & Wallace, E. L. Bilingualism, multiculturalism, and second language

learning, 3. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Bartley, D. E. (1969). A pilot study of aptitude and attitude factors in language

dropout. California Journal of Educational Research, 20, 48-55.

Corder, S.P. (1967). The significance of learner's errors. International Review of Applied

Linguistics, 5(4), 162-170

Eli, H. (1999). Culture in second language teaching and learning, 2. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B. & Cope, J. A. (1986). Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety.

Modern Language Journal. 70. 125-132.

Jack, C. R. & Charles, L. (1996). Reflective teaching in second language classrooms.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jill, H. (1992). Classroom dynamics, 10. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Krashen, S. (1985). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Keith, S. F. (2007). The art of teaching speaking, 32. Michigan: The University of Michigan

Press.

Lucy, T. (1997). Affecting Affect: The Impact of Ethnic Language Programs on Students’

Attitudes. Canadian Modern Language Review.

Marilyn, L. S. (1980). Towards the Creative Teaching of English. London: Allen and Unwin

Williams, R. L. (2005). Targeting critical thinking with teacher education: The potential

impact on society. The Teacher Educator, 40(3), 163-187.

1. www.storyarts.org

2. http://www.momscape.com/articles/storytelling-techniques.htm

20

HỌC THUYẾT VÔ THỨC CỦA SIGMUND FREUD

VÀ VIỆC DẠY VÀ HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ

Nguyễn Thị Bích Ngọc, B.A.

Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh

Vài nét về tác giả:

Nguyễn Thị Bích Ngọc là cán bộ giảng dạy tại Bộ môn Cử tuyển, Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh,

ĐHNN-ĐHQGHN từ năm 2008. Hiện nay, Nguyễn Thị Bích Ngọc đang theo học chương

trình Thạc sỹ tại khoa Sau đại học, trường ĐHNN-ĐHQGHN. Sở thích nghiên cứu của

Nguyễn Thị Bích Ngọc bao gồm các vấn đề về dịch thuật.

Tóm tắt nội dung:

Học thuyết vô thức của Freud có vai trò rất lớn trong nhiều lĩnh vực khoa học và xã hội. Theo

tác giả bài viết, vô thức cũng có vai trò rất lớn trong việc đắc thụ ngôn ngữ nói chung và ngoại

ngữ nói riêng. Trong bài viết này, dựa trên học thuyết về vô thức của Freud, tác giả đưa ra ý

kiến của mình về vai trò của vô thức trong việc học ngoại ngữ, sự khác nhau giữa việc ‘học’

ngoại ngữ một cách chủ động và việc ‘đắc thụ’ ngôn ngữ một cách vô thức, và khẳng định

rằng vai trò của vô thức là vô cùng lớn trong việc học ngoại ngữ. Trên cơ sở đó, tác giả đưa ra

những kiến nghị đối với việc dạy và học ngoại ngữ để có thể phát huy tối đa phần ‘vô thức’

trong tư duy để việc học đạt kết quả cao nhất.

1. Giới thiệu về triết gia Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud (tên đầy đủ là Sigmund Schlomo Freud) sinh

ngày 6 tháng 5 năm 1856, mất năm 1936, là một bác sĩ thần

kinh và tâm lý người Áo. Ông sinh ra trong một gia đình Do

Thái, cha ông là một nhà buôn, mẹ ông là vợ thứ ba của cha

ông và kém cha ông tới 20 tuổi. Tuổi thơ của ông có một sự

kiện đặc biệt là cái chết của người em trai ngay sau ông khi

chỉ mới 7 tháng tuổi, người mà ông luôn ghen tị khi thấy em

mình dành được nhiều sự quan tâm của bố mẹ hơn. Cái chết

của em trai làm ông có cảm giác tội lỗi sâu sắc. Chính những

ký ức này là chủ đề cho nhiều bài viết sau này của ông.

Từ bé ông đã tỏ ra là một cậu bé thông minh, luôn đứng đầu trong lớp học. Lớn lên ông học

đại học y khoa. Ở đây, ông đã tham gia nhiều nghiên cứu dưới sự hướng dẫn của giáo sư

ngành sinh lý học Ernst Bruckle. Brucle là người tin vào “giản hoá luận” (reductionism), một

phương pháp rất nổi tiếng thời bấy giờ. Chính vì vậy Freud đã mất nhiều năm cố gắng “qui

giản” “nhân cách” về thần kinh học, về sau ông phải từ bỏ đường hướng này.

21

Các nghiên cứu của ông tập trung vào thần kinh học. Buckle đã giúp ông đoạt được học bổng

nghiên cứu, đầu tiên là với nhà tâm thần học Charcot ở Paris, sau đó với đối thủ của Charcot là

Bernheim ở Nancy. Cả hai nhà tâm thần học này đều nghiên cứu về việc sử dụng thuật thôi

miên để chữa bệnh tâm thần.

Sau một thời gian là bác sĩ nội trú ở khoa thần kinh, và giám đốc một bệnh viện nhi ở Berlin,

ông trở lại Viên, kết hôn với vị hôn thê trong nhiều năm của mình Martha Bernays, và mở

phòng khám tư.

Những cuốn sách và bài giảng của ông đã mang lại cho ông cả danh tiếng và sự tẩy chay trong

cộng đồng y khoa. Ông đã tập hợp được một số môn đồ. Nhưng thật không may, Freud có

thiên hướng loại bỏ những người không hoàn toàn đồng ý với ông, vì vậy một số môn đồ của

ông sau này đã tách ra và đi theo những trường phái riêng.

Ngay trước thế chiến thứ 2, Freud di cư sang Anh vì lúc bấy giờ Viên trở thành một nơi nguy

hiểm cho những người Do Thái, đặc biệt là những người nổi tiếng như Freud. Không lâu sau,

ông chết vì bệnh ung thu vòm họng, căn bệnh ông đã phải chịu đựng suốt 20 năm.

2. Điều kiện lịch sử, xã hội

Thế chiến thứ nhất và thứ hai đã tàn phá phương Tây về mọi mặt. Tuy nhiên, những tổn thất

này nhanh chóng được khắc phục bởi giai cấp tư sản. Việc áp dụng những thành tựu khoa học

kỹ thuật mới, đổi mới phương pháp quản lí, thay đổi cơ cấu sản xuất, điều chỉnh quan hệ sở

hữu và chính sách xã hội đã mang lại cho chủ nghĩa tư bản một khối lượng hàng hoá đồ sộ, sản

phẩm ngày càng dồi dào, đáp ứng ngày càng cao nhu cầu của xã hội tư bản. Tuy nhiên những

thay đổi này vẫn không làm thay đổi bản chất bóc lột, bất công trong xã hội tư bản. Không

những thế, xung đột giữa tư sản và người lao động ngày càng gay gắt. Sự bóc lột ngày càng

tinh vi và xu hướng phân hoá giàu nghèo ngày càng sâu sắc. Thực trạng xã hội đó là căn

nguyên cho những tư tưởng mới phản ánh sự bế tắc trong xã hội phương Tây hiện đại.

Hệ quả của những thay đổi về mặt kinh tế-xã hội như ở trên là những nghịch lý trong tư tưởng

và văn hoá. Trong xã hội hiện đại, tiến bộ của khoa học kỹ thuật đã mang lại sức sống mới góp

phần làm biến đổi đời sống vật chất con người và xã hội. Tuy nhiên, nó lại không giải quyết

được đời sống tinh thần của con người. Thực tế cho thấy, sự phát triển của chủ nghĩa tư bản và

mặt trái của nó đã làm con người mất hết niềm tin, lí tưởng.

Trong bối cảnh kinh tế- xã hội, và văn hoá như vậy, triết học phương Tây hiện đại ra đời với

mong muốn đưa con người ra khỏi thảm cảnh đó và mở hướng cho một xã hội tương lai, xã

hội hậu công nghiệp. Điều này được thể hiện qua ba khuynh hướng triết học. Thứ nhất, triết

học duy lí tập trung trong triết học khoa học tự nhiên với mục đích đề cao , tăng cường lí trí

của con người; Thứ hai, triết học nhân bản – duy con người, quay trở lại với con người nhằm

khai thác chủ thể tính người của con người; Thứ ba, triết học tôn giáo, chủ yếu nhằm đề cao

niềm tin của con người vào Thượng đế, dung hợp tôn giáo với nhu cầu thế tục. Cả ba khuynh

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hướng triết học này đều phản ánh kịp thời xã hội tư bản phương Tây hiện đại. (Theo Trần

Đặng Sinh và các tác giả).

Nhìn chung, các khuynh hướng trên là biểu hiện sự đối lập giữa chủ nghĩa duy lí và phi duy lí

về mặt bản thể luận. Chúng là hai mặt đối lập nhau của một hệ ý thức thống nhất xét về mặt tư

tưởng xã hội. Chủ nghĩa duy lí là một trong những động lực tạo nên nền văn minh hiện đại.

Chủ nghĩa phi duy lí đề cao nhân vị con người, kéo con người trở về với chính nó. Còn triết

học tôn giáo lại đưa con người về với Thượng đế. Các trào lưu trên không tách rời tuyệt đối

mà bổ sung cho nhau, tạo nên bộ mặt phong phú của triết học, đáp ứng sự tồn tại, phát triển

của con người trong xã hội phương Tây hiện đại. (Trần Đăng Sinh và các tác giả, Sđd)

3. Nội dung tư tưởng

Freud không phải là người đầu tiên phát hiện ra vô thức (trong cuốn sách “Các nguyên tắc của

Tâm lý học” của William James đã nghiên cứu cách các nhà tâm lý học Schopenhauer, von

Hartmann, Janet, Binet và những người khác sử dụng thuật ngữ “vô thức” hay “tiềm thức” từ

trước). Tuy nhiên Freud là người làm sáng tỏ vai trò của vô thức trong đời sống xã hội. Theo

ông, khi loài người bước vào xã hội văn minh, con người cần kiềm chế những dục vọng mang

tính nguyên thuỷ nhưng vẫn rất mạnh mẽ của mình. Trong tác phẩm “Văn minh và những bất

mãn” (có nơi dịch: Bất mãn với văn hoá), ông cho rằng xã hội văn minh là một hình thức thay

thế cho những bản năng và dục vọng của con người. “Văn minh mới đựơc tạo ra liên tục, và

mỗi cá thể sinh ra lại tiếp tục hi sinh sự thoả mãn bản năng của mình vì lợi ích của cả cộng

đồng”. Những dục vọng nguyên thuỷ này sẽ bị dồn nén; tuy nhiên, chúng rất mạnh mẽ và có

thể quay trở lại bất cứ lúc nào, và do vậy tạo nên những hành vi vô thức của con người hàng

ngày. Điều này giải thích cho việc nói nhịu, viết sai, quên lãng, đưa nhầm, lấy nhầm, v.v. Ông

cho rằng những hành vi vô thức này là manh mối để “điều tra” quá trình hoạt động bí mật của

vô thức.

Để làm sáng tỏ điều này, Freud đã đề xuất mô hình chiều sâu của tâm lí con người bao gồm ba

bậc: ý thức, tiền thức (có chỗ dịch là tiềm thức) và vô thức, được sơ đồ hoá như sau:

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Ghi chú: -pcpt-cs (perception-

consciousness) : nhận thức-ý thức

- pre-conscious : tiền thức

- unconscious : vô thức

- repressed : bị kìm nén

- ID : cái ấy

- EGO : cái tôi

- SUPER-EGO : cái siêu tôi

Ý thức là tâm lý nhận biết của con người, là những gì mà con người nhận thức được ở một

thời điểm cụ thể. Ý thức là sự nhận thức thế giới bên ngoài, có liên quan trực tiếp đến kinh

nghiệm và bị điều kiện xã hội quy định. Hoạt động của ý thức luôn tuân theo những quy luật,

nguyên tắc nhất định, nguyên tắc thực tại. Ý thức bao giờ cũng mang tính xã hội, xong nó chỉ

là một phần nhỏ và tạm thời trong đời sống tinh thần của cá nhân.

Ngược lại, vô thức là hiện tượng tâm lý nằm ngoài phạm vi lý trí do bản năng, thói quen và

dục vọng của con người gây ra. Hoạt động tâm lý này là do tình cảm và dục vọng chi phối. Nó

bao gồm tất cả những gì không còn hiện hữu trong ý thức của chúng ta nữa, nhưng căn nguyên

của nó vẫn còn ở đó, chẳng hạn như những ước vọng, bản năng chúng ta đã cố gắng quên lãng.

Vô thức mới là phần chủ yếu trong đời sống tâm lý của con người, là căn cứ cho mọi hành vi

của con người.

Tiền thức là yếu tố trung gian giữa ý thức và vô thức. Theo Freud, trong vô thức có ẩn dấu

xung đột bản năng, để trở thành ý thức phải thông qua sự lựa chọn, phê chuẩn của tiền thức.

Quá trình này diễn ta một cách bình thường ở những người khoẻ mạnh. Tuy nhiên, đối với

những bệnh nhân tâm thần, những ý nghĩ ‘không dễ chịu’ hay những ước vọng bị dồn nén là

quá lớn, lúc nào cũng rình rập để quay trở lại ý thức, và quá trình kìm nén trở nên vô cùng khó

khăn, đôi khi trở nên vô hiệu. Freud cho rằng người bình thường và người điên chỉ khác nhau

ở ‘mức độ của quá trình kìm nén’ này. Về mặt lý thuyết thì tất cả chúng ta đều ‘bệnh’, hay nói

cách khác là ‘bị điên’ bởi lẽ những điều kiện tiên quyết cho sự hình thành các triệu chứng ‘tâm

thần’ có thể quan sát được cả ở những người bình thường.

Bên cạnh quá trình tâm lý, Freud còn mô phỏng kết cấu nhân cách con người bao gồm ba bộ

phận tương ứng là cái ấy, cái tôi và cái siêu tôi (như mô hình).

Cái ấy là toàn bộ bản năng làm thành nền tảng của nhân cách, nó bao gồm những ham muốn

vô thức hay những đam mê đã bị chèn ra khỏi ý thức. Nó là căn tầng hầm tăm tối nhất của tâm

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lý, luôn hoạt động rất mạnh mẽ để lấn át ý thức, mong muốn vọt ra ngoài để được thoả mãn.

Cái ấy hoạt động theo nguyên tắc khoái lạc.

Còn cái tôi là một bộ phận có tổ chức của nhân cách, là cầu nối giữa cái ấy và thế giới bên

ngoài, được hình thành trong quá trình xã hội hoá cá thể. Cái tôi phục vụ những ham muốn của

cái ấy nhưng một cách có kiểm soát để tương hợp với những đòi hỏi của hiện thực. Cái tôi là

hạt nhân của nhân cách, có vai trò chi phối kiểm soát hành vi con người, là bộ phận duy nhất

mà người khác có thể tiếp xúc đựơc.

Cái siêu tôi là đại diện của xã hội, của lý tưởng và của uy thế bên ngoài trong tâm lý con

người. Nó được tạo thành từ các chuẩn mực xã hội, quy tắc luân lý và các luật tôn giáo. Cái

siêu tôi sẽ đấu tranh để làm cho cái tôi hoạt động theo các chuẩn mực lý tưởng thay vì các quy

tắc thực tế.

Ở người bình thường có sự cân bằng giữa ba cái ‘cái ấy’ ‘cái tôi’ và ‘cái siêu tôi’. Trong đó

‘cái tôi’ là mạnh nhất, nó hoạt động để vừa làm thoả mãn ‘cái ấy’, vừa không làm ‘cái siêu tôi’

thất vọng, và còn dựa trên thực tế của mỗi tình huống. Những người thần kinh là do mối quan

hệ cân bằng giữa ba cái đó bị phá vỡ.

4. Ý nghĩa và hạn chế

Cống hiến của thuyết vô thức của Freud là rất lớn. Đầu tiên và quan trọng nhất là cho ngành

Phân tâm học, không còn nghi ngờ gì nữa, ông là ông tổ của phân tâm học. Học thuyết của ông

đã giúp chữa những chứng bệnh thần kinh. Không chỉ vậy, học thuyết vô thức còn có ý nghĩa

rất lớn trong mọi lĩnh vực khác và trong đời sống xã hội, đặc biệt là trong nghệ thuật, thậm chí

còn có một trào lưu văn học nổi lên nhờ học thuyết vô thức của Freud : đó là chủ nghĩa siêu

thực. Những nghệ sĩ theo chủ nghĩa siêu thực cố gắng khai thác phần ‘vô thức’ khi sáng tác

nghệ thuật. Ở một khía cạnh nào đấy, những nghệ sĩ theo chủ nghĩa siêu thực là một phương

thức, một phương tiện hay một cầu nối với phần ‘vô thức’ của chính anh ta, và quá trình sáng

tạo bao giờ cũng hàm chứa yếu tố vô thức. Trong quá trình sáng tạo ra cái mới, sự tưởng tượng

và lý trí luôn tác động qua lại lẫn nhau, và lý trí luôn điều chỉnh sự tưởng tượng cũng như sự

lựa chọn, phê chuẩn của ‘tiền thức’ đối với ‘vô thức’ để trở thành ý thức. Ở điểm này, Freud

đã tiếp thu học thuyết tiến hoá của Darwin về chọn lọc tự nhiên. Chúng ta có thể thấy rằng

Freud đã tiếp thu truyền thống duy vật của khoa học tự nhiên cổ điển và của thuyết tiến hoá.

Tuy nhiên sai lầm lớn nhất của ông là quá đề cao vai trò của vô thức đối với hành vi của con

người, không đánh giá đúng vai trò của ý thức và các điều kiện xã hội. (Theo Trần Văn Thuỵ,

2008). Điều này hoàn toàn dễ hiểu. Phần lớn đối tượng nghiên cứu của Freud là các bệnh nhân

tâm thần. Khi khẳng định rằng bản chất nhân cách của chúng ta được tạo thành bởi cái tôi

thầm kín mà không có mảy may một mối quan hệ trực tiếo nào với thế giới bên ngoài, thì

Freud đã đánh giá quá mức vai trò của vô thức, đã phổ quát hoá sự cách biệt giữa những người

bị bệnh tâm thần với môi trường xã hội. Khi cho rằng vô thức là căn cứ hành vi của con người

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thì Freud đã sinh vật hoá những cái thuộc về tâm lý con người. Có thể thấy rằng ở điểm này

học thuyết của Freud lại bộc lộ những yếu tố duy tâm.

Một sai lầm nữa của học thuyết Freud chính là cách tiếp cận phân tâm học. Khi cho rằng văn

hoá đã tước đoạt một lượng lớn năng lượng tình dục vì mục đích tập thể, bắt buộc con người

phải hạn chế nhưng ham muốn của mình, và là yếu tố duy nhất để phân biệt con người và con

vật thì Freud đã hiểu sai bản chất của văn hoá. Theo ông, bản chất của con người là không

thích lao động nhưng vì lợi ích của cộng đồng, văn hoá đã cưỡng bức con người phải lao động.

Thực ra, hoạt động sáng tạo của con người là cội nguồn, là nền tảng của đời sống con người và

chính trong tiến trình này mà ‘cái tự nhiên’ đã được nhân cách hoá và ‘cái văn hoá’ đã được

sinh thành. Những mong muốn của con người do vậy mà hình thành trong hoạt động tập thể

của mọi người. Vì thế, theo bản chất của mình, chúng không đối lập với những tất yếu xã hội,

mà bao hàm những tất yếu ấy.

Có thể kết luận rằng những lý luận về vô thức của Freud đã bổ sung những kiến thức quan

trọng cho tâm lý học. Chủ nghĩa Freud đã tiếp thu truyền thống duy vật của khoa học tự nhiên

cổ điển và thuyết tiến hoá. Tuy nhiên trong thế giới quan triết học của ông lại bộc lộ những

yếu tố duy tâm khi đem sinh vật hoá những cái thuộc về tâm lý con người, đem tự nhiên hoá

những cái về loài người, đem tâm lý hoá những cái thuộc về xã hội và tuyệt đối hoá cái tâm lý

trong đời sống con người.

5. Ý nghĩa của vô thức trong việc học ngoại ngữ

Đã có nhiều công trình nghiên cứu về vai trò của ‘vô thức’ trong việc học. Gần đây nhất, tạp

chí Journal of Consciousness Studies công bố một công trình nghiên cứu của McFadden tại

Đại học Surrey ở Anh chứng minh rằng cơ sở vật chất của tư duy là một trường điện từ của bộ

não, trong đó khẳng định rằng hoạt động tư duy bao gồm vô thức và ý thức. Học là một hoạt

động điển hình như vậy : Học = Vô thức + Ý thức. McFadden nhấn mạnh : rất nhiều người

thường đồng nhất tư duy với ý thức, thật là nhầm lẫn lớn. Thực tế phần lớn tư duy là vô thức,

vô thức bao giờ cũng có trước, ý thức có sau, vô thức là cái phần bẩm sinh mà ai cũng có. Ý

thức là cái có sau, hình thành trong quá trình sống, phụ thuộc nhiều vào hoàn cảnh môi trường.

Vô thức và ý thức liên quan mật thiết với nhau, thiếu một trong hai vế đều dẫn tới tư duy què

quặt (Theo bản tin của Đại học Quốc Gia Hà Nội). Có thể thấy rằng công trình nghiên cứu này

có nhiều nét tương đồng với học thuyết vô thức của Freud.

Việc học ngoại ngữ cũng không nằm ngoại lệ. Một đứa trẻ bình thường nào cứ đến 4-5 tuổi là

có thể nói thông thạo tiếng mẹ đẻ mà không cần phải vất vả nhồi nhét chữ nghĩa. Có thể nói

rằng ngữ pháp của một người lớn không hơn ngữ pháp của một đứa trẻ 5 tuổi là mấy, chúng ta

chỉ hơn trẻ con ở vốn từ vựng ! Trong khi đó, người lớn cố gắng nhồi nhét một ngoại ngữ

nhưng rốt cuộc lại không thể nói được một câu tiếng Anh trôi chảy. Có bao nhiêu từ mà quyển

sổ học từ nào chúng ta cũng ghi nhưng rốt cuộc vẫn không thể nhớ nổi, trong khi có thể khẳng

định rằng vốn từ mà bạn có nhiều hơn gấp nhiều lần số từ mà bạn chủ tâm học. Một người bản

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ngữ có thể nói trôi chảy thứ tiếng của họ nhưng khi hỏi họ về ngữ pháp của một câu, có thể họ

sẽ rất lúng túng không thể giải thích tại sao lại nói như vậy mới đúng. Ngược lại, một người

học ngoại ngữ có thể nói được rất nhiều các quy tắc ngữ pháp mà anh ta đã học nhưng rốt cuộc

trong khi giao tiếp bằng thứ tiếng đó lại mắc rất nhiều lỗi ngữ pháp. Những nhà ngôn ngữ học

đã cố gắng lí giải những hiện tượng như vậy. Chomsky, một nhà ngôn ngữ nổi tiếng đã phân

biệt giữa ‘năng lực ngôn ngữ’ (linguistic competence) là những gì chúng ta ‘biết’ về một ngôn

ngữ và ‘sự thực hiện ngôn ngữ’ là việc chúng ta thực sự sử dụng ngôn ngữ để giao tiếp. Việc

học ngôn ngữ phải kết hợp được cả hai yếu tố này. Chúng ta biết được từ và các quy tắc ngữ

pháp không có nghĩa là chúng ta có thể giao tiếp, sử dụng được ngôn ngữ. Để sử dụng được

ngôn ngữ, chúng ta phải thực hành nhiều, phải được ‘tắm trong môi trường ngôn ngữ đó’, biến

những gì chúng ta ‘biết’ thành những kỹ năng.

Việc học tiếng mẹ đẻ của trẻ em có thể khẳng định là một quá trình vô thức, là bản năng mà

con người ai cũng có. Việc chúng ta nhồi nhét những quy tắc ngữ pháp vào đầu là hoạt động

của ý thức. Việc chúng ta nói sai ngữ pháp (mặc dù nắm vững mọi quy tắc ngữ pháp) là do vô

thức. Do vậy, vai trò của vô thức là rất lớn trong việc học ngoại ngữ. Để ‘đánh thức’ và ‘phát

huy’ nó một cách có hiệu quả trong việc học ngoại ngữ, chúng tôi xin đưa ra một số kiến nghị

như sau :

1. Học ngoại ngữ càng sớm càng tốt, khi mà tư duy chủ yếu bằng vô thức.

2. Người học phải được ‘tắm’ trong môi trường ngôn ngữ đó. Chúng ta không cần phải

quá tập trung để mà hiểu một bản tin, hay xem một bộ phim tiếng nước ngoài, nhưng

khi được tiếp xúc một cách vô thức như vậy, ngôn ngữ cũng sẽ ‘ngấm’ vào chúng ta.

Tuy nhiên, việc này phải được kết hợp với việc học có ý thức thì mới có tác dụng.

Chúng ta không thể cứ ‘tiếp xúc’ với nó, mà có thể thông thạo một ngôn ngữ được.

3. Càng thực hành các kỹ năng ngôn ngữ nhiều thì dần dần chúng ta mới có thể sử dụng

thông thạo. Việc học các quy tắc ngữ pháp được xem như là hỗ trợ cho các kỹ năng

này chứ không phải là mục đích của việc học ngoại ngữ.

4. Việc mắc lỗi khi học ngoại ngữ phải được xem là hiện tượng hoàn toàn bình thường.

Giáo viên nên có thái độ tích cực với lỗi của học sinh, không nên coi đó là ‘thất bại’

của việc dạy và học.

5. Không nên phải quá mất công sức để học tất cả các từ mới mà chúng ta gặp hay tất cả

các quy tắc ngữ pháp. Chỉ học chúng khi chúng làm ngăn cản việc hiểu cả văn bản

hoặc khi chúng ta thích học chúng. Dần dần chúng ta sẽ học được những từ đó khi đã

gặp nó nhiều lần và hiểu ý nghĩa của nó trong các văn cảnh chúng ta gặp.

6. Cuối cùng nhưng cũng rất quan trọng : môi trường học tập là vô cùng quan trọng.

Chúng ta nên học những gì chúng ta thích như xem phim nước ngoài có hoặc không có

phụ đề nếu bạn là người thích xem phim, nghe nhạc tiếng nước ngoài nếu bạn yêu

thích âm nhạc, hay đọc các tài liệu về Freud bằng tiếng anh. Trên lớp học, giáo viên

nên tạo một môi trường học tập thân thiện, thoải mái. Cách này sẽ tạo điều kiện cho

27

phần ‘vô thức’ của chúng ta phát huy tác dụng tối đa, làm trí tưởng tượng bay bổng,

việc học sẽ nhẹ nhàng hơn rất nhiều.

6. Kết luận

Học thuyết vô thức của Freud, tuy còn một số hạn chế nhưng đóng góp của nó là vô cùng to

lớn trong mọi lĩnh vực đời sống. Bài viết này bàn về những đóng góp và hạn chế của học

thuyết này và đưa ra một số kiến nghị cho việc học ngoại ngữ trên tinh thần tiếp thu những giá

trị của nó. Trong khuôn khổ cho phép, những bàn luận trên chỉ là khởi đầu, có thể gợi mở cho

những nghiên cứu sau.

Tài liệu tham khảo

1. Đoàn Quang Thọ và các tác giả. Giáo trình Triết học. 2008

2. Trần Đặng Sinh và các tác giả. Lịch sử Triết Học. 2009

3. Gaarder J. Thế giới của Sophie (Sophie’s World). 2003

4. Ngụy Hữu Tâm. Chân dung nhà tâm lý học: Sigmund Freud và học thuyết phân tâm

http://chungta.com/Desktop.aspx/ChungTa-SuyNgam/Con-Nguoi/

Chan_dung_nha_tam_ly_hoc-Sigmund_Freud_va_hoc_thuyet_phan_tam/

5. Nguyễn Huy Hoàng. Văn hoá dưới cái nhìn phân tâm học của Sigmund Freud

http://www.chungta.com/Desktop.aspx/ChungTa-SuyNgam/Con-Nguoi/

Van_hoa_duoi_cai_nhin_phan_tam_hoc_cua_Sigmund_Freud/

6. Felluga, Dino. Các bài giảng về Freud: về vô thức

"Modules on Freud: On the Unconscious." Introductory Guide to Critical Theory. Purdue U.

<http://www.purdue.edu/guidetotheory/psychoanalysis/freud2.html>.

7. Boeree. C. G. Sigmund Freud: Học thuyết về nhân cách. (Personality theories)

http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/freud.html

8. Hãy đánh thức người học

http://www.bulletin.vnu.edu.vn/btdhqghn/Vietnamese/C1483/C1636/2008/11/N23385/?1

28

AN ANALYSIS ON THE USE OF PERSUASIVE LANGUAGE IN

PRESIDENT BARRACK OBAMA’S INAUGURATION SPEECH

Nguyễn Diệu Hồng, Lương Thị Hương Thảo & Đỗ Thị Trà Mi

Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh

Vài nét về nhóm tác giả

Nguyễn Diệu Hồng, Lương Thị Hương Thảo và Đỗ Thị Trà Mi cùng công tác tại Bộ môn Cử

Tuyển, Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh, Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ - ĐHQGHN. Nguyễn Diệu

Hồng quan tâm nghiên cứu về Hoa Kỳ học và phân tích diễn ngôn. Lương Thị Hương Thảo

đặc biệt quan tâm đến nghiên cứu ứng dụng máy tính hỗ trợ học ngoại ngữ (CALL), lý thuyết

về cú pháp, âm vị học và các chiến lược học tập ngoại ngữ. Sở thích nghiên cứu của của Đỗ

Thị Trà Mi bao gồm các phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh và Đất nước học.

Email: Nguyễn Diệu Hồng: dieuhongnguyen@gmail.com

Lương Thị Hương Thảo: chittythao@yahoo.com

Đỗ Thị Trà Mi: piszyr@yahoo.com

Tóm tắt vấn đề

Báo cáo dưới đây phân tích những thủ pháp tu từ trong bài phát biểu của tổng thống Mỹ

Barack Obama tại lễ nhậm chức của ông vào tháng 1 năm 2009. Báo cáo sẽ tập trung vào các

thủ pháp tu từ sau: tần suất sử dụng đại từ nhân xưng ngôi thứ nhất số ít và số nhiều, các từ

được sử dụng thường xuyên nhất trong bài diễn văn và quy tắc tam suất. Thông qua việc

nghiên cứu những biện pháp tu từ trên, nhóm tác giả mong muốn sẽ nêu bật được những điểm

quan trọng trong cách tổng thống Obama dùng các thủ pháp tu từ nhằm thu hút, thuyết phục và

nhận được sự ủng hộ của người dân Mỹ khi bắt đầu nhiệm kỳ tổng thống của mình .

*******

1. Introduction

Language is not simply the means of communication used to exchange information among

people. More than that, language, as stated in Fromkin et al (2003:3) is “a source of human life

and power”. In other words, the language people employ reflects their attitude and perception

of the world, and they may gain the power by influencing others’ beliefs and views through

the use of language. According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, a language can shape thought

and emotions, and “it is very difficult to think outside of that framework”. (Thomas et al,

2004:39)

In the case of politics, where the gain of power may be the driving factor, politicians have

tried to make full use of the powerful tool of language to reinforce their ideologies, to

persuade and to win people supports. A specific issue regarding politics and public opinion

29

can best exemplify this: speeches made by politicians. A recent political speech that drew

attentions of millions of people, not only in the most powerful country in the word – the

United States- but also those outside its border was the inauguration speech delivered by

President Barrack Obama. The address, which was broadcasted live on television and the

Internet, has also been the hot topic for both political and linguistic discussions. Therefore, it

is worth analyzing the speech made by the this first African –American president of the USA

on the day he officially assumed his position, in which he had to make the most use of rhetoric

strategies to convince his citizens, who were hoping a new change of the new regime.

1.1 Aims

This essay aims at analyzing main aspects of persuasive language employed by President

Barrack Obama in his inauguration speech made on January, 11th 2009. What is more, the hope

is that the paper will contribute to the understanding of Obama’s style in using language in

front of the public for political purposes.

1.2 Methodology and data

Linguistic researchers have long realized the important roles of language use in politics;

therefore, many have studied the persuasive strategies realized in political speeches. In the

case of Barack Obama, his speeches during the presidential campaign have been the ‘hot”

topics for discussion of language experts and many have highly appreciated his techniques to

inspire and persuade millions of people. However, only a small numbers have attempted to

provide an insight into Obama’s use of persuasive language.

In her book Say it like Obama (2008), Leanne presented the persuasive skills that made

Obama’s speeches “eloquent, inspiring, compelling” and enabled him to gain support from

audience. She investigated different rhetorical techniques to convey “powerful message”

employed by the future American president such as the use of pronouns, the rule of three,

anaphora, epistrophe, alliteration and trilicon.

Admunsson (2008) analyzed Obama’s persuasive language in his speech on “Super

Tuesday” 2008 from an Aristotelian point of view. Based on textual analysis, the study

addressed the application of three means of persuasion: ethos, pathos and logos in the text.

Inspired by the findings of these two researches and by personal interests in American

politics in general and Barack Obama for his significance role as the first African-American

president as well as his attractive speaking styles in particular, the authors chose Obama’s

inauguration address 2009 as the primary data for their study. The speech is 18 min 33 second

in length and the transcription retrieved from www.chicagotribune.come includes 2401 words

according to MS Word. Only the three most prominent linguistic features, namely the use of

pronouns, word choice and the rule of three, were focused on due to the limited scope of the

paper.

The data were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. To investigate the

application of pronouns and word choice in Obama’s speech, the authors employed

Wordcounter to rank the most frequently used roots in the text. It should be noted that the

30

software would automatically group variations of the same roots. The results were then

compared with manual counting to cross-check the list of the most prominent vocabulary

appearing in the text. Next, more in-depth textual analysis was carried out to study the use of

pronouns and prominent words in context as well as the use of three part list, which could not

be counted. Examples for the employment of three prominent linguistic features will be

discussed in the following part.

2. Data analysis

2.1 Pronouns

According to Beard (2000:45), pronoun reference is an important rhetoric device for

politicians to persuade the audience. How personal pronouns are used plays a key role because

they convey semantic meanings. Singular forms (I/me/myself/mine) “show a clear sense of

personal involvement on the part of the speaker, which is especially useful when good news is

delivered”, while the use of plural pronoun forms (we/us/ourselves/ours) implies a

responsibility that both the orator and the listeners share, especially “when the decisions are

tricky, when the news is uncertain”. In their broadest sense, plural pronoun forms can show the

connection between the politician with the whole country, and even with the entire world.

(Beard, 2000:45)

The following table presents occurrence of first personal pronouns in the 2009

inauguration speech based on Wordcounter < wordcounter.com>

Counted number %

1st personal singular

I 3 1

Me/mine/myself 0_ 0_

2 1

1st personal plural

we 62 39

us 23 15

our 67 43

ourselves 3_ 2_

155 99

Total 157 100

The data show the extraordinary use of plural first pronouns we/us/our over singular form I,

99% and 1% respectively. Obama used I only three time in his 2401 word speech, in the first

31

paragraph when he address the audience and say thank to his predecessor– President George

W. Bush and in the sixth paragraph. For the rest of the talk, plural forms were included.

It is clear that, in the first time Obama gave an officially talk to his citizens as the 44 th

president of the United States, he wanted to create a strong sense of unity, engage the listeners

and keep them on his side. The speech showed his ideologies and policies for the presidential

terms in the context that America had been experiencing a severe economic crisis since the

Great Depression and the threat of terrorism had not been diminished. The difficulties that

Obama, his government and the whole nation as well were facing were “too many” (Obama,

2009). Thus, the 44th president, by using an overwhelming number of inclusive pronouns “our

nation”, “our economy”, “our collective failure”, firstly skillfully showed to American

citizens that the existed problems were the difficulties they both shared, and that they were all

on the same boat: -“we are in the midst of crisis”.

(1) “That we are in the midst of crisis is now well understood. Our nation is at war, against a far-

reaching network of violence and hatred. Our economy is badly weakened,(…) but also our

collective failure to make hard choices and prepare the nation for a new age. Our health care is

too costly; our schools fail too many (….) the challenges we face are real.” [paragraph 4]

Secondly, Obama preferred the use of we to persuade his people that all citizens had a

mutual mission to fight the difficulties. We (the president and the whole country) all together

as a solid unity need to work side by side to resolve the current problems and overcome the

hard time.

(2) “For everywhere we look, there is work to be done (…) we will act (…) We will build the roads

and bridges, the electric grids and digital lines that feed our commerce and bind us together. We

will restore science to its rightful place, and wield technology's wonders to raise health care's

quality and lower its cost. We will harness the sun and the winds and the soil to fuel our cars and

run our factories. And we will transform our schools and colleges and universities to meet the

demands of a new age. All this we can do. And all this we will do.” [paragraph 15]

Interestingly, inclusive pronouns we plus auxiliary will are repeated six times successively

in (2), which makes these above lines become a call for immediate actions that everyone

should be involved and give a hand to make their contribution to the nation.

2. 2 Word choice

Word choice is another powerful rhetoric device in that it can partly tell about the “speakers’

concerns and priorities” and the issues conveyed in the speech as well. The frequency of

content words may reflect the most important notions in presidential speeches (Dypedahl and

Hasselgård, 2004 cited in Stenbbaken, 2007:38).

The table below presents 10 most frequently used words in Obama’s talk according to the

data collected by Wordcounter and revised by the authors:

Content word Frequency

nation(s) 15

new 11

32

America 9

every 8

generation(s) 8

must 8

less 8

let 7

people 7

today 7

The three most prominent words that can be seen from the chart are: nation(s), new and

America; in which nation as referred to the USA are repeated 11 times in the copra. Those

observing Barack Obama’s campaign for presidency may not find the results surprising. The

notion of America: new nation closely reflects his ideology of making changes for the

country, which had been realized in his slogan for the 2008 election “Change, we can believe

in”. Once a gain, by asserting these above-mentioned words throughout the inauguration

speech, President Obama proved for American people his determination to create changes

from the old administration and to make American a new nation with better changes and better

chances for the people during his new regime.

Additionally, the president mentioned generations of America 8 times in a thread of time

from the past to the present and the future. The notion of maintaining achievements inherited

from the previous generations and carrying them to the next generations, hence, is an

important message that Obama aimed to send to his citizens.

(3) “Our Founding Fathers, faced with perils we can scarcely imagine, drafted a charter to assure the

rule of law and the rights of man, a charter expanded by the blood of generations. (…) So it has

been. So it must be with this generation of Americans. (…) we carried forth that great gift of

freedom and delivered it safely to future generations.”[paragraph 19]

Acknowledging the heritage of the past- the gift of liberty and human rights- which people

had to struggle and endured hardship to maintain, Obama tactfully convinced the listeners to

take deliberate actions so that the future generations “our children’s children” could enjoy the

achievements Americans transfer from today.

2.3 Rule of three.

One of the most popular means to elicit approval from the audience is the “list of three”,

according to Atkinson cited in Beard (2000:38). Atkinson noted that the rule of three, which is

found in certain cultures, attracts both the speakers and the listeners because it gives “the sense

of unity and completeness.”

Obama, who ranks highly in comparison with other great orators through American

history like Abraham Lincoln and Martin Luther King, has given particular interest in three-

33

part list, contrast and various combinations of the two (Atkinson, 2008). Evidence of the

preference for the list of three is very obvious in the 2009 presidential inauguration speech.

The full text of the president’s address with underlined three-part lists is provided in the

Appendix.

The 44th master of the White House started his address with a list of three:

(4) “I stand here today humbled by the task before us, grateful for the trust you have bestowed,

mindful of the sacrifices borne by our ancestors.” [paragraph 1]

By giving a three-part list in (4), he impressed the audience through painting a clear picture

of his feelings when he spoke to the public in the role of American president for the first time.

In addition, Obama tried to persuade the audience that he was fully aware of his responsibility

and work waiting ahead to deserve the trust people had had in him in the presidential election

as well as the scarifies of the previous generations.

(5) “The time has come to reaffirm our enduring spirit; to choose our better history; to carry forward

that precious gift, that noble idea, passed on from generation to generation: the God-given

promise that all are equal, all are free, and all deserve a chance to pursue their full measure of

happiness.” [paragraph 9]

Two continuous lists of three powerfully reaffirm the vital value of America – individual

freedom. The first three-part list was mentioned to persuade people to take action: work

together to maintain the traditional belief. Three phrases which are started by three verbs

actually have the same core meaning. Obama then repeated the idea stated in the Declaration

of Independence in a group of three parallel clauses to emphasize the undeniable rights of all

people reflected in American tradition: the right of equality, the right of freedom and the right

to pursue individual happiness.

3. Conclusion.

The essay has analyzed how the three most salient rhetoric devices are employed to increase

the persuasive power in Barack Obama’s inauguration address 2009. The use of first personal

pronouns, word choice and three-part list greatly facilitated President Obama in manipulating

the audience perception. Illustrations of each linguistic tool have been discussed in connection

with the overall context in which the speech orated.

Due to the limitations of time and essay framework, the authors did not mention other

useful linguistic features which are frequently applied in political talks and can also be traced

in speeches of the 44th president of the United States such as parallelism, metaphor, metonymy

and contrastive pairs. Moreover, the data collected for quantitative analysis were not

extensive. To have better understanding of Obama’ persuasive language style, more in-depth

researches are needed with the aids of more sophisticated word-counting software.

34

References

Assmundson, M. 2008. Persuading the Public: A Linguistic Analysis of Barack Obama’s

Speech on “Super Tuesday” 2008. 5 April 2009. <http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:du-

3436>

Atkinson, M. 2008. Rhetoric and Imagery in Obama’s Victory Speech. 8 Dec 2009.

http://maxatkinson.blogspot.com/2008/11/rhetoric-imagery-in-obamas-victory.html

Beard, A. 2000. The Language of Politics. Routledge. London.

Fromkin, V., R. Rodman and N. Hyams. 2003. An Introduction to Language (7th edition).

Wadsworth. Boston.

Leanne, S. 2008. Say it like Obama. McGraw-Hill. New York.

Obama, B. 2009. Presidential Inauguration Speech. 5 April 2009.

<http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/obama/chi-obama-speech-

090120,0,1085546.story>

Stenbakken, A. 2007. What makes a politician persuasive? A study of ideology, rhetoric and

modality in speeches by Tony Blair and George W. Bush. 5 April 2009.

http://www.duo.uio.no/sok/work.html?WORKID=69169&lang=en

Luong, T. 2008. Comparing persuasive language in Obama and Mccain’ convention speeches.

Unpublished research paper.

Thomas, L. et al. 2004. Language, Society and Power (2nd edition). Routledge. London.

Wordcounter. 8 Dec 2009. <www.wordcounter.com>

Wordle. 8 Dec 2009. <www.wordle.net>

35

Appendix

Barack Obama’s Inauguration Speech

Jan 20th 2009

FULLTEXT

My fellow citizens:

[1]I stand here today humbled by the task before us, grateful for the trust you have bestowed, mindful of the sacrifices borne by our ancestors. I thank President Bush for his service to our nation, as well as the generosity and cooperation he has shown throughout this transition.

[2]Forty-four Americans have now taken the presidential oath. The words have been spoken during rising tides of prosperity and the still waters of peace. Yet, every so often the oath is taken amidst gathering clouds and raging storms. At these moments, America has carried on not simply because of the skill or vision of those in high office, but because We the People have remained faithful to the ideals of our forbearers, and true to our founding documents.

[3]So it has been. So it must be with this generation of Americans.

[4]That we are in the midst of crisis is now well understood. Our nation is at war, against a far-reaching network of violence and hatred. Our economy is badly weakened, a consequence of greed and irresponsibility on the part of some, but also our collective failure to make hard choices and prepare the nation for a new age. Homes have been lost; jobs shed; businesses shuttered. Our health care is too costly; our schools fail too many; and each day brings further evidence that the ways we use energy strengthen our adversaries and threaten our planet.

[5]These are the indicators of crisis, subject to data and statistics. Less measurable but no less profound is a sapping of confidence across our land - a nagging fear that America's decline is inevitable, and that the next generation must lower its sights.

[6]Today I say to you that the challenges we face are real. They are serious and they are many.

[7]They will not be met easily or in a short span of time. But know this, America - they will be met. On this day, we gather because we have chosen hope over fear, unity of purpose over conflict and discord.

[8]On this day, we come to proclaim an end to the petty grievances and false promises, the recriminations and worn out dogmas, that for far too long have strangled our politics.

[9]We remain a young nation, but in the words of Scripture, the time has come to set aside childish things. The time has come to reaffirm our enduring spirit; to choose our better history; to carry forward that precious gift, that noble idea, passed on from generation to generation: the God-given promise that all are equal, all are free, and all deserve a chance to pursue their full measure of happiness.

[10]In reaffirming the greatness of our nation, we understand that greatness is never a given. It must be earned. Our journey has never been one of short-cuts or settling for less. It has not been the path for the faint-hearted - for those who prefer leisure over work, or seek only the pleasures of riches and fame. Rather, it has been the risk-takers, the doers, the makers of things

36

- some celebrated but more often men and women obscure in their labor, who have carried us up the long, rugged path towards prosperity and freedom.

[11]For us, they packed up their few worldly possessions and traveled across oceans in search of a new life.

[12]For us, they toiled in sweatshops and settled the West; endured the lash of the whip and plowed the hard earth.

[13]For us, they fought and died, in places like Concord and Gettysburg; Normandy and Khe Sahn. Time and again these men and women struggled and sacrificed and worked till their hands were raw so that we might live a better life. They saw America as bigger than the sum of our individual ambitions; greater than all the differences of birth or wealth or faction.

[14]This is the journey we continue today. We remain the most prosperous, powerful nation on Earth. Our workers are no less productive than when this crisis began. Our minds are no less inventive, our goods and services no less needed than they were last week or last month or last year. Our capacity remains undiminished. But our time of standing pat, of protecting narrow interests and putting off unpleasant decisions - that time has surely passed. Starting today, we must pick ourselves up, dust ourselves off, and begin again the work of remaking America.

[15]For everywhere we look, there is work to be done. The state of the economy calls for action, bold and swift, and we will act - not only to create new jobs, but to lay a new foundation for growth. We will build the roads and bridges, the electric grids and digital lines that feed our commerce and bind us together. We will restore science to its rightful place, and wield technology's wonders to raise health care's quality and lower its cost. We will harness the sun and the winds and the soil to fuel our cars and run our factories. And we will transform our schools and colleges and universities to meet the demands of a new age. All this we can do. And all this we will do.

[16]Now, there are some who question the scale of our ambitions - who suggest that our system cannot tolerate too many big plans. Their memories are short. For they have forgotten what this country has already done; what free men and women can achieve when imagination is joined to common purpose, and necessity to courage.

[17]What the cynics fail to understand is that the ground has shifted beneath them - that the stale political arguments that have consumed us for so long no longer apply. The question we ask today is not whether our government is too big or too small, but whether it works - whether it helps families find jobs at a decent wage, care they can afford, a retirement that is dignified. Where the answer is yes, we intend to move forward. Where the answer is no, programs will end. And those of us who manage the public's dollars will be held to account - to spend wisely, reform bad habits, and do our business in the light of day - because only then can we restore the vital trust between a people and their government.

[18]Nor is the question before us whether the market is a force for good or ill. Its power to generate wealth and expand freedom is unmatched, but this crisis has reminded us that without a watchful eye, the market can spin out of control - and that a nation cannot prosper long when it favors only the prosperous. The success of our economy has always depended not just on the size of our Gross Domestic Product, but on the reach of our prosperity; on our ability to extend opportunity to every willing heart - not out of charity, but because it is the surest route to our common good.

37

[19]As for our common defense, we reject as false the choice between our safety and our ideals. Our Founding Fathers, faced with perils we can scarcely imagine, drafted a charter to assure the rule of law and the rights of man, a charter expanded by the blood of generations. Those ideals still light the world, and we will not give them up for expedience's sake. And so to all other peoples and governments who are watching today, from the grandest capitals to the small village where my father was born: know that America is a friend of each nation and every man, woman, and child who seeks a future of peace and dignity, and that we are ready to lead once more.

[20]Recall that earlier generations faced down fascism and communism not just with missiles and tanks, but with sturdy alliances and enduring convictions. They understood that our power alone cannot protect us, nor does it entitle us to do as we please. Instead, they knew that our power grows through its prudent use; our security emanates from the justness of our cause, the force of our example, the tempering qualities of humility and restraint.

[21]We are the keepers of this legacy. Guided by these principles once more, we can meet those new threats that demand even greater effort - even greater cooperation and understanding between nations. We will begin to responsibly leave Iraq to its people, and forge a hard-earned peace in Afghanistan. With old friends and former foes, we will work tirelessly to lessen the nuclear threat, and roll back the specter of a warming planet. We will not apologize for our way of life, nor will we waver in its defense, and for those who seek to advance their aims by inducing terror and slaughtering innocents, we say to you now that our spirit is stronger and cannot be broken; you cannot outlast us, and we will defeat you.

[22]For we know that our patchwork heritage is a strength, not a weakness. We are a nation of Christians and Muslims, Jews and Hindus - and non-believers. We are shaped by every language and culture, drawn from every end of this Earth; and because we have tasted the bitter swill of civil war and segregation, and emerged from that dark chapter stronger and more united, we cannot help but believe that the old hatreds shall someday pass; that the lines of tribe shall soon dissolve; that as the world grows smaller, our common humanity shall reveal itself; and that America must play its role in ushering in a new era of peace.

[23]To the Muslim world, we seek a new way forward, based on mutual interest and mutual respect.

[24]To those leaders around the globe who seek to sow conflict, or blame their society's ills on the West - know that your people will judge you on what you can build, not what you destroy. To those who cling to power through corruption and deceit and the silencing of dissent, know that you are on the wrong side of history; but that we will extend a hand if you are willing to unclench your fist.

[25]To the people of poor nations, we pledge to work alongside you to make your farms flourish and let clean waters flow; to nourish starved bodies and feed hungry minds. And to those nations like ours that enjoy relative plenty, we say we can no longer afford indifference to suffering outside our borders; nor can we consume the world's resources without regard to effect. For the world has changed, and we must change with it.

[26]As we consider the road that unfolds before us, we remember with humble gratitude those brave Americans who, at this very hour, patrol far-off deserts and distant mountains. They have something to tell us today, just as the fallen heroes who lie in Arlington whisper through the ages.

38

[27]We honor them not only because they are guardians of our liberty, but because they embody the spirit of service; a willingness to find meaning in something greater than themselves. And yet, at this moment - a moment that will define a generation - it is precisely this spirit that must inhabit us all.

[28]For as much as government can do and must do, it is ultimately the faith and determination of the American people upon which this nation relies. It is the kindness to take in a stranger when the levees break, the selflessness of workers who would rather cut their hours than see a friend lose their job which sees us through our darkest hours. It is the firefighter's courage to storm a stairway filled with smoke, but also a parent's willingness to nurture a child, that finally decides our fate.

[29]Our challenges may be new. The instruments with which we meet them may be new. But those values upon which our success depends - hard work and honesty, courage and fair play, tolerance and curiosity, loyalty and patriotism - these things are old. These things are true. They have been the quiet force of progress throughout our history. What is demanded then is a return to these truths. What is required of us now is a new era of responsibility - a recognition, on the part of every American, that we have duties to ourselves, our nation, and the world, duties that we do not grudgingly accept but rather seize gladly, firm in the knowledge that there is nothing so satisfying to the spirit, so defining of our character, than giving our all to a difficult task.

[30]This is the price and the promise of citizenship.

[31]This is the source of our confidence - the knowledge that God calls on us to shape an uncertain destiny.

[32]This is the meaning of our liberty and our creed - why men and women and children of every race and every faith can join in celebration across this magnificent mall, and why a man whose father less than sixty years ago might not have been served at a local restaurant can now stand before you to take a most sacred oath.

[33]So let us mark this day with remembrance, of who we are and how far we have traveled. In the year of America's birth, in the coldest of months, a small band of patriots huddled by dying campfires on the shores of an icy river. The capital was abandoned. The enemy was advancing. The snow was stained with blood. At a moment when the outcome of our revolution was most in doubt, the father of our nation ordered these words be read to the people:

[34]"Let it be told to the future world...that in the depth of winter, when nothing but hope and virtue could survive...that the city and the country, alarmed at one common danger, came forth to meet [it]."

[35]America. In the face of our common dangers, in this winter of our hardship, let us remember these timeless words. With hope and virtue, let us brave once more the icy currents, and endure what storms may come. Let it be said by our children's children that when we were tested we refused to let this journey end, that we did not turn back nor did we falter; and with eyes fixed on the horizon and God's grace upon us, we carried forth that great gift of freedom and delivered it safely to future generations.

39

BACKCHANNEL IN THE ENGLISH MIXED-SEX

CONVERSATIONS IN THE CONTEXT OF VIETNAM:

A DISCUSSION OF FREQUENCY, GENDER TYPICAL

EXPRESSION, AND LEVEL OF SUPPORT

Đinh Thị Vinh Quy, Hoàng Vân Trang & Đỗ Phương Thúy

Vài nét về nhóm tác giả

Đinh Thị Vinh Quy tốt nghiệp chuyên ngành Giảng dạy tiếng Anh tại Đại học Ngoại ngữ - Đại

học Quốc gia Hà Nội năm 2007 và hiện nay đang theo học chương trình Thạc sỹ chuyên ngành

Ngôn ngữ ứng dụng của trường Hogskolan Dalarna, Thụy Điển. Đinh Thị Vinh Quy hiện là

cán bộ giảng dạy của Sư phạm tiếng Anh, ĐHNN-ĐHQGHN.

Email: vinhquy_dinh0509@yahoo.com

Hoàng Vân Trang là giảng viên Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh từ năm 2002 và đã tốt nghiệp Thạc

sỹ chuyên ngành Phương pháp lý luận và giảng dạy tiếng Anh tại trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ,

Đại học Quốc Gia Hà Nôi. Sở thích nghiên cứu của Hoàng Vân Trang là phương pháp giảng

dạy tiếng Anh và các phương pháp nghiên cứu khoa học.

Email: vantrang80@yahoo.com

Tốt nghiệp đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội năm 2006, Đỗ Phương Thúy có 4

năm kinh nghiệm giảng dạy tiếng Anh tại Bộ môn Cử tuyển, Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh, trường

ĐHNN-ĐHQGHN. Hiện nay Đỗ Phương Thúy đang theo học chương trình Thạc sỹ chuyên

ngành Giảng dạy tiếng Anh tại Khoa Sau đại học, ĐHNN-ĐHQGHN (HULIS-VNU). Email:

tearsvn1@yahoo.com

1. Introduction:

According to Zimmerman and West (1975), Fishman (1983), Coates (1989), and Jenkins &

Cheshire (1990), women tended to be more active than men in supportive roles in

conversation. They showed their conversation support by signaling that the speaker’s

messages had been received, understood, agreed to and/or brought out a certain effect

(Orestrom, 1983). This phenomenon was originally addressed as backchannel by Yngve

(1970). However, the bulk of above research was conducted in such English-speaking

countries as the United States, Britain and New Zealand (Thomas, L. et al, 2004). Then

whether this pattern is also true for non-English-speaking context like Vietnam is still subject

to test. Additionally, many studies on backchannel items, especially appreciative utterances in

Vietnamese context have been documented such as Hoang, T. H. (2006), Nguyen, M. H.

(2005), yet these papers are discussed under the light of Pragmatic or Cross-culture rather than

Language-and-Gender domain. Finally, little body of research explicitly seeks to learn typical

expressions and level of interest that men and women employ as their own strategies in

40

conversations. This research gap urges the need for an in-depth study on English Backchannel

in conversations in the context of Vietnam.

2. Aims, Research Questions and Scopes of Study:

The paper purports to address the following research questions: (1) is there any difference in

frequency of backchannel items in mixed-sex conversations? If yes, which gender use more

backchannel responses?; (2) is there any difference in their backchannel expressions? If yes,

which expressions are typical for each sex?; and (3) is there any difference in level of interest

between the two genders? If yes, which sex uses higher level?. The findings would provide a

modest contribution to linguistic analysis work based on gender and application to better real-

life communications.

Due to the limitation of time, the paper excludes such other influential factors as: age, ethnic

groups, religion, class, sexual orientation, and regional and cultural background. The number

of samples is also limited within the capacity of the researcher’s analysis.

3. Core Concept: Backchannel

In Linguistics, backchannels are defined as listener responses that can be either verbal or non-

verbal in nature. Backchannel responses used to refer to the short utterances (e.g., uh, huh,

okay, Yeah, I see) that would occur in the backchannel by the non-primary speaker or the

listener as the front channel is occupied by the primary speaker (Yngve, 1970). Later, scholars

extended the scope of backchannel responses to include sentence completions, requests for

clarification, brief statements, and non-verbal responses (Duncan & Niederehe, 1974; Duncan

& Fiske, 1977). To recognize backchannel responses, two criteria must to be fulfilled: (a) they

do not seriously interrupt the primary speaker’s speakership, and (b) they do not intend to take

over the floor of the current speaker (Clancy, Thompson, Suzuki & Tao, 1996). The two major

functions of backchannel responses are ‘‘continuers’’ and ‘‘assessments’’ (Goodwin, 1986;

Schegloff, 1982). That is to say, they are indications to the current speaker that the listener is

paying attention to and/or understands what is being said.

4. Method and Data:

Participants

Ten participants (five males and five females) volunteered to participate in the study without

any incentives offered. They formed five dyads of mix-sexed conversation. However, one

dyad was dropped from the data analysis since they both did not follow the instruction and

were highly aware of recording. The majority of participants were in their twenties or early

thirties with an average of 29.1. The mean ages for the males and females were 30.0 and 28.2,

respectively. These means were not statistically significant: t (1,78) = -1.90, P > 0.05. All the

participants were recruited from English Department of University of Languages and

41

International Studies (HULIS). Prior to this recruitment, the ethics approval was obtained from

the University’s Ethics Review Board. Since all the participants were the instructors and

students of English in HULIS, their English proficiency was highly ensured. Additionally,

they all had an IELTS score of band 5.5 or over at the time of recording.

Experimental Design and Procedure

A daily-topic-conversation design was applied under two conditions: over-the-phone and

face-to-face conversations. All the participants were well informed about the recording and the

purpose of data collection. An open atmosphere was created by a well-trained facilitator,

which was supposed to mitigate the psychological confront by high awareness of recording.

The bulk of recorded data proved to be of natural contribution except for the first two minutes

since the participants were still well conscious about the tape-recorder. Therefore, all the data

retrieved from the first-two-minute block was dropped from the data analysis. The targeted

conversations were then transcripted and coded properly. In the first stage, all the backchannel

items were counted and compared between dyads and the two sexes. Next, typical

backchannel expressions in each sex were documented and then compared between the two

genders. At the final stage, a discourse analysis (function-focused) was conducted to learn the

level of supportiveness in these expressions.

5. Result: Discussion of Findings

Discussion of frequency of backchannel items between two sexes

It can be seen from the figure 1 that males prove to use more backchannel items than females,

only except for the conversation 4. In addition, the ratio is rather high: 15 times in the

conversation 2, over 3 times in the conversation 1, and nearly 2 times in the conversation 3.

Meanwhile, the conversation 4 presents only two times of females’ employment of

backchannel items over that of the males. This result is obviously contradictory to the

hypothesis generated from the previous research. It should be well noted that in the three

conversations 1-3, the female speakers are the primary source of information giving.

Therefore, the males are just information token. They accordingly have no or little chance to

take the floor. However, in the conversation 4 where the male speaker is the main information

0

24

6

8

1012

14

16

C1 C2 C3 C4

Male

Female

Figure 1: Frequency of backchannel items

42

deliverer and the female is rather a passive receiver, then the reverse stages. The number of

backchannel items that the female employs actually doubles that by the male. Apparently, the

frequency of backchannel use, in this case study, depends heavily on the role of the

participant. A common pattern can be roughly established that who is the primary source of

information tends to employ less backchannel items and vise verse.

Discussion of typical features in backchannel use between the two sexes

Backchannel Males % Females %

/oh/ 9 12% 1 1.2%

/oh?/ 4 5% 0 0%

/um, umhm, mmhm/ 4 5% 2 2.4%

/uh, uhuh, huh, ahah/ 5 6% 5 6%

/yeh, yeah, yah/ 6 7.5% 4 5%

/yep?/ 0 0% 1 1.2%

/yes/ 4 5% 1 1.2%

/ah/ 2 2.5% 0 0%

/ok/ 4 5% 1 1.2%

/so/ 0 0% 2 2.4%

/right, that’s right/ 0 0% 2 2.4%

Sentence with /good, great,

nice, well, interesting,

beautiful, helpful/

7 9% 1 1.2%

Others 7 9% 7 9%

/laugh/ 1 1.2% 0 0%

Total 53 >=67% 26 =<33%

As shown in the figure 2, the majority of the backchannel items that the females use is rather

short (either a single word or two). Meanwhile, the responses from the males’ utterances seem

to be longer. This feature is also different from the previous research, which contends that the

females’ sentences tend to be longer that the males’ (Fishman (1983), Coates (1989), and

Jenkins & Cheshire (1990)). The males in this case study employ quite many sentences with

positive words such as: “good, great, nice, well, beautiful and helpful” in comparison with

only one utterance from the female in the conversation 3. This reveals that the males highly

appreciate the information that the females send out. It is well noticing that a laugh was

Figure 2: Typical features in backchannel use between the two sexes

43

recorded in the male’s utterance in the conversation 1, whereas none was found in the

females’. Since a laugh can, according to Steiner (2005), show a spontaneous and strongly

emotional response, it can be a good indicator of supportiveness in conversation. Therefore,

the males seem to support the wheel of conversation better than the females. And once again,

the situation plays a key factor in determining those who would be more supportive.

Discussion of level of interest between the two sexes

To learn the level of interest between the two sexes, a “level-of-interest” scale should be well-

defined as the following groups:

- the single form (oh, uhuh, yeah, mh, ah, so, ok, yes) (single words)

- the complex form (yeah yeah, oh ok) (two words or more)

- the questions (yep?, oh? Really?, about half an hour?)

- the restatement

- the appreciative full sentences

- the laughter

The order above indicates the increasing level of interest.

At most of the levels of interest, the males prove to have a higher involvement than the

females except for the restatement. It should be noted that the restatement is regularly used by

the female in the conversation 4 since she is noting the information that the male delivers. So

her restatement purports to confirm the messages that she has taken from him. Additionally,

the males tend to use more appreciative full-sentence response to show their interest than the

females. However, this pattern is designated by the particular setting in which the females are

informants and the males themselves are information tokens.

05

101520253035

single

complex

question

restatement

appreciative

laugh

Males

Females

Figure 3: Level of Interest

Low Interest High Interest

44

6. Conclusion:

From the discussion above, (1) the males prove to be more supportive in mix-sexed

conversations than the females. This is contradictory to the hypothesis stated in the

introduction. This pattern clearly depends on the roles of the participants in the conversations

rather than their genders. Those who primarily give information tends to deliver less

backchannel items than the other and vice versa. (2) The males’ responses are longer, more

varied, and embedded with more feelings and functions than those of the females. However,

the situation accounts for this reverse phenomenon. (3) At the bulk of levels, the males present

their higher interest in the message transfers. However, due to the limitation of the target

population and the settings of conversations, these findings and interpretations should not be

over-generalized. This is a case study to prove the hypothesis aforementioned should not be

widely administrated. For further research, the paper suggests a more in-depth investigation of

the effects of participants’ roles over their use of backchannel items.

REFERENCES

Coates, J.(1989). Gossip revisited: language in all-female groups. In Coates, J. and Cameron,

D. (eds.) Women in their speech communications, London: Longman.

Fishman, Pamela (1983), Interaction: the work women do, in Thorne, B., Kramerae, C. and

Henley, N. (eds.), Language and sex: Difference and dominance, Rowley, MA: Newbury

House.

Hoang, Thi Hanh (2006), Appreciating Utterances in Conversation: A Cross-culture Analysis,

PhD Thesis. Faculty of Art, Melbourne University

Jenkins, Nancy and Cheshire, Jenny (1990), Gender issues in the GCSE oral English

examination: part 1’, Language and education, 4: 261-92.

Nguyen, Thi Mai Hoa (2005), Pragmatic Analysis of Appreciating Responses in daily

conversations: A comparison between Vietnamese and Australian Culture, PhD Thesis,

Faculty of Art, Melbourne University.

Thomas, Linda, et al. (2004), Language, Society and Power, London: Routledge.

Zimmerman, Dan and West, Candace (1975), Sexroles, interruptions and silences in

conversation, inThorne, B. , Kramerae, C., and Henley, N. (eds.), Language and sex:

Difference and dominance, Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

45

APPENDIX

Conversation 1

FM1: 563721, EBC company.

M1: Good morning. Can I speak to Mary? It’s her brother here.

FM1: Oh, hi Jack. This is Mary. When did you come? I thought you were coming this

afternoon.

M1: Yes. Well, I planned to. But my friend bought a ticket for this morning instead, so …

FM1: I see. Well, I’m sorry I’m very busy now so I can’t really leave. Well, you can have a

rest and take a shower…

M1: That’s just it. I’m going to take a shower but I don’t know how to use your hot water

tank.

FM1: Oh, OK … well … don’t plug in the electricity – the hot water tank, until you are

absolutely sure you’ve filled it with water.

M1: Don’t plug in the hot water tank? Sorry?

FM1: Don’t plug it into the mains.

M1: Oh

FM1: Yep?

M1: I see … before it’s full of water … Oh, I’m with you.

FM1: Um … because as at the moment, er … it’s drained off for the winter, you see.

M1: I get you. Yeh.

FM1: Now the tank … it’s got two taps underneath it.

M1: Yes.

FM1: One’s red. One’s black.

M1: Right.

FM1: You are all right?

M1: Uhhuh.

FM1: Now here … you’ve got to close the red one first.

M1: Close the red first, yes.

FM1: That’s the drainage tap.

M1: Yeah.

FM1: Then you’ve got to open the black one.

M1: Open the black one.

FM1: … which is the supple tap …

M1: Yes … um, well, yes, … open the black one, right.

FM1: And it’ll take about five minutes probably to fill up.

46

M1: Umhmm

FM1: And then you can plug it into the mains.

M1: Good. And then I get …?

FM1: And … about half an hour later you should have some hot water with any luck.

M1: About a half hour?

FM1: Um.

M1: Fine … so I’ve got electricity and water.

FM1: Yes.

M1: Great … well … (laughs) sounds like …

FM1: You should be all right.

M1: OK. Thanks. See you soon.

Conversation 2:

M2: Good morning. 5723490.

FM2: Good morning, Richard. This is Sally.

M2: Hello, Sally. How are you?

FM2: Fine, thanks. Listen, are you free this weekend?

M2: Yes. Why?

FM2: You know, I’ve just bought a new house in the countryside.

M2: Oh, have you? Congratulations.

FM2: Thank you. I would like to invite you to have dinner with my family this weekend.

M2: That’s very kind of you. I’d love to. You’d better tell me how to get there. Where is your

new house?

FM2: In Greenwich. How will you be coming?

M2: By car, of course.

FM2: All right. So you’ll be coming from Andover. You need to take the road to Grand Town.

M2: Take the road … yeh. Hang on a moment, hang on a minute …

FM2: from Grand Town…

M2: ‘Cause I’m … I’m writing this down, ‘cause I … Grand Town, that’s Gra …

FM2: That’s G-R-A-N-D T-O-W-N. That’s right. Now you’ll approach the village from the

north.

M2: Coming from the north. Uhuh.

FM2: The house is about two miles outside the village, by the way.

M2: House is two … Uhuh.

FM2: Mmhmm. So now you get … you … you come into the centre of the village and you’ll

arrive at the main square …

47

M2: Come into centre …

FM2: On the far side…

M2: Yeh, I … I can’t get lost there, can I?

FM2: No, you can’t miss it.

M2: Mm.

FM2: … far side of the square you’ll see the Town Hall, “le Mairie” …

M2: Far side … hang on, far side … see Town Hall …

FM2: Right.

M2: Yah.

FM2: Now, you need to go past the Town Hall, leaving it on your left …

M2: Past … leave it on my left … yeh.

FM2: And cross the bridge over the river.

M2: Bridge … over … river. OK.

FM2: Now, the thing I, when you get across the bridge …

M2: Mm.

FM2: There’s a junction but there aren’t any signposts.

M2: Oh, that’s helpful.

FM2: Well … you know how it is. So you turn right.

M2: I cross the bridge … hang on. There’s a junction …yeh …and then I have to go right at

the junction.

FM2: That’s right. You turn right immediately after the bridge.

M2: Mmhmm.

FM2: And … basically you keep on that road. The road bears round to the left …

M2: Oh, that doesn’t sound too bad … yeh.

FM2: First of all … um … after about half a mile, there’s a chateau on your right.

M2: Is that your place?

FM2: Mm … ‘fraid not. Couldn’t afford it.

M2: Chateau … on … on the right, yehm?

FM2: And there’s a road going off opposite that … but ignore that road.

M2: Oh?

FM2: Keep straight on… you keep straight on right.

M2: Yeh.

FM2: Past the chateau.

M2: Keep straight on … yes?

FM2: The next thing you come to is a farm at a place called Villac …

48

M2: Farm … and then … Villac. That’s V-I-L-L …?

FM2: A-C.

M2: A-C?

FM2: That’s it.

M2: Uhuh?

FM2: And just after that the valley narrows and the road comes much closer to the river.

M2: Yes.

FM2: So you run along the river …

M2: Uhuh.

FM2: For a little … few hundred metres really. The house is in the next group of buildings.

M2: Ah.

FM2: You’ve got a mill … opposite the house.

M2: Ah … it sounds beautiful.

FM2: Well … it’s got … er … I think … I think you’ll like it when you get there.

M2: So … hang on a minute, the mill id opposite.

FM2: Yeh, you’ve got the river on your right.

M2: Yeh.

FM2: You come to the mill…which is on your right and three …

M2: Yes?

FM2: Three houses on the left opposite the mill … and the house is the middle one.

M2: House is the middle … one. OK.

FM2: Right? So do you think you’ll find it.

M2: Well … well, with my sense of direction I’m not sure, but now … I … I think I’ve got

everything down.

FM2: Fine. I’m sure you will. Dinner will start at six.

M2: Do I need to bring something?

Conversation 3:

M3: Excuse me, is this the accommodation office?

FM3: Yes, it is.

M3: Hi, my name is … um … Wolfgang. I … I’m a new student here. I’m wondering if you

can tell me some information about the housing arrangements at this college?

FM3: Yes, certainly. Well, I mean … basically there are two types of … um …

accommodation. The most popular is … um, the college accommodation … um … but also we

offer accommodation with local families.

M3: You mean a kind of home stay?

49

FM3: Yes, that’s right.

M3: Well, let me … can I … do you mind if I ask you a few questions about both of them?

Let me start with the college accommodation. Um … what kind of rooms are they?

FM3: Well, there are basically two types of room, either a single or a twin study bedroom. So

that’s …

M3: I’d have a roommate then?

FM3: That’s right, yes. So it’s two people sharing a room.

M3: Do all of the rooms have their own bathrooms?

FM3: Erm … they don’t. You … you have to share … um, a bathroom and a toilet … and

showers with a group of rooms. So it’s about six to eight other students.

M3: I see. Well, well … that sounds fine. What about bedding? Is …er … is that provided by

the college or …?

FM3: Yes, yes, it is. Um … so all the bed – linen is supplied.

M3: And the towels?

FM3: No. So you have to bring your own towels with you.

M3: Oh … uhuh. Well, If I … then … to wash my towels, is there a place where I can go to

do that or …?

FM3: Yes, yes. So … um … there are two accommodation buildings in the college and both of

these have launderettes.

M3: I’m sorry, they have a what?

FM3: They have launderettes. So these are places … um … where you can take your washing

and there are washing machines.

M3: Oh, is … is it free or …?

FM3: Er, no. They’re coin-operated washing machines …

M3: Oh. So I use the coin to make the machine work.

FM3: Uhuh, yes, that’s right.

M3: Oh, OK. That sounds fine.

FM3: And the … the … rooms are actually cleaned … um … every week and the bed – linen

is changed, also at the same time.

M3: Oh, that’s wonderful. That sounds fine. Um … if I … if I do decide to stay in the … in

the dormitory, I’m going to want to … er … have a chance to watch television. I wan to use

TV to practice my English. Is there a TV in the room?

FM3: Well, no, there isn’t a TV in every room … um … but there is a common room which

has … um … a colour TV in it, and some kinds of sitting areas so students can meet together

and they can watch TV.

M3: Oh, well, that sounds fine.

50

FM3: Uhuh … and, oh, but actually there’s also a large hall for films and discos, and kind of

parties and other social occasions.

M3: Oh, well, that sounds very good. That sounds interesting. I may want to do that, but

before I decide for sure, let me ask about the other possibility. I think you said there’s a kind

of homestay programme, is that right?

FM3: Yes, that’s right. So we select local families who … um … want to have students

staying with them for short periods.

M3: Hmm … well, that sounds interesting. How do I … er … how does that work? Do I eat

there everyday and … and sleep there as well, and so on?

FM3: Oh, well, basically there’re … there’re two kinds of accommodation available here… so

… um … The first one is half board so this is where … um …you just eat breakfast and

evening dinner with the family.

M3: Oh, and then lunch I would have on campus?

FM3: That’s right, yes. So that’s … that’s during the week, but at weekends you’ll have al

your meals …

M3: All the meals there …?

FM3: … with the … yeah … with the family. Um … so that’s …

M3: The other one was …

FM3: Uhuh. So that was the half board. The … the other one is bed and breakfast. So this is

where you just have breakfast with the family, seven days a week. So that includes weekends.

M3: And then I would have the lunch and dinner on campus. Is that how it’d work?

FM3: That’s right, yes. So it’s just breakfast.

M3: Well, now that I think about it, I wonder if maybe that might not … not be the better

option for me. The way I would have a chance to be practising my English with the British

family. I … yes, I think I will sign up for that. I’m pretty much sure that’s what I want to do

right now. Is it OK to go ahead and sign up immediately?

FM3: OK, yes, yes, that’s fine. Right, let me just see if I can find the forms. OK, right … so

your name is …?

M3: My name is Wolfgang Schmidt. That’s Wolfgang …

FM3: Wolfgang? Oh, how do you spell that?

M3: W-O-L-F-G-A-N-G.

FM3: OK … G-A-N-G … uhuh.

M3: And my last name is Schmidt.

FM3: Schmidt, ahah …

M3: S-C-H-M-I-D-T

FM3: S-C-H-M-D-T. And your address?

51

M3: You mean in Germany?

FM3: Yes, …yes, your home address.

M3: Ah … it’s Franz Dieter Strausse

FM3: Oh, how do you spell that?

M3: That’s F-R-A-N-Z …

FM3: F-R-A-N-Z … we say “zed” in Britain.

M3: Oh. I’m sorry – zed, yes. F-R-A-N-Z and the next word is Dieter. That’s D-I-E-T-E-R.

FM3: Uhuh … and …

M3: And the last word is Strausse.

FM3: Strausse, so that S-T- …

M3: S-T-R-A-U-S-S-E.

FM3: … S-S-E.

M3: Franz Dieter Strausse, number five.

FM3: Number five … uhuh.

M3: in Bonne …

FM3: Right, and that’s Germany, obviously.

M3: Germany. Uhuh.

FM3: And your age?

M3:I’m 20 … I’m sorry … no … I just turned 21 yesterday.

FM3: Oh, really? Happy birthday.

M3: Thank you.

FM3: Uhuh .. OK … and the programme that you’re in?

M3: I;m on the four-month programme, so I’ll be staying here until the end of December.

FM3: Right. And so you have any dietary requirements?

M3: I’m sorry. I’m not sure what you mean …

FM3: Ah, is … is there any kind of special food that you need or that you don’t eat?

M3: oh, no. I like to eat most anything … um …

FM3: Oh, that’s just as well with British food.

M3: I don’t think so. I’m looking forward to … er … trying some British dishes.

FM3: Really? Well …OK…um… we like to ask you something about yourself … your

personal interests and things, so that we can match you with an appropriate family, so …

M3: Oh, OK …

FM3: So, do … have you got any personal interests or hobbies?

M3: Well, I … I like to do sports … um … I specially like football. If it’s possibleI’d like to

be with a family maybe where there ‘s somebody I could practise football with.

52

FM3: Right … football … um… and have you got any special requirements for the family that

you are going to stay with … um …

M3: Oh, well … you know, I come from a large family back in Germany, so maybe, if it is

possible, you could put me with a family where there might be …er … another young person

or two, perhaps – would be good.

FM3: Right. So someone about your own age, perhaps …

M3: Mmm, maybe someone I could play football with …yeah.

FM3: Right. Well, actually I interviewed a family yesterday who seem just right for you …

M3: Oh.

FM3: Um … their name is Roberts … so it’s the Roberts family. Um … Mr. Robert is a bank

manager.

M3: Oh, really? My father is a bank manager.

FM3: Oh, well, and …

M3: That sounds very good.

FM3: So his … his wife is a part – time nursery school teacher, so she just work in the

morning.

M3: Oh, OK.

FM3: And they have two children … the girl is eighteen, but she is actually just gone away to

college, so this is why they have a room vacant.

M3: Oh, so I would … I would stay in her room then?

FM3: That’s right, uhuh.

M3: Oh, that sounds fine..

FM3: And their son is sixteen years old and he likes football very much.

M3: Well, that sounds very good. I think I … I’d like to meet this family. Is that possible to

… to do that?

FM3: Yes, it is. Um … what I’ll do is … I’ll give Mrs. Roberts a ring now. In fact, she should

be … should be home at this time. So I’ll give her a ring.

M3: Ok. Thank you.

Conversation 4

FM4: Hi, Wolfgang.

M4: Ah, Mary. How are you?

FM4: Oh, fine. How’s it going? Have you just had a class?

M4: Yes, I just finished my listening class. It was …er… a little bit difficult.

FM4: Yeah, yeah, it’s always difficult when you first arrive somewhere. I found it

quite hard when I first arrived. Mmm … but you know, what really made a difference was

53

going on these social activities that the … the college arranges for you. It kinda … gives you a

chance to practice your English and …

M4: Hmm … I’ve heard that the college is pretty good about organizing those kinds of

things. How … how do I find out about it?

FM4: Well, I’ve just picked up a schedule today. Let’s … let’s have a look at it. Here it is …

M4: What is it? A schedule for … for this week or …?

FM4: Yeah, yeah. Let’s have a look.

M4: Oh, OK … yeah … maybe we can do something together … in fact.

FM4: Yeah, that’d be great, so …

M4: Let’s see. What are they doing tonight? Monday night …

FM4: Well, they’ve … so … oh. They’ve got Singing with Guitar. So I went to this last week.

It’s …

M4: Oh, really?

FM4: Yes, it’s quite good fun.

M4: Is it pretty good?

FM4: Yeah, yeah.

M4: What do they do? Do they have a concert or …?

FM4: It’s … they teach you … um … modern and traditional songs.

M4: Mm … well … I’m not much of a singer, but … er…

FM4: Oh, come on. You should go. It’s really good fun.

M4: Well, I suppose it’d be a good way to practice my English.

FM4: Yeah, ‘cause you learn kinda British folk songs and things. It’s … yeah … really

interesting.

M4: Oh, but look at that. That starts at eight. But I notice at nine o’clock there’s a … er …

late night coach to Cambridge for a film. I think I’d want to go to try that … er … what time

does this singing finish? Do you know? about two hours, but I mean, we can always leave

earlier – they don’t mind, do …

M4: Oh, OK. So we can do both of them?

FM4: Yeah, so …

M4: Right. So that’s at nine o’clock … yea … yeah …

FM4: What movie is it? Let me see …

M4: Er … oh. It’s Rocky. Have you seen it?

FM4: Rocky … Rocky? Oh, that’s … that’s … er … the one with Richard Dreyfuss, isn’t it?

M4: Richard Dreyfuss? No, it’s Sylvester Stallone.

FM4: Oh, yes. I remember now … American movie … yes, I haven’t seen that. I wanna see

that. Good. Let’s go to that.

54

M4: All right. Ok. Oh, did you see on Tuesday that there’s a tennis tournament?

FM4: Tennis? Mm… what time is that?

M4: Well, that’s at four o’clock in the afternoon.

FM4: Where is it? Is it on campus or …

M4: No … no. It’s at Wembley, so that’s in London.

FM4: Oh, oh, so that … it’s pretty far away then. What time will it be coming back?

M4: Um … so it … the coach gets back at midnight.

FM4: Oh, midnight? Well, hmm … tell you what, I think maybe I’d better cancel on that

because I’ve got a class Wednesday morning, and I’m afraid … at about eight thirty … I’m

afraid if I came back that late I probably would …er… I’d be tired in class, and actually I …

I’m more into football myself, anyway.

M4: Oh, football? Well, did you see there’s a football match on Wednesday?

FM4: Oh, yeah? Well, who’s … who’s playing? Let’s see …

M4: Oh, it’s England and Brazil.

FM4: Oh, I really want to see that. Would you like to go together?

M4: Yeah, sure. What time is it?

FM4: Let me see… It says fifteen thirty, so that would be three thirty.

M4: Three thirty? Huh …

FM4: Now, I’ve got a … I have a lecture … er … right after lunch on Wednesday, at one

thirty

M4: Uhuh, what lecture is that?

FM4: Oh, well, there’s a journalist coming from the BBC. He’s going to talk about his

experiences as a foreign correspondent.

M4: Huh, that sounds interesting.

FM4: Would you … would you like to go?

Wolfgang: Yeah. What time did you say it was?

FM4: Er … right after lunch, around one thirty.

M4: Oh, one thirty? I have a class then. What a sh … yeah …

FM4: Oh, that’s too bad. Well, what time does your class finish?

M4: Well, it finishes … it’s an hour long … so it finishes at two thirty.

FM4: Oh, well, I shouldn’t imagine … the lecture shouldn’t go much later than that either, so

after your class and after my lecture we can get together to go to the football game.

M4: Ok … so we can meet …

FM4: Let’s see, maybe three o’clock or … maybe three fifteen.

M4: Yeah, maybe three fifteen would be all right.

55

FM4: OK. Where should we meet?

M4: Well, usually these … on these kinds of trips, the coach leaves from in front of the

dining hall, so maybe we could meet there.

FM4: OK, so in front of the dining hall at three fifteen. That sounds fine.

M4: Yeah, right. On Thursday there’s International Evening in the school hall.

FM4: Yeah, all songs and dances, performance by students from all over the world. That’s

very interesting. Would you like to go and see?

M4: Yes, when is that?

FM4: It will start at eight. Shall we meet at seven fifty in front of the school hall?

Wolfgang: Fine, seven fifty in front of the school hall.

56

PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE -

A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS ON ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE PLOSIVE

CONSONANTS

Hoàng Thị Mỵ

Khoa Sư phạm tiếng Anh

Vài nét về tác giả

Tốt nghiệp đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội năm 2006, Hoàng Thị Mỵ có 4 năm

kinh nghiệm giảng dạy tiếng Anh tại khoa Tiếng Anh và hiện nay là tại khoa Sư phạm tiếng

Anh, trường ĐHNN-ĐHQGHN. Hiện nay Hoàng Thị Mỵ đang theo học chương trình Thạc sỹ

tại Khoa Sau đại học, ĐHNN-ĐHQGHN (HULIS-VNU).

Abstract

It is now accepted that English is the major language globally, and that there are

probably more speakers of English as a second or foreign language than there are people who

speak it as their first language. More and more people need to use English for social,

educational, and professional reasons in all kinds of contexts, locally and internationally. It is

essential, therefore, that people who use English to communicate have a high level of

intelligibility. Among aspects of language, pronunciation plays a significant role in language

learning and linguistic development as well as successful communication. Each language has

its own system of pronunciation. For Vietnamese learners of English, pronunciation especially

plosive consonants cause many difficulties and they make a lot of mistakes when pronouncing

these sounds. Therefore, in order to have a better understanding between English and

Vietnamese pronunciation, especially consonants, I would like to avail myself of this

opportunity to do a research on this potential problem by using a contrastive analysis method

to find out the similarities and differences between phonology, consonants especially plosive

consonants of English and Vietnamese.

INTRODUCTION

1. Definition of the terms

1.1. Contrastive analysis

“Contrastive analysis is a linguistic enterprise aimed at producing inverted two –

valued typologies (a CA is always concerned with a pair of languages), and founded on the

assumption that languages can be compared.”

James (1980:3)

1.2. Consonant

“Consonants are sounds produced by partially or completely blocking the air in its

passage from the lungs through the vocal tract.”

57

Finegan (2004:89)

Each consonant can be distinguished by basic

features, which are the manner of articulation, the

place of articulation, and the voicing of the

consonant.

Since the number of consonants in the

world's languages is much greater than the number

of consonant letters in any one alphabet, linguists

have devised systems such as the International

Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to assign a unique symbol

to each attested consonant.

1.3. Stops consonants

Stop consonants are the sounds in the production of which there is a complete closure of

the articulators involved so that the air-stream cannot escape through the mouth. There are two

kinds of stops:

Oral stops (Plosives) are the sounds which are produced with the air-stream being stopped

in the oral cavity and the soft palate is raised blocking off the nasal cavity. Then the two

articulators come apart quickly and the air escapes through the oral tract.

Nasal stops (Nasals) are the sounds which are produced with the air-stream being stopped

in the oral cavity but the soft palate is down so that the air can go out through the nose.

In the scope of this term paper, it is our intention to just focus on the contrastive analysis

of plosive consonants (oral stops) in English and in Vietnamese.

According to Ha Cam Tam (2004: 16), a plosive consonant has the following stages:

- The closing stage, during which the articulating organs move together in order to form

the obstruction. In this stage, there is often an on-glide or transition audible in a

preceding sound segment and visible in an acoustic analysis as characteristic curve of

formants of the preceding sound.

- The compression stage, during which lung action compresses the air behind the

closure. This stage may or may not be accompanied by voice, i.e. vibration of the vocal

cords.

- The explosion stage, during which the organs forming the obstruction part rapidly,

allowing the compressed air to escape abruptly. If the compression stage is voiced, the

vocal cord vibration may continue in this stage. If the compression stage is voiceless,

this stage may also be voiceless before silence or before the onset of voice.

2. English phonology versus Vietnamese phonology

There are similarities as well as differences between English and Vietnamese

phonology. However, with the aim to getting an overview of English and Vietnamese

58

phonology in order to have the best understanding of consonants of these two languages, we

focus on differences between English and Vietnamese phonology.

The first difference is that English is multisyllabic language, whereas Vietnamese is

basically monosyllabic one. For Vietnamese this causes problems in pronunciation difficulties

such as word stress, breath control and derivative words. Therefore, it is difficult for

Vietnamese students to pronounce long, multisyllabic words, and joining syllables. Because

they are used to pronouncing short, simple words in Vietnamese. In other words, English has

stressed-time language, while Vietnamese is a syllable-timed language. As a result,

Vietnamese learners have to be acquainted with the concept of word stress, which is much

different from the concept of tone in Vietnamese. Moreover, word stress in English has no

orthographic indication, the only way to remember it is to learn by heart. Because of the

monosyllabic nature of Vietnamese, our students are not familiar with weakened vowels, or

unstressed syllables. That is, English has stressed syllables which are spoken with more effort

and energy and unstressed syllables that are pronounced with less effort. This does not happen

in Vietnamese, so the mistake that students of English often make is to produce all English

syllables with an even tone. In addition to this, word stress movement in related words such as

photograph, photography, photographer, photographic causes the learners many difficulties.

The second difference between English and Vietnamese is the liking sounds. In

English, the role of consonants is very important when these consonants are placed at the end

of the front word and the appearance of a vowel at the beginning of the next word. The

consonant and the vowel are linked together. This does not exist in Vietnamese. Therefore,

Vietnamese learners often produce English words and syllables separately, and it is also very

difficult for them to listen to native speakers as many linking sounds may occur in a sentence.

The next problem is the prosodic phenomena in Vietnamese and English. That is, in

Vietnamese, there are six tones: level, falling, rising, low-rising, broken and dot. These tones

are lexical. They change the meaning of words, just as, in English, changing one of the

segmental phonemes (consonants and vowels) can change the meaning of words. Let’s have a

look at the following examples:

Vietnamese English

Ma ghost

Má mother

Mả grave

Mà but

Mạ seed

Mã horse

As for a larger unit of speech- suprasegmental unit-intonation, in Vietnames, we do not

pay much attention to intonation because, according to Doan Thien Thuat (1997:187), a tonal

59

language often has a very limited intonation. It has, actually, intonation, but its role is vague.

For example, in order to express questions, Vietnamese speakers often use particles such as: à,

á, hả, ư, whereas in English intonation plays a greater role. A statement can become a question

if we change its intonation.

Example:

You are Tom?

The biggest difference between Vietnamese and English is in sound system of vowels and

consonants.

3. English consonants versus Vietnamese consonants

- English consonants

English contains 24 consonants which are classified by the criterion of distinction such

as: places of articulation, manners of articulation and voicing. This can be shown in the

following table:

Bilabial

- +

Labio-

dental

- +

Dental

- +

Alveolar

- +

Palato-

alveolar

- +

Palatal

- +

Velar

- +

Glotal

- +

Plosive p b t d k ɡ

Fricative f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h

Affricate tʃ

dʒ

Nasal m n ŋ

Lateral l

Apro.

w

r

j

Place of articulation Labial Tongue tip

60

Manner of articulation

Tongue

blade

Tongue

root

GlottalStrait Retroflex

Plosive Noise

consonant

Aspirated

ť

Un-

aspirated

Voiceless

t ʈ c k ?

Voiced

b d

Nasal sonant

m n ɲ

Ŋ

Fricative

Noise

consonant Voiceless

f s ʂ X h

Voiced v z ʑ

Lateral sonant

l

Table: Chart of English consonant phonemes

(English phonetics and phonology – Peter Roach (p. 52:1990)

- Vietnamese consonants

According to Le Quang Thiem (2004), there are 30 Vietnamese consonants, in which

there are 22 initial consonants, only six final consonants: /p/, /t/, /k/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ and two

semi-vowels. The possible Vietnamese consonants are represented in the following table in

IPA format.

Table: Chart of Vietnamese initial consonant phonemes

(Source: Nghiên cứu đối chiếu các ngôn ngữ - Lê Quang Thiêm (2004:100))

Manner of

articulation

Place of articulation

LabialTongue tip

Tongue tip Tongue blade

Plosive p t k

61

Fricativ

e

Non-

Nasal

m n Ŋ

Nasal Semi-vowel

u

Semi-vowel

i

Table: Chart of Vietnamese final-syllable consonants

When comparing between English consonant chart by Peter Roach (2004) and

Vietnamese consonant chart by Le Quang Thiem (2004), it can be seen that in describing

consonants, the Vietnamese researcher focus more on features of tongue position, whereas the

English researcher pay more attention to features of other articulators such as dental, alveolar

etc.

There are differences between the phonemic symbols and the writing symbols in both

English and Vietnamese. Therefore, the following tables will clarify the writing symbols and

the phonemic symbols in English and Vietnamese.

NO Phonemic

symbol

Writing

symbol

Example NO Phonemic

symbol

Writing

symbol

Example

1. p p pea, pin 13. b b been, bee

2. t t toe, tea 14. d d do, does

3. k c cap, car 15. g g gap, go

4. f f fat, fan 16. v v van

5. θ th thing, thank 17. ð th this, that

6. s s sip, sea 18. z z zip

7. ʃ sh ship, shape 19. ʒ measure

8. h h hat, hear 20. l l lead

9. m m map, man 21. r r red

10. n n now, nap 22. j y yet

11. ŋ ng hang, hung 23. w w wet, was

12 tʃ ch chin, China 24. dʒ g gin

Table: English phonemic symbol and their corresponding writing symbol

(Source: Nghiên cứu đối chiếu các ngôn ngữ - Lê Quang Thiêm (2004:107))

NO

Phonemic

symbol

Writing

symbolExample NO

Phonemic

symbol

Writing

symbolExample

62

1. b b ba, bàn 12. ʈ tr trâu trắng

2. m m mạ, mang 13. ʂ s sâu sắc

3. f ph phao, pha 14. ʐ r ráo riết

4. v v vào, việt 15. c ch chào chú

5. t’ th thầy, tha 16. ɲ ng nhà nho

6. t t tay, ta 17. k c, k, q co, quá, kẹo

7. d đ đi, đứng 18. ŋ ng, ngh ngày, nghèo

8. n n nao, núng 19. x kh khó khăn

9. s x xanh, xây 20. ɣ g, gh gà, ghẻ

10. z d, gi dày, gian 21. ? khuyết

11. l l lo, lắng 22. h h hay, ho

Table: Vietnamese initial consonants and their corresponding writing symbol

N0 Phonemic symbol Writing symbol Example

1 -p p tạp, úp

2 -t t át, lát, mát

3 -kch dịch, sách

c lấc cấc

4 -m m mam, âm

5 -n n nhân dân

6 -ɲ nh tính, sinh

7 - ŋ ng trông mong

Table: Vietnamese final consonants and their corresponding writing symbol

(Source: Nghiên cứu đối chiếu các ngôn ngữ - Lê Quang Thiêm (p.105 ))

From the comparison of inventory of Vietnamese consonants and English one, some

points can be focused as follows.

63

The first point is that Vietnamese has some consonants which are the same as English

in terms of writing symbol and phonemic symbol. In other words, they are the same in

spelling and phonemic symbol, including p /p/, b /b/, t /t/, c or k /k/, ph /f/, h /h/, v /v/, m /m/, n

/n/, ng /ŋ /, l /l/. For the same features of the above consonants, Vietnamese learners of

English have little difficulty in practicing and making these sounds correctly.

The second point is that there are some Vietnamese consonants which have the same

spelling but differ in pronunciation from English consonants. The consonants are mentioned

below.

o Writing symbol d has phonemic symbol as /z/ (dọn dẹp) in Vietnamese but as /d/

in English (dinner, door, bed)

o Writing symbol x has phonemic symbol as /s/ (xin xỏ) in Vietnamese but as /z/

(xenomorphic, exam) or /s/ (Xerox) in English.

o Writing symbol s has phonemic symbol as /ʂ/ (sung sướng) in Vietnamese but as

/s/ (sun, sight), /z/ (months), / dʒ/ (vision), /ʒ/ (treasure), /∫/ (mission) in English.

o Writing symbol gi has phonemic symbol as /z/ (giá cả) in Vietnamese but as / dʒ/

(giant) in English

o Writing symbol r has phonemic symbol as /ʐ/ (run rẩy, rung rinh) in Vietnamese

but as /r/ (run, ring) in English.

o Writing symbol g or gh has phonemic symbol as /ɣ/ (gọn gàng, ghé thăm) in

Vietnamese but as /g/ (gay, get, gharry) in English.

o Writing symbol ch has phonemic symbol as /c/ (chăm chỉ, chạy vạy) in

Vietnamese but as /t∫/ (chair) in English.

o Writing symbol tr has phonemic symbol as [ʈ] (trồng trọt) in Vietnamese but as

/tr/ (tree) in English.

When using the English consonants that have the same spelling but different

pronunciation compared with Vietnamese, Vietnamese speakers often make mistake in

pronunciation. In stead of making the correct sound in English, they make the sound in

Vietnamese that has the same writing symbol. The mistake will become more popular if the

phonetic symbols in English are not included in Vietnamese inventory of consonants.

The third point is about the consonants which have the same phonetic symbols but

different writing symbols. These consonants are:

Phonemic

symbol

Writing symbol

Vietnamese English

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/d/ đ(đó đây, đại hội) d (dinner, dog, desk)

/s/ x (xin xỏ, xinh xắn) c (circus), s (sun)

/f/ ph (phi thường, phổng

phao)

f (fun, finger)

/z/ gi (giá cả, gia công) gi (giant), z (zebra), x

(xerox)

/n/ n (nài nỉ) n (no), kn (know), gn

(gnotobiotics), pn

(pneumatic)

/w/ u/o w (wet), wh (wheel)

/j/ y/i (yêu quí, im lặng) g (vignette)

For the English consonants carrying this feature, Vietnamese speakers have less

difficulty in pronunciation because these sounds appear in the inventory of

Vietnamese consonants but sometimes they just look at the letters of

English words and make the sounds as ones of the letters in Vietnamese.

The fourth point can be realized through the comparison is existence

of some Vietnamese consonants that are not included in English and vice

versa. There are actually consonants existing in Vietnamese inventory of consonant but not

in English in terms of phonemics. The consonants include /ʈ/ (trong trắng), /c/ (chiến

tranh), /d/ (đi đứng), /ʂ/ (sa chân), /x/ (khó khăn), /ɣ/ (gọn gàng, ghe

chài), /ɲ/ (nhẹ nhàng, nhanh nhẹn). There are also consonants only

appearing in English inventory of consonant but not in Vietnamese. The

consonants are mentioned as follow: /g/ (get, got), /t∫/ (chew, nature), /dʒ/

(jaw, adjective, soldier, usage), // (thin), /ð/ (this), /∫/ (ship, election, machine, mission,

pressure, schedule), /ʒ/ (treasure, azure, evasion)

In the process of grasping English language, Vietnamese learners feel confused to

recognize and create sounds that Vietnamese does not have and in this case, they tend to find

and make these sounds like ones existing in Vietnamese which have a similar point to them.

In conclusion, there are some interesting points of similarities and differences between

the inventory of Vietnamese consonants and the inventory of English consonants. To use

English successfully, Vietnamese learners should understand and flexibly associate the two

inventories.

CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS ON PLOSIVE ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE CONSONANTS

4. Similarities

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In general, both plosive consonants of English and Vietnamese share typical features of

a plosive sound, which is produced with a complete closure of the vocal tract followed by a

sudden release of the air. The articulation is accompanied by a burst, a sort of explosion.

Moreover, there are similar features in position and place of articulation of plosive consonants

in two languages.

Plosive English consonants

- Place of articulation

Plosive p

b

t

d

k

ɡ

Place of

articulation

Bilabial

- +

Labio-

dental

- +

Dental

- +

Alveolar

- +

Palato-

alveolar

- +

Palatal

- +

Velar

- +

Note: -: voiceless sounds

+: voiced sounds

- Position of English plosive sounds in words

Position/p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/

Initial pick balloon tea doll kick garden

Middle capture laboratory kitchen kidnap postcard goose

Final stop climb put mild pick dig

Plosive Vietnamese consonants

- Place of articulation

Place of articulation

Manner of articulation

Labial Tongue tip Tongue

blade

Tongue

root GlottalStrait Retroflex

Plosive

Noise

consonant

Aspirated

ť

Un-

aspirated

Voiceless

t ʈ c k ?

Voiced

b d

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Note: -: voiceless sounds

+: voiced sounds

- Position of Vietnamese plosive sounds in words

Position/p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/

Initial Foreign loans

only

bạn tôi đúng đắn kéo gánh

Middle Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø

Final nấp Ø chát Ø các Ø

- Plosive English and Vietnamese share many plosive consonants in terms of phonemic

symbol: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/

- Some plosive English and Vietnamese consonants appear in the similar position.

* Initial position

b (bà or bear),

d (đen or doll),

k (kéo or kite)

* Final position

p (lớp or hop)

t (ít or bat),

k (gác or luck)

- The most important similarity is that articulation of some plosive English and Vietnamese

consonants has similarities.

Firstly, it can be seen that /b/ in English and Vietnamese has the same place and

manner of articulation.

/b/ + Closing stage: The soft palate being raised and the

nasal resonator shut off, the primary obstacle to the air-

stream is provided by the closure of the lips.

+ Compression stage: Lung air is compressed behind

this closure, during which stage the vocal cords vibrate.

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+ Release stage: Then the closure is released suddenly

for the air to escape with a kind of explosion.

It still causes debates if /p/ belongs to the initial consonant in Vietnamese or not. Some

researchers stated that /p/ only appears in foreign loan words; therefore it does not belong to

Vietnamese initial consonants. However we agree with the point of view of Dang Thi Lanh et.

al. (1997) in the book “Vietnamese” to categorize /p/ as the initial consonant in Vietnamese

because of its appearance in words “đèn pin”, “Sa Pa”, “Pắc Bó”, etc. In addition, nowadays

these words with consonant /p/ have become an integrated part of Vietnamese vocabulary. In

terms of place of articulation and manner, /p/ in English and Vietnamese is similar.

/p/

+ Closing stage: The soft palate being raised and the

nasal resonator shut off, the primary obstacle to the air-

stream is provided by the closure of the lips.

+ Compression stage: Lung air is compressed behind

this closure, during which stage the vocal cords are held

wide apart.

+ Release stage: Then the closure is released suddenly

for the air to escape with a kind of explosion.

Beside /b/ and /p/, the articulation of /d/ in English is the same as /d/ in Vietnamese.

However, it should be noticed here that the written symbols of /d/ in English and in

Vietnamese are different. /d/ in English often has the written symbols as “d”(door, do), but in

Vietnamese it has the written symbols as “đ” (đỉnh, đầu)

/d/ + Closing stage: The soft palate being raised and the

nasal resonator shut off, the primary obstacle to the air-

stream is formed by a closure made between the tip and

rims of the tongue and the upper alveolar ridge and side

teeth.

+ Compression stage: Lung air is compressed behind

this closure, during which stage the vocal cords are

vibrate.

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+ Release stage: The air escapes with noise upon the

sudden separation of the alveolar closure.

Along with similarities, in each language of English and Vietnamese, the way of

formulating plosive sounds also has distinctive features, which will be dealt in the following

part.

5. Differences

- Position

Moreover, it can be seen clearly from the tables above, stop consonants in English can

stand at initial, middle, final positions, whereas in Vietnamese stop consonants do not appear

at middle position. In addition, since Vietnamese only has six final consonants and only three

of them can stand at the end of words (syllable-final), /p/ (nấp), /t/ (chát), /k/ (các).

Therefore, English appears to have a wider variety of final consonant sounds at the end

of words, /p/ (rip), /b/ (rib), /t/ (writ), /d/ (rid), /k/(rick), /g/ (rig)

- Articulation

Final position

One prominent difference between English plosive consonants and Vietnamese plosive

consonants occurring at the final position of a syllable is that in English, the consonants /p/, /t/,

/k/ may be plosive whereas the finals /p/, /t/, /k/ in Vietnamese are implosives, that is they are

made with an egressive air stream from the lungs. Specifically, at the end of words (syllable-

final), in Vietnamese syllable-final /p/ is produced with no air released after pronunciation, /t/

is always pronounced shortly and sharply without aspiration, /k/ with the writing symbols of

“c”, “ch” (ngọc, nghịch) is also produced without aspiration.

For example:

Vietnamese English

tóp top

sót sought

các cake

Initial position

There are the differences of articulation between some plosive consonants in English

and in Vietnamese.

Firstly, there are some plosive consonants that only exist in Vietnamese. These

consonants include / th /, /c/, / ţ /.

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Phoneme /th/, written “th” in Vietnamese is a strong aspirated initial, for example:

thúng, thanh. The Vietnamese “th” is different from the English /θ/. It is pronounced with the

tip of one’s tongue behind the upper front teeth.

The next consonant is the palatal /c/ which is a specific consonant in Vietnamese. This

consonant is produced when the tongue tip is down near the back of the lower teeth and

contact is made by the tongue blade against the hard palate. The Vietnamese phoneme /c/ is

also represented by the written symbol of “ch”. However, it should not be mixed up with the

English phoneme /t∫/.

Vietnamese /c/ English /t∫/

Vietnamese /c/ is a palatal stop which is

created by the tongue tip being near the

backs of the lower teeth, with the blade

rising towards the back of the alveolar

ridge and the front of the hard palate.

English /t∫/ is a palato-alveolar sound,

which is generally produced by the tongue

tip against the alveolar ridge with the

blade touching just behind it.

For example: Vietnamese “cha”, “chú”, “cho” versus English “char”, “choose”,

“chop”.

Another specific plosive consonant in Vietnamese is /ţ/, which is produced with the

tongue tip curved upward and towards the back of the mouth (retroflex). Vietnamese /ţ/ is a

retroflex voiceless stop consonant such as in “trời”. However, Hanoi dialect does not

distinguish the two consonants; they are pronounced like /c/(ch). It should be noted that /ţ/ in

Vietnamese indicates one consonant sound unlike the combination of two characters “tr” in

English where they indicate two separate sounds “t” and “r”, for instance: train, treat.

Secondly, there are some sounds existing in both languages but they have different

articulation.

Place of articulation of Vietnamese consonants

Labial Dental Alveolar Post alveolar Velar Glottal

p t ʂ c k h

f t’ z s x

b d ʑ ʈ

v l ɲ Ŋ

m n

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(Source: Nguyen Thanh Tri (2005:8))

Place of articulation of English consonants

Bilabial Labio-

dental

Dental Alveolar Palato-

alveolar

Palatal Velar Glotal

p b t d k ɡ

f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h

tʃ dʒ

m n ŋ

l

w r j

(English phonetics and phonology – Peter Roach (p. 52:1990)

The phonemic symbol of /t/ in English and in Vietnamese is the same, but the place

and manner of articulation are different. In order to pronounce /t/ in English, “the tongue

blade is pressed against the alveolar ridge” (Roach, P: 32) whereas /t/ in Vietnamese the tip

and rims of the tongue touch the side teeth (Đặng et al. : 102). For phoneme /t/ one point that

should be paid attention to is that /t/ in English is not the same as /t/ in Vietnamese but it has

the similar place and manner of articulation as /t’/ (th) in Vietnamese, which is dental

aspirated. This happens when /t/ combines with front vowels and then it is being velarised into

/t’/ (Đặng et. al., 102)

/t/

It is the same as /d/, except at the compression stage,

the vocal folds are wide apart.

The phoneme /t/ in Vietnamese is the voiceless counterpart of the voiced phoneme /d/,

for example: ta, tu, ti. The Vietnamese /t/ is an unaspirated phoneme, whereas English /t/ can

be aspirated.

Although as it has been presented in the previous part, because /p/ is a foreign loan in

Vietnamese; therefore it has similar place and manner of articulation in English and in

Vietnamese. However, just in very few dialects /p/ in Vietnamese is pronounced as /p/ in

English. Instead, /p/ in most dialects in Vietnamese is unaspirated and may sound like “b” to

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an English speaker. In English, /p/ may be aspirated depending on context. /p/ in English is

aspirated when it is at the beginning of a stressed syllable.

While /g/ is plosive in English, it is fricative in Vietnamese //. // in Vietnamese is a

velar voiced fricative consonant, the voiced counterpart of the voiceless consonant /x/(kh).

When producing the phoneme // in Vietnamese, the tongue blade is moving backwards, the

tongue tip is located at the bottom of the lower teeth, the back of the tongue rises towards the

velum, leaving a narrow channel through which the air squeezes on its way out. Vietnamese

phoneme // is unlike the English g, which is also a stop consonant produced by the back of

the tongue and the velum coming together and completely cutting off the flow of air

momentarily, then separating abruptly. For example: Vietnamese ga, ghi and English garment,

give.

As for /k/, in English, it is velar; the back of the tongue is pressed against the area

where the hard palate ends and the soft palate begins.

/k/

+ Closing stage: The soft palate being raised and the

nasal resonator shut off, the primary obstacle to the air

stream is formed by a closure made between the back of

the tongue and the soft palate

+ Compression stage: Lung air is compressed behind

this closure, during which stage the vocal cords are

wide apart.

+ Release stage: The escapes with noise upon the

sudden separation of the velar closure

However, /k/ in Vietnamese is a little different with tongue root involved. /k/ is

produced fortis and unaspirated. Perhaps one of the most common words beginning with “k” is

“kem” which means “ice cream” and “kẹo” which means “candy”.

- Consonant cluster

Moreover, while in Vietnamese at initial position, there is no consonant cluster

(Lê:117), plosive consonants in English can occur in clusters with fricatives and approximants,

as well as each other, as illustrated in the examples below:

/pt/ apt

/kt/ act

/ft/ lift”

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(Martha C. Pennington (1997:49))

When we have two or more consonants together, we call them a consonant cluster.

Initial two-consonant clusters are of two sorts in English. One sort is composed of s followed

by one of a small set of consonants. These clusters are shown in Table 2:

Sp t k f m n

spin stick skin sphere smell snow

Table 2: Two-consonant clusters with pre-initial s

(Source: English phonetics and phonology - Peter Roach (p. 60: 1990)

The other sort begins with one of a set of about fifteen consonants. However, here we just pay

attention to plosive consonants. This can be best shown in table form.

p t k b d ɡ

l play - Clay black - glue

r pray tray Cry bring Drip green

w - twin Quick - Dwell -

j pure tune Cue beauty Due -

Table: Two-consonant clusters with l, r, w, j

(Source: English phonetics and phonology - Peter Roach (p. 61- 1990)

5. Common problems in pronouncing plosive consonants for Vietnamese learners

*Substitution:

EFL learners tend to use other similar sounds to substitute for English sounds which do

not exist in their first language. For example, Vietnamese learners often replace the

unaspirated /t/ in Vietnam with the aspirated /t/ in English. Vietnamese learners also often

does not pay attention to aspiration, voice and voiceless of sounds, which leads to the

mispronunciation of the pair /p/, /b/. For example, instead of pronouncing “pen”, /pen/, they

may pronounce /ben/.

*Sound deletions:

Another common problem with pronunciation is created when the speaker leaves out or

deletes a sound. The deleted sounds normally fall in the single consonant at the beginning,

middle or end of a word, especially consonants in sound clusters. There has been a large body

research on the common problems facing Vietnamese EFL and many researches concluded

that Vietnamese EFL learners generally have more difficulties in pronouncing the final

consonants. Many of Vietnamese EFL learners often delete the final sound. An illustration for

this is that many Vietnamese learners produce “want” /wan/ instead of /want/ or “went” as

/wen/ instead of /went/.

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*Sound insertions:

Non-native speakers may sometimes add more sounds to the words. For instance,

Vietnamese learners of English can produce “train” as /tərein/, in stead of /trein/ because they

have difficulties pronouncing the sound cluster/tr/. This set of problems not only limits the

degree of intelligibility but could also cause unpleasantness on the part of the listeners.

*Mispronunciation between near-sounds in English and Vietnamese

In fact, Vietnamese sounds system did affect Vietnamese students when learning

English as a second language. As a result, when Vietnamese students encounter with these

words like “then, thick, thanks, etc” they may be confused and may pronounce the initial

consonant as /t‘/ in Vietnamese such as “thiết tha”, “thơm tho” instead of /θ/ in English.

*Consonant clusters

Due to the fact that Vietnamese language does not have any consonants cluster either at

the initial of final position; therefore, it is fairly hard for them to produce these sounds

correctly.

These are some typical examples of Vietnamese students’ misunderstanding in

pronunciation when learning English as a second language. From my own experience, to help

students to avoid such these mistakes, the most important thing should be noticed is that the

English teachers instruct students to recognize the differences among phonemes of two

languages from the beginning. Encouraging students to listen to the model and to practice the

sounds as much as possible is also a very useful way.

CONCLUSION

To sum up, each language has its own system of sounds. In this assignment, I have

conducted a research into the system of English and Vietnamese phonology, English and

Vietnamese consonants and especially the similarities and differences of plosive consonants

between Vietnamese and English. From the contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese

plosive consonants, as teachers of English, I point out some common mistakes that

Vietnamese learners often make.

However, due to time pressure and the lack of materials, especially materials in

Vietnamese, this assignment still consists of shortcomings, which may include limited

illustrations of ways of pronunciation of Vietnamese. I really hope that in the future we will

have chances to carry out further researches relating to this interesting and useful topic.

REFERENCES

1. Đặng, Thị Lanh, et. al. (1997). Tiếng Việt. Hà Nội: NXBGD.

2. Đoàn, Thiện Thuật. (1997). Ngữ âm Tiếng Việt. Hà Nội: NXB Đại học và trung học chuyên

nghiệp.

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3. Hà, Cẩm Tâm. (2004). English phonetics and phonology. Hà Nội: NXB ĐHQGHN

4. Ngo, Như Bình. (2005). Elementary Vietnamese: Revised Edition. USA: Tuttle Publishing.

5. Nguyen, Thanh Tri. (2005). Simple Vietnamese for You. BookSurge. Xuất bản bởi

BookSurge, LLC,

6. Finegan, E. (2004). Language: Its Structure and Use. USA: Thomson Wadsworth.

7. James, C. (1980). Contrastive Analysis. Longman: Longman Group Limited.

8. Martha, C. Pennington. (1997). Phonology in English, Language teaching: An international

Approach. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited,.

9. Lê, Quang Thiêm.(2004). Nghiên cứu đối chiếu các ngôn ngữ. Hà Nội: NXB ĐHQGHN

10. Roach, P. (2003), English Phonetics and Phonology, Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

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