Greece Before Alexander

Review Greece in the Classical Period

The Polis

•  A supposedly independent political entity. •  Defensible urban center, surrounded by

agricultural territory. •  Citizenship was based on birth, but

political rights were generally tied to land ownership.

•  Most city-states had Oligarchic governments – rule of the few.

The Hoplite Army

The Hoplite Warrior was Equipped with:

•  Helmet •  Body Armor - corselet •  Greaves •  Spear, wood with bronze tip and butt-spike •  Short Sword •  Round, convex Hoplite shield - "Hoplon"

Military and Political Values

•  Hoplite armies developed during the Archaic Period (700-500 B.C.)

•  Hoplites armed themselves. •  They stood together in the front ranks. •  Safety depended on NOT breaking ranks. •  Spartans were considered the best

Hoplites.

Size Matters

•  Most poleis were relatively small. •  All poleis generally had some kind of

“council” or deliberative body. •  Membership in that council was often

restricted to the “best” citizens, who were landowners, and able to afford their hoplite armor.

•  Oligarchy was normal.

Tyranny vs. Oligarchy

•  Usually, under oligarchy, the various aristocratic families are evenly matched.

•  Sometimes, in times of political struggle, one aristocrat gains sole power over the others.

•  Usually, he does this by enlisting the assistance of the poorer citizens.

Two Important Exceptions

•  Athens was a larger polis, with more citizens, and naval power.

•  Sparta had conquered the neighboring territory of Messenia. This allowed it to use the Messenians as serfs or “Hellots.”

•  Spartans didn’t have to work their land, and could spend all their time training and fighting.

Fifth Century Political Developments

•  Following the Persian war in 480 – Athens developed an “Empire” based on naval power.

•  The Athenian Allies were mainly concentrated in the islands and on the coast of Asia Minor.

•  The smaller, poorer poleis of the mainland, feared the Athenians and turned to the Spartans for protection.

•  City states took sides – and joined either the Athenian or the Spartan Hegemony.

Athenian Political Developments

Athenian Democracy •  Demos – literally means “people.” •  In places with only hoplite armies, they were

not politically important. •  As the Athenian Empire developed, rowers

were needed for the ships which secured Athenian military supremacy.

•  The rowers were citizens from the lower economic classes.

•  Their power in the Assembly led to the development of Athenian Democracy.

Why Would Other City States Resist Democracy?

•  Most “Ancestral Constitutions” took the form of oligarchies. This was the traditional way of doing things.

•  The power of the “demos” in Athens was based on the need of the city for rowers. Small city-states without navies had less work for the members of the demos.

•  In practice a “democratic government” meant a pro-Athenian government.

Tribute

•  Athens dominated the islands, and the city states on the West Coast of Asia Minor.

•  These places had been paying taxes or “tribute” to the Persian empire.

•  Athens demanded that these cities should pay the same amount of tribute - for protection from the Persians.

•  Tribute was the major complaint of the Athenian allies.

Peloponnesian War

•  Series of conflicts from 431 to 404 B.C. •  Athens, and its allies, struggled with

Sparta, and its protectorates. •  The conflict might have ended in

stalemate, except Persia began to send funds (secretly) to both sides.

Discussion?

•  Why were the city-states often in conflict? •  Why were Athens and Sparta so much

stronger than the rest? •  What were the relative advantages of

hoplite armies? •  Why was naval power so important for

Greek political developments?

Chronological Markers

•  404 B.C.E. After the defeat of Athens by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War, Sparta imposed an oligarchic government at Athens (The Thirty Tyrants).

•  403 B.C.E. Many Athenians who opposed The Thirty were executed or went into exile. These exiles eventually expelled The Thirty, with the Spartans failing to support their own puppet govt.

Chronological Markers

•  401 B.C.E. Greek mercenaries, including Spartans, assist the Persian prince, Cyrus, in his failed attempt to overthrow his brother Artaxerxes II.

•  Although Artaxerxes II and his satrap Tissaphernes tried to punish the mercenaries and the Greek cities of Asia Minor, they were unsuccessful –

•  Were the Persians now weak?

Chronological Markers

•  400-396 B.C.E. The Spartans campaign against the Persians, and attempt to involve mainland Greeks in the campaign. The Thebans, especially are unhelpful.

•  At the same time, the Persians (supposedly) were sending money to anti-Spartan Greek cities.

Chronological Markers •  395 B.C.E. Athens joins Thebes in a war

against Sparta (The Corinthian War). •  The Spartans did fairly well on land in this

war, but got into a lot of trouble at sea. The Persians hired an Athenian Admiral (Conon), and the Spartans lost their fleet at the battle of Cnidus in 397 B.C.E.

•  But, now the allies seemed to be winning, and Athens seemed to regaining its naval power, sooooo.

Chronological Markers •  388/7 – The Persians brokered a deal. •  Sparta gave up its campaign to “free the

Greeks” of Asia. •  The Persians, in return, blockaded the

Hellespont, cut of grain to Athens, and forced it to compromise. The other city states had to go along with this, because they were weak.

•  The Spartan diplomat Antalcidas did the negotiating.

Chronological Markers

•  388/7 Peace of Antalcidas – Terms •  All foreign garrisons were to be disbanded,

and every city-state was supposed to be autonomous.

•  Therefore, there could be no “alliances.” •  Spartans, backed by the Persians, got the

best of this deal. •  Naturally, everyone else was unhappy.

Chronological Markers 388-372

•  388-372 – The Spartans behave badly. •  382 – Occupy the Citadel at Thebes. •  379/8 – Allow one of their generals,

Sphodrias to make an abortive attack on Attica.

•  Generally make things unpleasant for the Thebans.

•  Meanwhile, the Athenians form a new Sea League, which somehow gets around the “autonomy” clause.

Chronological Markers

•  371 – (Our sources are very confused here….)

•  Athens is worried about the increasing power of Thebes, but still doesn’t trust Sparta.

•  There is a peace conference at Sparta – and Sparta and Thebes fall out even more than before.

Leading to……

Battle of Leuctra - 371

•  For the first time, Sparta is fully defeated. •  The Thebans take their campaign into the

Peloponnese. •  Sparta looses control of Messenia. •  The economic basis of the Spartan system

is destroyed.

Literary Sources for the Battle of Leuctra

•  Xenophon – Athenian in Exile – Wrote a work called “Hellenica 6.4.8-15. Xenophon writes from the Spartan point of view. He died in 354 B.C. – so his account is that of a contemporary.

•  Diodorus 15.55.1-56.4. He wrote a “Universal History” and worked during the reign of the Emperor Augustus

•  Plutarch – Life of Pelopidas. His life of Epaminondas is lost. Plutarch was a Greek philosopher and statesman, who died in 120 A.D.

One more Battle….

•  Battle of Mantinea – 362 B.C.E. •  Athens and Sparta vs. Thebes. •  Thebes wins the battle, but….. •  Epaminondas, their general died…so in

the end, they lost the war. •  Athens and Sparta should have joined in a

grand alliance, but……

All of this leads to……

The Career of Philip II King of Macedon

Sources for Philip, son of Amynas

•  Narrative Sources •  Theopompus (lost) •  Ephorus (lost) •  Diodorus – Book 16 •  Justin/Pompeius Trogus •  Other bits and pieces that will make you

crazy if/when you try to write a paper. Plutarch’s Life of Alexander has some important passages.

Sources for Philip, son of Amyntas

•  Contemporary Sources – Athenian Orators •  Demosthenes •  Isocrates •  Aeschenes •  A few very confusing inscriptions. •  Coins – Lots of them. •  Some equally confusing archaeological

remains.

What does it mean when a source is “lost.”

•  “Demosthenes, the father of Demosthenes, belonged to the better class of citizens, as Theopompus tells us, and was surnamed Cutler, because he had a large factory and slaves who were skilled workmen in this business.” Plutarch, Life of Demosthenes, 4.1.

Who was Theopompus?

•  Born on the island of Chios around 378 and died around 320.

•  A Byzantine scholar wrote a brief biography. •  His works are lost, except when they are

quoted by later writers. We call these quotations “Fragments.”

•  Ancient writers would have gotten into a lot of trouble with TurnItIn, and they did a lot of paraphrasing, so…it’s complicated.

More on Theopompus

•  His father was exiled from Chios when Theopompus was a boy.

•  They went to Athens, and Theopompus learned/taught rhetoric.

•  He wrote a VERY long life of Philip, and a number of other works.

•  Seems to have been a bit of a windbag….Except he liked colorful stories.

Surviving Sources

•  But as for what Aeschines the orator says of the mother of Demosthenes, namely, that she was a daughter of one Gylon, who was banished from the city on a charge of treason, and of a barbarian woman, I cannot say whether he speaks truly, or is uttering a slander and lies.

•  Plutarch Life of Demosthenes, 4.2.

Aeschines On the Crown 172

•  Here he married a woman who was rich, I grant you, and brought him a big dowry, but a Scythian by blood. This wife bore him two daughters, whom he sent hither with plenty of money. One he married to a man whom I will not name—for I do not care to incur the enmity of many persons,—the other, in contempt of the laws of the city,1 Demosthenes of Paeania took to wife. She it was who bore your busy-body and informer. From his grandfather, therefore, he would inherit enmity toward the people, for you condemned his ancestors to death and by his mother's blood he would be a Scythian, a Greek-tongued barbarian—so that his knavery, too, is no product of our soil.

Analysis

•  A writer like Plutarch has access to many sources now lost to us.

•  But even if we have the source that Plutarch used, should be accept that what that source says is true?

•  This kind of analysis is called “source criticism.”

Keeping all that in mind….

Chronology of Philip of Macedon

Philip is Born

•  Born around 382. •  His father was Amyntas III, King of Macedon,

and he was the youngest of three brothers born to Amyntas and his wife Eurydice, a member of an important Macedonian family.

•  There are many stories about Eurydice, and her bad behavior, but remember, Greek orators like to talk about women behaving badly….

Philip is Sent to Thebes

•  Amyntas III died in 369 B.C. and was succeeded by his son Alexander II.

•  There was a coup, and Alexander, momentarily, was victorious. He sent his youngest brother, Philip (about 13/15 years old) to Thebes as a hostage, because Thebes arbitrated the succession dispute.

•  Shortly after, Alexander II was assassinated.

More Court Intrigue

•  The “usurper,” Ptolemy, acted as regent for brother # 2 – Perdiccas.

•  365 B.C. – Perdiccas came to the throne, assassinated Ptolemy and recalled Philip from Thebes.

Philip’s Time in Thebes

•  369 to 365 - Philip was in Thebes. •  Observed Theban Military Reform such as

the training of the Sacred Band. •  365-360 – Philip returns to Macedon and

trains his own troops. •  360 – Philips brother Perdiccas is killed in

a disastrous campaign against the Illyrians.

359-357 B.C.

•  There are some source issues. •  Philip took over the kingship and did what

he had to do to prevent an Illyrian takeover of Macedon.

•  By 357, Philip had reduced the Illyrian threat. Theories about how he did this include bribery, strategic alliances and military campaigns. Our sources are a mess.

357-352 B.C.

•  Philip had made an alliance with Athens. •  Two poleis were particular problems,

Amphipolis and Olynthus. Athens wanted Amphipolis.

•  Philip captured the city, and talked about returning it to Athens, but that didn’t happen, and eventually, Philip took all of the cities in the area, and controlled the productive gold and silver mines there.

Why did Athens Want Amphipolis?

Athenian Hegemony

•  480-431 – Athens leads the Delian League/Athenian Empire.

•  404 – Athens looses its fleet – Sparta cuts off access to grain from the Black Sea.

•  378 Athens reforms a “Sea League.” •  After the Battle of Leuctra – Sparta is no

longer a problem for Athens.

Why did Athens Want Amphipolis?

359-337 Philip Marries

•  Phila (359) •  Audata (359) •  Philinna (358) •  Olympias of Molossia (357) mother of

Alexander. •  Nicesipolis (353) •  Meda (352) •  Cleopatra (337). Cleopatra was executed by

Olympias after Philip’s death.

Philip and the Sacred Wars

•  The 3rd and 4th Sacred Wars were conflicts between the Greek states, supposedly involving sacrilege.

•  Phocis, which was located close to Delphi, was charged by Thebes with cultivating sacred land.

•  In these conflicts, the Thebans and their allies fought the Phocians, and their allies (who were the Athenians and the Spartans).

353/2 B.C

•  Philip came south to participate in the Sacred War in support of the Thessalians, who had sided with the Thebans against the Phocians.

•  Philip defeated the Phocians at the Battle of the Crocus Field.

•  Result: Philip now controlled Thessaly, and had fought successfully on behalf of a “sacred” cause. Many viewed him as a legitimate player in Greek politics.

352/1 Some Athenians are Not Happy

•  From now on, the orator Demosthenes never misses a chance to point out that Philip is a “threat” to mainland Greece.

348 – Philip Captures Olynthus •  Olynthus was the major city in the Chalcidice. •  It feared Philip, and made an alliance with

Athens. •  It also, supposedly supported alternate

candidates for the Macedonian throne. •  Philip besieged the town in 349 and

destroyed it completely in 348. Although Olynthus asked Athens for help, that help came too late.

•  Demosthenes made several famous speeches….

Why Was Philip Successful?

Sarissa

Sarissa

•  Thrusting Spear •  14 Feet Long •  No need for Hoplite

Armor. •  Possible to recruit

more Macedonian style infantry than traditional hoplites.

Next time…….

The Battle of Chaeronea

Discussion -