I. Introduction to History !History - tells a story, which is particularly biased towards men - history is a story of the past

- anything that has to with the past is history - history should be recorded (history is the study of recorded events) - Documentation (writing: literary works, journals, biographies, letters, treaties, etc) - Oral Tradition/Oral History (songs, stories, etc) - Artifacts (works of art, weapons, architecture, etc) - certain past events are recorded because they have value and this is also the reason why some

events are recorded and studied - history is the search for meaning, which is opposed to other fields of study which focus on

finding evidence - events can exist without people, but once people give an event value the said event becomes

history !Elements of History a) Actions - actions, events and phenomena !b) Space -actions must occur in a specific space !c) Time - actions must occur at a specific chronological setting !Different Perspectives of Time a) Linear - a definite beginning and an indefinite end - this perspective of time is mainly used in European history

- done to show development and progress - done to understand the present !

b) Cycle - there is an indefinite beginning and an indefinite end - follows the pattern over and over again - this perspective is mainly used in Asian history

- rooted in the Asian belief in Animism (nature has cycles) !II. Civilization !!

Civilization - from the Latin civilis, meaning civil, related to the Latin civis, meaning citizen, and civitas,

meaning city or city-state !The Mesopotamian Civilization - civilizations began springing up around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers - the Mesopotamian Civilization flourished in this region

- the Mesopotamian civilization can be divided into the Summerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, etc

- settled near rivers for better irrigation and accessibility to food and clean water - the rivers caused constant flooding - Cuneiform was developed by the Mesopotamian civilization

- Cuneiform was a writing system used to document taxes, rules and prices - Cuneiform uses pictograph (words were a combination of different pictures of objects) - the development of Cuneiform indicates a surplus of supplies

- the existence of a surplus of supplies indicates the specialization of roles in Mesopotamian society - the Mesopotamians were also known for creating the Code of Hammurabi - a systematic list of laws and punishments - the Code of Hammurabi was retributive in nature - “An eye for an eye...”

- the existence of laws suggests the existence of a government that can enforce laws - the existence of laws as opposed to rules suggests that the Mesopotamian civilization

had a significantly large population - the Mesopotamians also created epics

- the Epic of Gilgamesh is the most known Mesopotamian epic - many Biblical stories mirror tales from the Epic of Gilgamesh

- the Mesopotamians had many advancements in architecture and engineering - created Ziggurats near mountains - the existence of great structures suggests that Mesopotamian society, like other ancient

civilization, utilized slave labor (due to the existence of a large population) !The Egyptian Civilization - the Egyptian civilization settled along the Nile River, which had tamer waters than the Tigris

and Euphrates - aside from having laws, epics, large structures and writing, the Egyptians also added to the

definition of a civilization - the Egyptians created political structures

- Menes was one of the first leaders of Egypt, who consolidated power in Egypt and set his capital at Memphis

- the Egyptians developed a more advanced form of mathematics and engineering that allowed them to build structures more efficiently

- the Egyptians were able to control their population and slaves through organized religion

- had their own writing system called Hieroglyphics which were written on papyrus - the Egyptians also buried their dead properly, which was a precedent for future civilizations

- rooted in the belief in an afterlife, which is in turn rooted in the existence of organized religion !

The Israelites - the Israelites do not necessarily abide by the traditional categories that define a civilization - although there are no more existing Israelite structures and buildings left, the Israelites are

widely known for their religious text, which has a historical feel to it - the contents of the Israelite religious script read like they were factual statements

- the bible is one of the greatest accomplishments of the Israelites since it became wildly popular and a part of everyday life (something no ancient creation was able to achieve) !a) Abraham - was the first patriarch of Israelite society - according to religious texts, Abraham promised to worship Yahweh as the “one true god”

- this was a dramatic shift in religion, since it helped establish monotheism -this created a covenant between Abraham and Yahweh and Abraham was told to search for the promise land - the search for the promise land saw the Israelites arriving at Egypt

- the Egyptians eventually used the Israelites as slave labor, thereby starting the golden age of Egyptian civilization !

b) Moses - Moses was the son of Israelites who ended up getting raised by Egyptian nobility

- Moses was sent away by his parents since there was a prophecy that someone would overthrow Ramses I and Ramses I ordered the execution of firstborn sons

- floating children in baskets was widely practiced by the Israelites in times of crisis (children were also left in caves, etc)

- Moses killed a man mistreating a slave and went into exile right after - Yahweh appeared to Moses as a burning bush and instructed Moses to lead the Israelites

- the burning bush incident was real; historians argue that the bush was a particular kind of plant that simultaneously combusts (an evolutionary adaptation) and emits a hallucinogenic gas

- unleashed the 10 Plagues in an attempt to coerce the Pharaoh into releasing the Israelites - cemented the notion that the Abrahamic god was powerful - Ramses II yielded to the Israelites and set them free

- Moses was said to have parted the Red Sea and drowned the Egyptian army - One theory that explains this phenomena is that Moses parted the Sea of Reed (as

opposed to the Red Sea) - Moses pushed through the foliage and the foliage went back up when the

Pharaoh arrived - The Pharaoh’s chariots later got stuck in the swampy mud

- Another theory is the Tsunami Theory - an earthquake occurred and caused the water to recede - the water eventually returned !III. Ancient Greece !Greek Civilization - was probably the most powerful ancient civilization, after Rome - was situated around the Mediterranean - had grand structures, organized religion, literature (epics and myths) and a system of law - helped set the foundations of western civilization - the Greek civilization took root due to migrations !Minoan Civilization - one of the first Migration that took place in the history of the Greeks - were not actually called the Minoans, the actual name of this civilization is unknown

- Called the Minoans since historians believed that these people were the people of the mythical King Minos

- King Minos was a very powerful king, who according to myth, had to sacrifice a bull to Poseidon every year

- King Minos was said to possess a minotaur in Greek mythology - they originated from the island of Crete, which had a capital at Knossos - showed many characteristics of later Greek civilization, like a fascination with bulls, possessing

the ability to create grand structures and being generally peaceful - since the Minoans were confined to an island, they were easily assimilated by invaders (the

Mycenaeans) - Minoans were eventually relegated to the realm of mythology !

Mycenaean Civilization - were a warrior aristocracy - moved from the north of Greece and started conquering the southern states - had a writing system called Linear A and Linear B - since they were a warrior aristocracy, the Mycenaeans did not have many written histories

- knowledge on the Mycenaean culture came from myths - one key source of knowledge on the Mycenaean civilization came from Homer’s epics !Illiad - Homer’s Illiad talks about the Trojan War - One of the main characters was a demigod named Achilles

- was dipped in the River Styx (gateway to the underworld) and the water made him impervious to injury except for his heels, which were his weak spot

- Achilles was an excellent fighter

- Achilles was afraid of falling into obscurity so he joined every battle the Greeks were involved in

- Agamemnon was another of the main characters in the Illiad, who was the king of Greece - Patroclus was Achilles’ nephew, who was also his ward - he was extremely close to Achilles - this reflected the Mycenaean practice of pederasty, which was a form of apprenticeship where a warrior teaches a young boy how to become a warrior - in a pederastic relationship, the young boy does menial tasks for the warrior - a warrior and his ward often have homosexual relations with each other - showed the Mycenaean preference for learned and humane warriors - yearned for battle but was denied by Achilles - grew tired so he donned Achilles’ armor and was eventually killed by Hector - Patroclus death enraged Achilles and caused him to kill Hector - Priam was the king of Troy and the father of Hector - The Iliad is regarded as true, even though the characters aren’t real

- the characters represent people in that era however !Troy - Troy is the legendary city and the center of the Trojan war - Heinrich Schliemann was a German archeologist who found the remains of an ancient city

while excavating in Turkey - Schliemann found weapons at his excavation, which shows that a conflict took place in

the city - the story of the Iliad was constantly being modified by the Greeks !Dorian Invasions - the Dorians were the third major migration (was actually an invasion) - the Dorians devastated the Mycenaean civilization - much of Ancient Greece was destroyed during the Dorian Invasion - after the Dorian Invasion, things in Greece started to stabilize !

!

Mycenaeans Athenians

Dorians Spartans

Corinth !Thebes

!Athenians and Spartans - were known for creating Polis

- a Polis was an independent city-state that had a system of laws and culture - although the different Greek states were independent of each other, they were still

distinctly Greek - the Acropolis was the high ground of the polis, which housed temples - the Agorra was situated in low ground, and this contained the living quarters of the

citizens - the Athenians and Spartans were fundamentally different despite their proximity to each other !

!Greek Mythology - had shared similarities, such as their belief in the same pantheon of gods - Chaos was one of the first gods created - Chaos had offspring which were later known as the Titans - The titans were headed by Chronos who married Rhea - Chronos and Gaia gave birth to the Olympian gods

Athens Sparta

Believed they descended from Achilles, a humanist

Believed they were descended from Hercules

Centered on the citizen Warriors and the army created the state

The state nurtured the rights of every citizen

Were a warrior culture

Citizens had control over the state Lycurgus consolidated the Spartan people and was one of their first kings

Valued democracy and political process Thrived during war time

The state created an army to take care of it

Enslaved their conquered subjects !- these slaves were called Helots!- there were 50 Helots for every Spartan

Thrived during peace time!- were very wealthy and had a highly developed culture

All Spartans underwent the Agoge !- each Spartan child was inspected by

the king at birth and all defective children were killed !

- when a Spartan child was 8 years old, he entered the Agoge, which was a form of military training which lasted for 15 years

- Chronos was later defeated by Zeus - Chronos released Typhon as a last ditch resort - Greek mythology usually involved tragedy !a) Hera - the vengeful wife of Zeus who helped balance him out - helped define what men should not do (opposed to Zeus’ actions) !b) Hades - the keeper of the dead - the most feared god of the Greek pantheon

- even feared by the gods - the only god without white skin - he’s the only god who needs to ask for permission to go to Olympus - had the most responsibilities among the gods

- kept souls in the underworld - had a 3-headed dog named Cerberus - maintained Erebus (comprised of the Elysium and the Asphodel Meadows)

- the Elysium was a paradise-like place - the Asphodel Meadows are was a gloomy place where most souls went

- also maintained Tartarus - the Greek equivalent of hell !

c) Hephaestus - one of the ugliest gods

- he was dark skinned, smelled bad and was hairy - he was the god of metallurgy - he created Pandora’s Box (Pithos) and women - also created Achilles’ armor, Hermes’ winged helmet and sandals, among others - Hephaestus was uncontrollable but he was also very gullible - the gods forced Hephaestus to marry Aphrodite in order to control him !d) Ares - Ares was the god of war !e) Athena - the goddess of wisdom and knowledge - Athena’s servants were very beautiful

- Poseidon raped one of Athena’s servants a hundred times in her temple - Athena sided with Poseidon and turned the woman into Medusa !f) Perseus - was the son of Zeus and Danae

- he ended up slaying Medusa in order to free his mother !g) Hercules - Hercules was a demigod and his father was Zeus - Hera desperately tried to harm Hercules

- Hera put Hercules into a powerful trance that made him kill his family - Zeus told Hercules to submit himself to a king in order to atone for his sins

- The king gave Hercules 12 labors, which were created with Hera’s help - Hercules coated the tip of his arrows with the Hydra’s blood (toxan) - Hercules later lived a secluded life after his labors and remarried

- a centaur kidnapped his wife, Hercules killed the centaur with his poison arrows - the centaur told his wife to give Hercules his stained cloak if Hercules was ever unfaithful - Hercules eventually wore the coat and he started to burn

- he built a pyre and set himself on fire - asked his father to end his suffering and Zeus brought him to Olympus as a god !

Funeral Culture - the Greeks cremated their dead because they believed that burning released the soul - Charon is the individual who brings souls to the afterlife !a) Orpheus and Eurydice - Orpheus was a popular musician who fell in love with Eurydice - Eurydice was bitten by a snake on her wedding day and died - Orpheus was depressed over his wife’s death and he searched for the entrance of the

underworld - Orpheus lulled Cerberus to sleep with his lyre - Orpheus came across Hades and made a bet with Hades that he could make him cry with his

music - Hades cried and Orpheus won his wife back

- Hades told Orpheus to look back while escaping the underworld but he did and he lost his wife again !

b) Sisyphus - he asked his wife to publicly display his body when he died - Sisyphus told Persephone to send him back so he can have a proper funeral arranged - Sisyphus assumed his body again - Zeus intervened and punished Sisyphus by making him push a boulder up a hill everyday for

eternity !c) Persephone - Hades kidnapped Persephone to be his bride

- Demeter, Persephone’s mother, was devastated and started to cry thereby causing a widespread famine

- Zeus intervened and told Hades to free Persephone - Hermes fetched Persephone - Persephone ate food in the underworld (six seeds) and thus she had to return to the underworld

for six months every year !The Persian Wars - Cyrus the Great was a ruler who was able to consolidate the Persian Empire under one rule - the Persian Wars were widely known due to the writings of Herodotus, the father of history - Darius I of Persia, the son of Cyrus the Great, planned to aggravate the Greeks in order justify

his invasion of Greece - Ionia was a Persian province that revolted against Persia and asked the Greeks for aid

- the Greeks sent 5000 soldiers - the rebellion was crushed by the overwhelming Persian force - the Persians sent emissaries who asked the Greeks to allow themselves to get absorbed into the Persian Empire !a) The Battle of Marathon (490 BC) - the first battle between the Greeks and Persians - the Persians transported 200,000 soldiers through the Aegean Sea

- the Persians landed on the Plains of Marathon, close to the Bay of Marathon - the Persians arrived during a Greek religious festival - Athens lead the counterattack against the Persians - the Greek army was comprised of Hoplites (foot soldiers)

- armed with a six foot long spear - wore a helmet that covered their peripheral vision

- only fought enemies in front of them - equipped with shin guards and a 30 lb. shield - the fighting system of the Hoplites left individual soldiers vulnerable - the Greeks developed the Phalanx Formation - six soldiers deep and six soldiers wide - the Phalanx was strong from the front but weak from the sides - required very disciplined soldiers - the front soldiers cannot be replaced until they die - the dominant leg causes soldiers to pivot - the Persians had no organized fighting system

- the Persians had the 10,000 Immortals however - Immortals must be 5’6” in height and war veterans - they all had similar armor and fighting styles - all dead immortals were immediately replaced to make sure that there were

always 10,000 Immortals on the field - commanded 50,000 reinforcements

- most of the battle was a stalemate since the Athenians blocked off the only path to Athens and the Persians refused to attack the Athenians at the choke point

- when the Persians started attacking, they concentrated their attack on the center of the Greek formation and they were subsequently outflanked by the Greek sides

- the Athenians supposedly sent Pheidippides back to Athens to proclaim the Athenian victory - the Greeks created a running event called the Marathon in honor of Pheidippides run !

b) The Battle of Thermopylae - Xerxes I of Persia (480 BC) instigated a war against the Greeks after his father’s failure - Herodotus claims that there were 2,641,610 soldiers fighting for the persians but a more

realistic estimate pins the number at roughly 700,000 men - Instead of crossing the Aegean Sea like his father, Xerxes I took a land route to Greece - Thermopylae was chosen by the Greeks as the point where they would stop the Persian

invasion of the Greek peninsula - Thermopylae was chosen because of its strategic position (it was a choke point bordered

by mountains and the sea) - this favored the Greeks’ usage of the phalanx formation

- because the Greeks were observing a religious festival, they were forbidden to fight - Leonidas and a handful of soldiers marched from Sparta to Thermopylae

- another 7,000 Greeks joined Leonidas’ force - Xerxes sent spies and the spies found the Greeks drinking, making merry and massaging each

other in olive oil while half-naked - the Greeks were enjoying themselves because they were preparing themselves for death

- the Persians were unable to break through the Greek phalanx - Ephialtes, a farmer, was bribed by Xerxes with Persian gold to betray the Greeks by showing

the Persians a secret path that would allow them to attack the Greeks from the rear, thereby encircling the Greeks

- Leonidas sent most of the Greek force home, save for 300 Spartans, 900 Helots and 700 Thespians

- aside from being outflanked, the Spartans and the Greeks lost because they refused to use the bow and arrow like the Persians !

c) The Battle of Plataea (479 BC) - the defeat of the Spartan led Greek force moved the whole of Greece to unite against the

Persians - the Persians were defeated by the Greeks who created the Delian League !d) The Delian League - the Delian League was a military alliance of different Polis - the Athenians headed the Delian League while the Spartans played a supporting role

- this instilled Athens as a superpower - there was a conflict between the Athenians and Spartans which lead to civil war

(Peloponnesian War)

- the Peloponnesian War lead to Sparta becoming the dominant superpower in Greece, which caused Greece to enter a period of decay !

IV. Ancient Rome - Rome was the most dominant civilization of all time - the Romans were known for their architecture

- coliseums, aqueducts, public baths and roads - the Romans were also notorious for their gladiator fights - the Roman legionnaires were also another well known aspect of Rome - Rome possessed strong leadership as well !Roman Kingdom (753 BC) - Rome originally started out as a kingdom - Rome’s creation myth can be traced back to Aeneas, a Trojan who was able to escape Troy

- Aeneas the and the Trojan refugees circled around Africa and they encountered Queen Dido, who took them in

- Aeneas was told by Mercury to escape from Africa and this broke Queen Dido’s heart - set the background for Rome and Carthage’s conflict later on

- Rhea Silvia, a descendant of Aeneas, had repeating dream where she was being raped by Jupiter - the children of Rhea Silvia were Romulus and Remus, whom Rhea abandoned near the

Tiber River - Romulus and Remus were raised by a wolf before being taken in by a farmer - Romulus and Remus built a city, but they argued over what to name it

- Romulus eventually killed Remus and named his city Rome - Romulus sent out invitations to the women of the Sabine tribe to visit Rome

- Romulus told his citizens to impregnate the women of the Sabine tribe - the Romans started developing Lating - the Romans started creating a powerful army

- the Romans imitated the military system of other nations !a) Tarquinius Superbus - Tarquinius Superbus was the last king of Rome - Tarquinius Superbus’ dynasty ended because of the tomfoolery of his son, Sextus Tarquinius

- Sextus Tarquinius was a sex maniac - Sextus fell in love with a woman named Lucretia and raped her

- Lucretia ran out of her house, announced Sextus’ deed and stabbed herself in the heart three times

- Tarquinius Superbus attempted to whitewash his son’s crime - Lucius Junius Brutus, the head of the senate, declared war on the Tarquinius family - the Tarquinius family was finally expelled and Rome became a republic !Roman Republic (509 BC) - this made the people of Rome citizens, as opposed to servants

- the citizens of Rome elected the senate - the members of the senate elected Rome’s highest leaders, the consuls - the Roman Republic was a period of conflict and uprising

- there was some internal conflict - most conflict was external

- Rome was rapidly expanding during this period - the First Triumvirate was created as a response to the various threats Rome was facing

- the leaders were Cnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Marcus Licinius Crassus and Julius Caesar - Cnaeus defeated Carthage - Crassus defeated Spartacus - Caesar was a popular general

- the Second Triumvirate was formed to fill in the power vacuum created by Caesar’s death - the leaders were Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Mark

Antony - Octavianus was Caesar’s nephew - Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Mark Antony were famous military leaders

- there was a power struggle between them (eventually only Octavianus and Antony) - Mark Antony became unpopular since he went after Cleopatra - the Romans gave extraordinary powers to Octavianus - Antony and Cleopatra united against Octavianus but were eventually defeated !External Threats: a) Gauls - when Rome was expanding, they encountered a powerful tribe called the Gauls (found in

France) - were initially able to resist the Roman invasions - the weak Gaul government eventually led to the Gauls’ downfall !b) Carthage - the Carthaginians were said to be descendants of Queen Dido - Carthage’s war with Rome was called the Punic Wars - Carthage excelled at naval warfare - Hannibal was Carthage’s most famous general

- Hannibal attempted to attack Rome from the Alps on top of elephants - Hannibal brought elephants to win over Rome’s enemies - Hannibal slowly defeated the Romans on the field - Hannibal failed to invade Rome - the Romans eventually invaded Carthage and won the war !

Internal Threats: a) Slave Rebellion - the slave rebellion was led by Spartacus !

Leaders: a) Julius Caesar - a powerful general who was said to defeat all his enemies - was famous for defeating the Gauls in the Gallic Wars

- the most famous battle of the Gallic Wars was the Battle of Alesia - Alesia was a Gallic fortification situated on top of a hill - Caesar built a wall around Alesia to lock the Gauls in - built a bigger wall around the first wall to prevent Gallic reinforcements from

arriving - while Caesar was in war, Pompey was appointed as consul - Caesar attacked Pompey and invaded Rome - Pompey escaped to Egypt, where he was given refuge by Cleopatra

- Caesar invaded Egypt in order to capture Pompey - Caesar ruled as dictator in perpetua of Rome - Caesar eventually became unpopular in the senate and he was eventually stabbed by the

senators - Caesar was said to hae been stabbed 76 times

- Caesar’s death created a power vacuum !Roman Empire Leaders: a) Gaius Julis Caesar Octavianus - was called Augustus or “the revered one” - he became known as the first citizen of the Roman Republic or princeps

- the first to be civilized - started the Pax Romana !b) Tiberius - was known as a very ruthless leader - people were critical of his policies - new cults sprung up during Tiberius’ rule !c) Caligula - created a dictatorial reign later on - he was assassinated at the age of 61 - was known for his unusual love for his horse !d) Claudius - was a very compassionate and very capable leader - married Agnipina, who was his distant relative

- Agnipina only married Claudius in order to secure the throne for her son - Agnipina fed Claudius poisonous mushrooms in order to kill him !

e) Nero - Nero was Agnipina’s son - Nero tried to kill Agnipina on numerous occasions in order to secure his rule - helped further popularize gladiatorial fights - Nero was a patron of the arts and he built many amphitheaters

- Nero was an aspiring actor and he stared in many plays, which he forced people to watch

- Nero was rumored to have started the Great Fire of Rome !f) Hadrian - was a good emperor known for expanding the borders of Rome - Hadrian was famous for creating Hadrian’s Wall to separate Roman territory from barbarian

territories !g) Marcus Aurelius - was a good emperor who continued the works of Hadrian - defeated the barbarians on the field and helped recapture lost territories !h) Commodus - he did not have the proper faculties or advisors to rule Rome - Rome started declining during his rule - Commodus was killed by his sparring partner, Narcissus !Social Aspect of Rome a) Gladiators - gladiators got their name from the Roman sword Gladius - slaves, deserters, prisoners of war, criminals and cult members were usually turned into

gladiators - gladiator battles were created because the Romans had no more enemies to fight

- a way of remembering Rome’s past achievements - gladiator fights were usually thematic (followed famous battles)

- gladiatorial fights were a large source of income for the Roman economy - gladiator fights started new industries

- prostitution, hotels and banks thrived - the Romans judged their emperors on how much they supported gladiator fights - gladiatrix were female gladiators, but were relatively rare - the Romans created a system to capture animals for gladiator fights

- brought in lions, crocodiles, bears, giraffes, ostriches and other exotic animals - many religious groups were also executed at the coliseum !b) Naumachia - mock naval battles where gladiators fought on boughts - there is no actual proof that Naumachias were real

Roman Architecture a) Aqueducts - massive structures that transported water to and from Roman settlements !b) Roads - created expansive cobblestone roads - created by soldiers - roads facilitated trade and helped speed up military movements !c) Public Baths - social gathering places - had shops around the area !Roman Military - formed the backbone of the Roman Empire - the Roman army was made up of citizens

- they were called legionnaires - a typical legionnaire served for 20-25 years

- the Roman army used standardized equipment - the main sidearm was called the Gladius, a short double-edged sword

- made of iron - used to attack from short range

- Roman legionnaires used plate armor - easy to repair (individual plates are changed as opposed to the entire armor) - the Roman army also used a particular kind of spear called the Pillum - shorter than the Greek spear - used to disrupt enemy troops (forced enemies to raise their shields) - legionnaires used a shield called the Scutum - the Scutum is curved to hide the movements of legionnaires - the Scutum has a metal sphere at the center to add force to pushes - Roman soldiers aimed to leave enemy combatants incapacitated, they didn’t aim to kill them

- Roman soldiers aimed at three areas: the eyes, groin and heel - the Roman deployed soldiers in four waves

- the first wave is composed the of the skirmishers who agitated the enemy, retreated behind friendly lines and recovered at the back

- the second wave is comprised of the Hastati who test the strength of the enemy force - the Hastati are relatively inexperienced and fought randomly

- the Princeps comprised the next wave and they have around 4-5 years of combat experience - the Hastati learned from the Princeps - if the Princeps cannot defeat the enemy, the Romans send their final wave - the final wave is comprised of the Triarii maniples who have around 10 years of combat experience

- the Triarii are the best soldiers in the Roman army - if the Triarii cannot defeat the enemy, they retreat and the first wave reengages the enemy - by the time of the Roman Empire, almost all soldiers were veterans so the enemy only faced

Triarii - the Romans heavily utilized projectile weapons

- they used trebuchets and ballistas - when attacking fortified positions, the Romans used a formation called the Tortoise or Testudo !The Fall of Rome - many consider the fall of Rome as the end of ancient civilization - Diocletian partitioned Rome into four parts in order to rule it more efficiently

- each region had its own emperor - Diocletian effectively created a tetrarchy - the main subdivisions were the Western and Eastern Empire (further divided into two) - the tetrarchy fell short and the Western Empire eventually fell to the barbarians - the Eastern Roman Empire endured and eventually evolved into the Byzantine Empire - only the Church remained intact during and after the fall of Rome

- the Church has its own military - the Church has its own wealth and resources - people gravitated towards the church because it helped them feel calm and secure - the Church and barbarians started to work together

- the Church was needed to control the people - the Church was a source of education and civilization for the barbarians - the Church needed the barbarians for protection - the Church and barbarians’ relationship allowed western civilization to endure !Reasons for Rome’s fall a) Barbarians - paid tribute to the barbarians instead of fending them off - barbarians kept on demanding more, past Rome’s ability to pay them - the barbarians eventually invaded Rome to get what they want - the barbarian tribes consisted of the Franks, Visigoths, Ostrogoths and Vandals !b) Laziness - the army did not meet the barbarians on the field - the Roman army lost a lot of the prestige and respect it commanded !c) Leadership - there was very weak leadership - there were very few good leaders !d) Citizenship

- Rome granted citizenship to the barbarians in order the placate them - the barbarians started looking out for their own interests while ignoring Rome’s !e) Christianity - changed many of Rome’s traditions - the church took away a significant degree of power from the Roman government !!V. The Dark Ages - the Church’s alliance with the barbarians allowed European civilization to endure - the Church’s alliance with the barbarians brought about the polarization of society

- the Church was the first main social group - the Lords (nobility and knights) were the second social group - the Serfs (peasants, workers, servants) were the last main social group

- all three social groups were interdependent - the creation of new social classes brought about the rise of feudalism - the Dark Ages marked an era of stagnated development - there was also a substantial lack of records during the Dark Ages - there was also a significant amount of death during the Dark Ages

- there were many plagues - the most devastating plague was the Bubonic Plague

- plagues such as the Bubonic Plague wiped out 1/3 of Europe’s population - the Plague was originally attributed to foul odors - wars also caused the death toll in Europe to rise - the most famous war was the Hundred Year War between England and France - the crusades also caused a lot of death !Medieval Warfare - the numerous wars in Europe created new ways of fighting and killing - dead bodies, fecal matter, live lepers and sick animals were catapulted into enemy

encampments and strongholds - nations like France had many strong knights

- knighthood was reserved for the social elite - aspiring knights start out as Pages for around five to six years

- Pages did menial tasks in order to instill humility - pages became squires later on - squares were given formal weapons training - squires could become knights at the age of 18 but this was not an automatic process - the English developed fearful long bowmen to counter the French knights

- the English archers had rings on their middle fingers that allowed them to draw their bows further

- they showed off the rings to their enemies by flipping their middle fingers - the most ubiquitous weapon during the medieval period was the sword

- the most common sword was the arming sword or a knight’s sword - was a single handled sword and was designed to be used with - it was around 2-3 lbs heavy and was 2.5-3 feet long - was only effective from the 9th to the 12th century on enemies using chain mail

as it lacked the cutting and penetration power needed to pierce plate armor - the arming sword was eventually replaced by the double-handed sword - it was heavier and thicker than an arming sword as it weighed roughly 6-7 lbs - the double handed sword was designed to pierce plate armor - the biggest swords used in medieval Europe was the longsword - the Scottish term for the longsword was the claymore - it was longer and wider than a double-handed sword - the four main sword fighting positions are the low guard, high guard, reverse guard and cross guard !Commercial Revolution - marked the creation of mercantilism

- mercantilism was an economic system that revolved around the trade of precious metals - people were no longer tied down to the land

-the Commercial Revolution caused a shift in trade - shift from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean - the shift in location greatly benefitted the English, French, Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch - created wealth for many European nations !Age of Exploration - the Age of Exploration caused exponential development in European society - the Age of Exploration was fueled for the search for gold, spices (new products), the need to

spread religion and the need to eliminate the Muslims - Marco Polo was an Italian explorer who accidentally arrived in China and helped spark

Europe’s fascination with Asian (specifically Chinese) goods and spices - European fascination with silk, porcelain, jade, tea and spices (peppers, garlic, tumeric,

etc) - the Europeans tried to find alternate trade routes to Asia in order to bypass Muslim traders - the Age of Exploration facilitated the development of new technologies

- navigation improved significantly (compasses, astrolabe, telescopes, constellations and maps)

- transportation systems further improved - galleons were developed in order to facilitate the transportation of cargo

- the bodega or cargo haul was situated near the bottom of the ship - the Spanish helped initiate the Age of Exploration

- thrived using the Atlantic trade routes

- utilized galleons - created colonies in Asia and the Americas - this age was known the El Siglo De Oro (The Age of Gold) - Hernan Cortez was a Spanish conquistador who helped colonize many new lands

- conquistador: military and religious conquest - Cortez played a significant role in conquering Mexico - Cortez devastated Aztec civilization and extracted all their gold

- Cotez had superior military armaments - brought new diseases - Cortez was thought to be Quetzalcotal (a god) by the natives

- Ferdinand Magellan wanted to replicate Hernan Cortez’ success !VI. Renaissance - began in the 14th-15th centuries - the Renaissance was identified by an Italian art scholar named Giorgio Vasari, who described

the new style employed in paintings as a “Rinascita” (rebirth) - the Renaissance is described as a rebirth of classical ideas and greatness - heavenly realm vs earthly realm (Renaissance society focused more on investing in the earthly

realm) - focused on developing the individual and society

- Humanism became a prominent school of thought - rediscovered Greek and Roman culture - started out in Italy but spread throughout Europe !Art in the Renaissance - art was very realistic and detailed - artists were creating 3-dimensional paintings (different shades for the foreground and

background) - people were portrayed in an anatomically correct manner - was considered superior to the simplistic artworks of earlier times !Famous Paintings - Prima Vera - The Birth of Venus - Jan Van Eyek’s paintings - Vituvian Man - Madonna of the Rocks - Mona Lisa !VII. Reformation - a religious movement - occurred during the 15th-16th century - main purpose was to reform the church

- headed by Martin Luther Reasons for the Reformation - the Rinascita (Renaissance) forced people to become more critical - the corrupt practices of the church made the people clamor for reform - new inventions like the Guntenberg Press also helped start the reformation

- the Bible was rapidly produced during this time alongside other books !Martin Luther - was a German monk - had an epiphany and believed he was unworthy of salvation - came up with the notion that belief in God was enough for salvation - concluded that there was no need for the Church - created the 95 Thesis

- talked about the core ideas of Martin Luther !95 Thesis - the Bible alone was the true source of authority, not the Church - condemned the use of indulgences indulgences

- indulgences were prayers that were used to speed up one’s stay in purgatory - indulgences were eventually sold like a commodity item

- simony was also condemned - simony was the sale of church positions - many incompetent priests gained positions through this practice

- Martin Luther condemned the seven sacraments - Luther only advocated baptism and holy communion

- claimed that faith alone is the key to salvation !Protestantism - comes from the root word “protest” - German Protestants were known as Lutherans - Protestants in England were known as Presbyterians and Anglicans - French protestants were known as Huguenots !Counterreformation - movement initiated by the Church aimed at reforming the Church and stoping the spread of

Protestantism - the Council of Trent was formed to stop the Reformation

- stopped Simony - created seminaries to train incompetent priests - reaffirmed the value of indulgences - stated that the Bible should be in the hands of the Church - reaffirmed the value of the seven sacraments

- the Church created excommunication to scare people

- exclusion from the Church and prohibition from receiving the sacraments - the Church also created the Interdict

- interdict was the process of excommunicating whole communities - the Church released the Index

- a list of prohibited books/works that Catholics shouldn’t read - the Church also started the Inquisition to counter the Reformation !Inquisition - was a judicial system created by the Church that followed a trial system - the main aim of the Inquisition was to find heretics and the spawn of Satan

- people had an unrealistic fear of the devil - the devil’s hour (3 AM)

-the Church created many new torture devices to draw out information or false confessions - inquisition devices cannot pierce the skin - the Pear of Anguish - the Judas Triangle - forced nail removal - finger dislocation !VIII. 16th and 17th Century Europe England - underwent a destructive civil war called the War of the Roses during this time

- Lancaster vs York - the Lancasters defeated the Yorks - the Lancasters were aided by Henry VII - the Lancasters made Henry VII the King of England !

House of Tudor a) Henry VIII - was an intelligent, strong and commanding leader - his first wife was Catherine of Aragon - was the daughter of the king and queen of Spain - was a queen of the masses - married to Henry for 20 years - had a daughter with Henry named Mary I - Anne Boleyn was Henry’s second wife

- was a very conniving woman - connived to become the queen of England in order to enact revenge against her enemies - went to the Pope to end his marriage to Catherine - adopted Protestantism to divorce Catherine

- England became a Protestant country - Catherine was taken to a secluded location and eventually died of tuberculosis - Mary I was taken care of since she was still the heir presumptive

- Anne Boleyn was a very hated queen - Henry tried to have a male heir with Anne Boleyn - had a daughter with Anne named Elizabeth I - Henry had Anne Boleyn executed for conspiring to overthrow the King - Henry married Jane Seymour after Anne Boleyn’s execution - Jane Seymour was able to give Henry a son named Edward VI - Jane Seymour died during childbirth due to syphilis - Henry’s fourth wife was Anne of Cleves

- Henry married her for her wealth - England was bankrupt at this time

- was known as the ugly queen - Henry never consummated his marriage with her - Henry eventually divorced Anne of Cleves - Henry then married Catherine Howard

- was almost twice as young as Henry VIII - was very promiscuous and was executed by Henry

- Henry’s final wife was Catherine Parr - was considered the luckiest queen since Henry died during their marriage

- Mnemonic: Divorce, Beheaded, Died, Divorced, Beheaded, Survived !b) Edward VI - assumed the throne at the age of 11 - died at the age of 15 - the Act of Succession came into effect with Edward’s death (it was in Henry’s will) !c) Lady Jane Grey (Not included in list of Tudor Monarchs) - was the interim queen who ruled England for nine days - the 9 day queen - Mary I and Elizabeth I were not allowed to rule right after Edward VI !d) Mary I - brought back Catholicism in England - the return of Catholicism caused a large number of executions

- the executions earned Mary I the nickname Bloody Mary - Mary I eventually married Philip II, the King of Spain

- Philip II was a staunch defender of the Catholic faith - Mary’s preference for Catholicism alongside her marriage to a Spanish King made people

believe that England had been subjugated - Mary I eventually died of cancer !e) Elizabeth I - was unpopular due to her mother, Anne Boleyn - did have the necessary skills to rule

- however, England was thriving during Elizabeth’s rule - the period is known as the Gold Age !

Golden Age a) Political Aspect - a doctrine of absolutism

- a single ruler decides everything - unchallenged command

- did not address the question of religion - Elizabeth I practiced both Protestantism and Catholicism at the same time

- the military grew in might - Elizabeth refused to comply with the demands of the Spanish

- Philip sent the Flota Armada to subjugate the English - England was able to defeat the Spanish Armada

- Elizabeth remained unmarried - Elizabeth was known as the Virgin Queen - did not want to meet the same fate as her mother - did not want to become unpopular by marrying a Catholic monarch !

b) Economics - oversaw the creation of the British East India Company

- was a government and private entity - was responsible for acquiring raw materials, creating new markets, exploration and

colonization - aided in the development of colonial America !

France - the royal line during this time began with Henry IV

- Henry IV accepted the Reformation - Henry IV created the Edict of Nantes

- provided for religious tolerance - Henry IV married Marie de Medicci of Italy - was murdered by a madman named Raviliac - Henry IV was succeeded by Louis XIII !House of Bourbon a) Louis XIII - assumed the throne at the age of six - his mother, Marie de Medicci, ruled in Louis stead - one of Louis XIII most famous advisers was Cardinal Jean Armand du Plessis de Richellieu !i) Political - Cardinal Richellieu created a doctrine of absolutism

- Richellieu created the Divine Right of Kings to secure the right of Louis XIII to rule ii) Ecomics - Cardinal Richellieu removed the Edict of Nanates

- done to acquire the businesses of Protestants - the Edict of Nantes was eventually reinstated by Louis XIII

- Louis XIII established the French East India Company - the wine, clothing and agriculture industries thrived during this time !iii) Culture - Louis XIII loved the French language so much that he created the French Academy

- the French Academy extensively studied foreign languages !b) Louis XIV - known as the Sun King

- wanted to be the center of everything - ruled during the Golden Age of France - practiced absolutism - practiced the Divine Right of Kings - created the Palace of Versailles !Spain - the Spanish royal line began with Charles V

- belonged to the House of Hapsburg - the House of Hapsburg ruled over the Holy Roman Empire (Austria, Italy, Germany and

Spain) - Charles V abdicated his throne - the abdication of Charles V divided the House of Hapsburg into two

- Spanish Hapsburg (headed by Philip II) - Austrian Hapsburg (headed by Ferdinand I) !

Spanish Hapsburg a) Philip II - Philip II assumed power during El Siglo de Oro (the Golden Age of Spain)

- Spain had a powerful navy during this time (Flota Armada) and many explorers and colonies

- Colonies included Mexico, Cuba, the Philippines - the Spanish colonies produced a lot of gold for Spain - Spain had a strong economy due to its strong agriculture industry and financial system - Spain was firmly Catholic during Philip’s rule

- Philip’s decisions during his rule caused the country to decline - Elizabeth I’s navy wiped out the Flota Armada - he gave the governor generals autonomy

- the governor generals sent less gold to the crown

- the gold reserves of the crown started to dwindle - the Spanish were unsure how to treat Spanish Moors and Jews

- Philip II forced Moors and Jews to convert to Catholicism - Moor Converts: Moriscos - Jew Convverts: Maranaos - many Moors were excellent farmers and the Moors who refused to convert

deprived Spain of its agricultural might - Jews were good bankers and those who refused to convert caused Spain to lose

many good bankers !IX. 17th and 18th Century Europe Age of Enlightenment - Kant described the Englightenment as Sapene Aude (dare to know) - people were using knowledge to make changes in society (as opposed to the Renaissance,

where people only did things for personal gain) - Philosophes were at the forefront of the Enlightenment - divided into the Scientific Revolution and the Age of Reason !Scientific Revolution - the physical and natural sciences started to flourish during this time - the scientific method was developed during this time

- was empirical - provided people with a format that could easily be followed

- titans during this time included Newton, Kepler, Dennis Didderot (creator of the Encyclopedia) !Age of Reason - people started questioning their government - people questioned the concept of society and citizenship !a) Thomas Hobbes - wrote the Leviathan

- the Leviathan was a metaphor for authority - sought to find the purpose of society and government - claimed that man was inherently evil and feared death - discussed the concept of a social contract

- man creates society and authority to protect himself !b) John Locke - argued that society existed for the benefit of people - society helped people achieve their individual goals - people are inherently good !X. French Revolution

- was against the concept of absolutism - questioned the absolutist policies of current rulers

- questioned the concept of wealth - questioned universal inequality - questioned the privilege of a select few (special treatment of rich)

- servants vs citizen - people were serving the monarchs, landlords and clergy - people wondered if the state should serve them !

Causes of the French Revolution a) Social Causes - started with the legal division of France -the King was the highest authority - the estates general lay beneath the king and were supposedly equal

- First Estate: Clergy - Second Estate: Nobility - Third Estate: Commoners

- the First and Second Estates received preferential treatment - only Third Estate paid taxes !b) Economic Causes - France was entering a period of bankruptcy at this time

- Louis XVI lived an extravagant life - Louis XVI spent a large amount of money expanding Versailles

- France lost a lot of money funding the American Revolution - France funded the Americans - there was a huge famine in France that destroyed a lot of produce and made food expensive - Louis XVI tried to resolve the famine by encouraging people to eat potatoes - there was a tax deficit since only the Third Estate was paying !c) Political Causes - absolutism - centralized government - representation from the three Estates

- the representatives advised the king - Louis XVI lacked the necessary skills to rule !d) Cultural Causes - the Age of Enlightenment made people more aware and discerning

- people questioned authority - people questioned the purpose of society - people were curious about the concept of citizenship

- people met at cafes to discuss ideas - there were many libraries in france and this caused them to become more learned and aware !Start of the French Revolution - started with Charles de Calonne who was the General Controller (budget secretary)

- Charles de Calonne declared that France was undergoing a period of bankruptcy - Charles de Calonne suggested that everyone was taxed, not just the Third Estate

- the king announced the convening of the General Estates - they met to discuss the national budget - the different estates could not agree on how to vote

- vote by estate (wanted by the First and Second Estates) - vote per person (wanted by the Third Estate) - Louis XVI suggested that they vote per estate in order to resolve the impasse

- people were outraged by Louis XVI’s actions, since he was supposed to remain neutral - the king looked as if he was siding with the first and second Estates - the Third Estate walked out of the meeting and declared themselves to be independent - the Third Estate came up with the “Tennis Court Oath”

- the oath was made at a tennis court since it was the only venue available - they declared that they would not disband until they found a solution to France’s

problems - the Third Estate declared themselves as the National Assembly

- they claimed to be the true representatives of France - the Third Estate started to draft a constitution for France

- 3 main tenets: Liberty, Equality and Fraternity - freedom, equality before the law and unity - the constitution was known as the “Declaration of the Rights of Men and of the

Citizens” - the constitution transformed the people of France from servants to citizens

- the creation of the constitution turned France into a constitutional monarchy !Events a) Siege of Bastille - Bastille was a military front and a prison - people considered Bastille as an evil institution - people sieged Bastille to gain weapons and to free prisoners !b) Civil Constitution of the Clergy - created to the French Church - the French Church’s loyalty was to France and not the Vatican !c) Austria Declares War on France - Louis XVI’s wife was Austrian and the nation of Austria saw this as a reason to declare war on

the French

- this made the French Revolution both an Internal and External conflict - the Austrian involvement made French society paranoid - split French society into two

- Revolutionists: Third Estate - Royalist: Monarchy, Nobility and Aristocrats (bourgeoisie) !

c) Execution of Louis XVI - was imprisoned - tried to escape France several times but was always caught - Louis XVI was eventually tried and executed !Reign of Terror - a wave executions of the presumed enemies of France - the most powerful entity at this time was the Committee on Public Safety

- was responsible for France’s internal security - it was headed by Maximillen Robespierre

- Dr. Joseph Guillotine popularized an execution device known as the Louisette (guillotine) - Maximillen Robespierre became too powerful and was executed via guillotine !New Philosophies and Ideologies a) Nationalism - rooted in the words nationality and nation

- a nation is a group of people who live together - these people share something in common

- physical attributes - history - language - religion - practices

- nationality is possessing the aforementioned commonalities - nationalism is an affinity for one’s people !b) Romanticism - it was a reaction to the Age of Enlightenment - went against the rational thinking and empiricism promoted by the Scientific Revolution and

Age of Enlightenment - claimed that rationality made people too detached - emphasis on human emotions

- Romanticists that science could not comprehend human emotions !c) Conservatism - it was a reaction to the values of the French Revolution - this movement sought to protect the role of tradition

- believed that society would break down without tradition - did not care about the end goal of change, but the process

- believed all processes should be anchored in tradition - conservatives were open to change, as long as these changes are rooted in tradition !d) Liberalism - focused on the concept of individuality - society exists to protect the individual !e) Communism - valued society more than the individual - believed individuality cannot exist without society !XI. Europe in the 20th Century Industrial Revolution - transition to new manufacturing processes - transition included going from hand production methods to machines - products were being produced at a large scale - the prices of products started to drop during this period and it created a lot of surplus

- governments and businesses were worried about surplus (due to saturated market) and gaining capital

- the Industrial Revolution began in England - England had a lot of manpower - England was one of the first countries to abolish feudalism !

Age of Imperialism - Imperialism is a policy of exerting effective and continuing control over foreign entities as a means of acquisition and/or maintenance of empires - the age of imperialism was a byproduct of the desires of wealthy nations to deal with their

surplus of goods and saturated markets - the Age of Imperialism was also spurred by the desire to create a hegemony (superpower) - the concept of the White Man’s Burden also made Western powers expand

- Europeans believed they had a duty to civilize, westernize and Christianize non white people

- the Age of Imperialism grew exponentially since the European powers wanted to gather more resources !

a) Colonialism - an extension of a nation’s sovereignty over a territory beyond its boarders by the establishment

of either settlers colonizers or administrative dependencies - there were plantation colonies

- India was example of this (planted tea and opium) - Cuba (tobacco and sugar)

- Philippines (abaca/Manila hemp) - there were also penal colonies

- Australia - colonizers also created port colonies to facilitate trade

- Singapore - Hong Kong

- Military colonies were created as buffers !Political and Scientific Theories a) Communism - developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels - sought to establish a classless, stateless social organization, based on common ownership of the

means of production !b) Theory of Evolution - developed by Charles Darwin - used to support the concept of the White Man’s Burden !c) Nation States - nations like Italy and Germany started to develop a distinct nationalistic identity - many new nations arose !XII. World War I Causes of World War I a) Limited War - many people believed that the European conflict would be limited in scope and resolved

quickly - this made many people welcome the war !b) Profit - many people believed that the war would be very profitable for industry - people did not believe that the war would affect the economy adversely since they did not think

fighting would spill over into urban and civilian areas !c) Alliances - different European nations were crafting alliances with one another - countries created alliances to have a buffer/insurance policy against invasions - the United States, Great Britain, Belgium and France were all associated with one another by a

series of alliances - Germany and Austria were also held together by a series of alliances - Serbia and Russia were also allied to one another !d) Militarism

- nations were stockpiling weapons and armaments - European nations were also developing war plans

- the French had Plan XVII - Germany had a military plan called the Schliffen Plan

- called for the engulfment of Belgium, France and finally Russia !e) Nationalism - countries welcomed war because they viewed it as a way of promoting their nation and

promoting nationalism and nationalistic pride !Tipping Point a) Austria-Serbian Relations - Austria was the last Hapsburg controlled nation in Europe that wanted to dominate Europe and

control its colonies like Serbia - Serbians fought for independence from Austria !b) Archduke Franz Ferdinand - he was to be the next ruler of Austria - he was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist named Gavrillo Princip in Sarajevo - the death of Franz Ferdinand caused Austria to invade Serbia in order !The Start of the War - the death of Archduke Franz Ferdinand caused Austria to seek retribution against Serbia

- Austria issued the July Ultimatum which stripped Serbia of its independence - Serbia accepted the July Ultimatum except for two provisions

- Serbia eventually declared war on Austria - alliances eventually came into effect after the declaration of war - Germany came to Austria’s aid and enacted the Schliffen Plan, invaded Belgium and came as

close as Paris when attacking France - Russia joined the war on Serbia’s side - the numerous impasses in the war caused the development of trench war fare - new weapons like tanks and rail guns were developed - the Germans used submarines called U-boots (unter see booten) - American was dragged into the war due to the sinking of the Lusitania, an English passenger

vessel that had Americans when it sunk !Divisions During the War - the Allied Forces was comprised of England, France, Belgium, America, Russia and Serbia - the Central Powers was comprised of Germany, the Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian

Empire - the Philippines participated in the war

- the Philippines sent a submarine destroyer called the USS Rizal - the Philippines sent coconuts to support the Allied war effort

- the filters in gas masks were made of coconut husks - the Philippines also sent the Philippine National Guard, which was comprised of 25,000 Filipino troops and an additional 6,000 sailors to the US Navy - the Philippine National Guard fought in the Battle of Chateau Thierry in France on June 29, 1918 - Tomas Claudio was the first Filipino to die in a European conflict - German colonies were attacked all throughout the world !Russian Revolution of 1917 - the Bolshevik (Russian for majority) staged a revolution

- the Bolsheviks were also known as the Reds - the Bolsheviks espoused Communism - the Bolsheviks were led by Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin)

- the Bolsheviks sought to overthrow the Russian monarchy led by Czar Nicholas II of the Romanov family

- Crown Prince Alexei had a rare clotting disease called hemophilia - A Russian mystic named Grigori Rasputin was brought in to treat Alexei and he

succeeded - Rasputin slowly gained power with the Romanov family and this made people fearful - Rasputin was assassinated by government officials

- the Romanovs were eventually captured and transferred to the Ipatiev House - the Romanovs were executed here - the body of the Romanovs were placed in a truck and transferred to an undisclosed

location !!End of the First World War - Germany was eventually surrounded and had no more allies left so it was forced to surrender - the war officially ended on November 11, 1918 and Bulgaria, the Austro-Hungarian Empire,

the Ottoman Empire and Germany surrendered - George Lawrence Prince was the last soldier to die during the war (died 2 minutes before the

war ended) !Treaty of Versailles - created the concept of German Guilt

- Germany deserves responsibility for the war - Germany was required to pay $393.6 billion (in modern currency) to the victors in reparation

fees - German Industry was limited - Germany was no longer allowed to have a strong military !League of Nations - it was created to prevent another world war from happening

!XIII. World War II - most destructive war in history - divided the world into two after (democracy vs communism) - the atomic bomb was created due to the war !Nazi Party - promoted nationalism - “Judenfrei” (anti-Semetism) - anti-communism - anti-capitalism !Adolf Hitler - born on April 20, 1889 - Adolf meant “noble wolf” while Hittler meant “one who lives in a hut” or “shepherd” - was a corporal during WWI - he suffered a chemical gas attack and he woke up to the news that Germany lost the war - Hitler found work at the government and was eventually asked to spy on the different political

parties in Germany - spied on the Liberal, Communist and Conservative parties - Hitler eventually ended up spying on the Nazis (National Socialist Party)

- Hitler began to gravitate towards the Nazi Party due to its extreme beliefs - was eventually elected as the supreme leader of Germany !Hitler’s Core Political Beliefs a) Treaty of Versailles - denounced the Treaty of Versailles -expanded industry and military due to this !b) Lebensraum -it was the right of the Germans to own property and live - Germany captured new territories !c)Militarism -Germany began creating a new powerful army !d) German pride - threw around the belief that Germany never lost the war !Communism - rose due to the success of the Russian Revolution of 1917 - made europeans wary !

Racism - Übermensch (superman)

- Aryan race - Honorary Aryans (Japanese and other German allies)

- Untermenschen - comprised of Jews, Slavs, Gypsies, Africans, criminals, homosexuals, prostitutes,

beggars, liberals, political dissidents, Jehovah’s Witnesses, disabled people and so-called moral degenerates !

Isolationism - outside countries like the United States did not want to interfere in European affairs - United States non-interventionism - Europe Policy !Expansionism - expansion by Italy (Albania, Greece and Ethiopia), Germany (Austria and Czechoslovakia), Soviet Union (Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and Japan (China, Korea and the Pacific Islands) !Militarism - countries began developing weapons and arming themselves !Fascism - an authoritarian political ideology - focused on rigid social and economic control - policy of extreme nationalism !Benito Mussolini - was a fascist dictator who served as the Prime Minister of Italy from 1922 to 1943 - promoted nationalism, militarism, anti-liberalism and anti-communism !Great Depression - defined by the stock market collapse in the United States - the financial crisis reverberated throughout the world - Germany was severely affected by the Great Depression since it was still paying war

reparations - caused inflation to soar !

Start of the War - Hitler assumed immense power in Germany - Hitler began militarizing Rhineland (border between France and Germany) - Hitler captured Sudentenland due to the high number of German speaking people living there - Hitler annexed Austria (Annexation of Austria/ Anschluss)

- Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain was the leader of the UK and refused to act against Germany

- Chamberlain gave concessions to Germany (Appeasement) - Convinced the Allies to give into Germany

- Germany allied itself with the USSR with the Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939 !Alliances a) Allies - England, USA, USSR, France, Belgium, etc !b) Axis - Italy, Japan and Germany !!Invasion of Poland (1939) - Hitler started WWII with his invasion of Poland - Poland called out to Britain and France but they refused to help - the outdated Polish army fell to the modern Germany army !Battle of France (1940) - Germany invaded France after the fall of Poland - Germany used Blitzkrieg (Lightning War) against the French

- coordination between different branches of the military - France was caught off guard

- France fell in six months !Battle of Britain - Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain stepped down to give way to Winston Churchill - Britain was able to resist Germany - Britain had new technology like the radar - Britain realized it could not defeat Germany on its own

- Britain tried to get Russia to join its side - Germany invaded Russia and Russia joined the Allies !

Japanese Involvement - the US launched a naval blockade against Japan which helped stagnate its industry - the Japanese launched a daring attack against the US at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941

- Franklin Roosevelt declared war on Japan and America was brought into the conflict - the Japanese continued their attacks and captured the Philippines, Singapore and other

Southeast Asian countries !Big Three - comprised of the United States, Great Britain and the USSR

- they decided that the Western Theatre was to be prioritized !Russia During the War - Russia used mass waves to overcome the superior German Army - Russia deployed soldiers in six waves, with only the last two being comprised of regular

soldiers - Russia had 50 tanks for every German tank !Battle of Normandy (D-Day) - the Allies took back France from the Axis - the Allies began liberating the different Allied countries starting with France and Belgium - the Allies began closing in on the Axis - Germany was being attacked from all directions \ !Hitler Assassination Attempts - Hitler was subject to over a hundred assassination attempts - Col. Sauffenberg was a conspirator who came close to assassinating Hitler and ending the war !Fall of Germany - Russia was able to reach Berlin - the Russians found out Hitler was dead when they stormed his bunker !Victory in Europe Day - the war in Europe officially ended on May 7/8, 1945 - Germany was subdivided amongst the Allies (Britain, France, USA and USSR) !End of the War in the East - the Americans focused their attention on the Japanese after Germany was defeated - the Allies gained territory lost to Japan !Potsdam Conference (August 2, 1945) - was attended by Celment Attlee (UK), Harry S. Truman (USA) and Joseph Stalin (USSR) - the Americans and British became afraid of the Soviet expansion

- the Americans needed to defeat the Japanese immediately in order to avoid Japan falling into Russian hands

- the United States deployed the atomic bomb to the Japanese and demanded Japan’s unconditional surrender

- the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima - the second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki - Japan surrendered after the atomic bombings