FEATURES

FIFTH ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF HERDSA

THE EVALUATION OF ACADEMIC PROGRAMS IN A UNIVERSITY

Ray McAleese, John Powell Page 3

Peter Fensham Page 5

THE STATE OF THE THEORY OF EDUCATION IN THE HIGHEST OF PLACES Robert Paddick Page 8

REGULAR ITEMS

CONFERENCES AND WORKSHOPS NEW PERIODICALS REVIEWS HERDSA ABSTRACTS

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Editorial

At the time of writing the announcement by Senator Carrick of the latest round of cuts in the education budget is due. Once again education is at the mercy of the current economic climate. Let us hope that in the not-too-distant future there might be some respite from the cut-where-we-can syndrome to a situation in which good work can flourish on its merits and the not-so-good can wither away. When Senator Carrick addressed our annual conference in Brisbane recently he indicated that he was chairman of a Cabinet Committee formed to discuss the proposals of the Williams Committee on Education, Training and Employment. He said that it consisted of five to six others and would report to Cabinet "in some months time". He was cautious in his reaction stating that, "the journey will take many months as it has some profound aspects about it," and that "the kind of changes [envisaged by Williams} would take enormous investigation and a lengthy time". Whatever HERDSA members may think about the Williams Report these remarks certainly do not encourage us to take an optimistic view of the leadership which might be taken by the Federal Government in this area in the near future. One of the contributions which HERDSA can make to the debate on the future of tertiary education is to respond to one of Senator Carrick's other observations. There has been very little public debate of the Williams proposals. The press, after its initial exposition of the

most controversial features has ignored the implications and the letter writers who continue the discussion have been conspicuous by their absence. The HERDSA Executive is presently preparing a submission on behalf of HERDSA to the Minister about the Williams Report. The President, John Powell, is coordinating this response and his preliminary report on the progress of this forms part of the section on the HERDSA Conference. At the conference the Executive met several times to discuss the future direction and policy of HERDSA. Whilst the basic direction and activities of HERDSA were reaffirmed it was recognised that HERDSA needed to strengthen itself in some areas and to encompass all the major groups with an ir:tterest in the furtherance of research and development in higher education. One of the major activities for the year will be a drive to recruit members in those areas in which HERDSA is underrepresented. These include staff in the Technical and Further Education sector, senior administrators in tertiary institutions and teachers and lecturers in all sectors especially those outside continental Australia. With a strong and growing membership HERDSA can better claim to be the society which can represent the views of those people who are committed to the improvement of tertiary education through research and development.

Dave Boud

You are invited to contribute

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The effectiveness of the HERDSA Newsletter as a medium of communication amongst those interested in higher education research and development is crucially dependent on contributions from readers. Letters, brief articles, items of information and news, and proposals for features are particularly invited. Do not feel hesitant about putting pen to paper - if you have a point of view to express please let us hear about it.

Deadlines for copy for HERDSA Newsletter

November issue: 1st October

March issue: 1st February July issue: 1st June

Editor

Layout Cover Design Printed by

Dr Dave Boud, Tertiary Education Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Kensington 2033 NSW Ian Dunn Carole Griffin The Clarendon Press, Kensington, N.S.W.

Fifth Annual Conference of HERDSA

The fifth annual conference of HERDSA was held at Mount Gravatt CAE in Brisbane from 11-14 May this year. In addition to the presentation of contributed papers there were some special features. The first of these was a combined session with the Australian Association for Adult Education on 'Continuing and Adult Education'. Organised by Dr Jack McDonnell from Monash University the session consisted of a keynote address by Barrie Brennan, Chairman of the AAAE, and round table discussions on various aspects of continuing education. The second feature was the opening session of the conference which rather than a simple opening address consisted of a keynote address by Dr Malcolm Skilbeck, Director of the Curriculum Development Centre in Canberra on 'The Changing Student' followed by round table discussions on this theme. As has been already mentioned in the Editorial the Guest­of-Honour and Speaker at the conference dinner was Senator The Hon. J.L. Carrick, Federal Minister for Education. One of the most successful features was the informal sessions which took place on the Sunday of the conference. Various workshops, special interest meetings, discusisons and other informal activities occurred and gave an opportunity for discussion in depth to take place on matters of particular interest. One of our overseas visitors was Dr Ray McAleese from the University of Aberdeen. He gives his personal view on the conference below:

It is a privilege to attend a conference as a guest speaker, to depart and then to comment on the con­ference, albeit briefly. In vain many people have attempted to determine what ingredients make up a good conference. Few have really captured an academic meeting of individuals who see each other only once a year, and yet belong to a joint invisible college. I know one instance in the U.K. where the feeling was of an air disaster with survivors working together to achieve a common goal - escape. HERDS A '79 had some of the features of a summer camp where one escapes the tedium of urban living to spend a few days in benign autocratic enjoyment. Brisbane in May is indeed a bus­man's holiday; to hold the conference in Mount Gravatt CAE is to pick an ideal site in an individualistic and charming state. The conference had as a first ingredient a holiday spirit with an appropriate balance between the formal sessions (dinners, barbecues and paper sessions) and the informal meeting of old and new friends in restaurants and over coffee. Such a description deter­mines the background for useful sessions and important themes.

Two guest speakers (Professor Malcolm Skilbeck, of the Curriculum Development Centre in Canberra, and Dr Barry Brennan of the Department of Continuing Education, University of New England) gave an impetus to the discussions and debates by identifying the main theme for the conference; it is better to find out by em­pirical search than to work on cherished assumptions. Malcolm Skilbeck addressed himself to what we know about teenage students and Barry Brennan to the adult student or the mature learner. Our knowledge about students is often limited, frequently ill formed and sometimes, down right inaccurate or out of date. Skil­beck identified the changing social conditions and value assumptions that can be seen in secondary schools that carryover to tertiary education. Often we assume that

our students or those of our colleagues are surrogates of ourselves; yet in the time it has taken us to achieve our status, students have changed considerably. We have a lot to make up with regard to what way we perceive students' needs and the changing social values that br­ing students into higher education.

This main theme had three related sub-themes that may be cast as three pitfalls; i.e. 'tunnel vision'; 'intellec­tualism' and 'progress dependence'. If one is to learn the implicit lessons of HERDSA '79 then it is worthwhile looking briefly at these themes.

Tunnel vision can be characterised by the reinvention of the wheel. Often we fail to know or see the obvious or the established idea preferring to find our own solu­tion. While we should inform our decision taking with empirical research, we need to use knowledge extant. It 0

is said that plagiarism is only one step from original thought and that research is a lack of knowledge of the common stock of plagiarised ideas. Indeed the more we distill ideas the closer we may get to the truth. Yet we need to be able to build on existing ideas as well as rein­vent. We need to build on existing theory, to increase our knowledge of related fields to our own - to be ec­clectic - and to use, effectively the variety of channels of communication open to us. Only if we can do this will we avoid the pitfall of tunnel vision.

There is an adage that says that knowledge begets good practice. Like many such truisms, it is frail when examined closely. Often with a cherished knowledge we believe that we are armed to outwit our foes. Intellec­tualism is the single-minded approach that believes that good research must produce good practice. This is not necessarily true. Research has to be socially and

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politically acceptable. Higher education is a political arena where policy decisions are made with regard to eduational and other conditions (social, political and economic). For example, the re-introduction of fees into higher education (if it comes) may have less to do with educational and other conditions (social, political and political pressure. In order to make best use of good research in teaching learning etc., we need to promote policy related research that examines the practices of policy adoption.

A third sub-theme that comes from HERDSA '79 was the dependence that some developers have on tech­nological artefacts.

Innovative schemes that depend on technology (e.g. CAl, television teaching) may mean long term social problems with the use of technology. There is evidence despite many years of educational technology research to the contrary, that a reliance on technology itself is not necessarily a forward step. The lack of use of many technical artefacts is ample evidence of a thrust in some directions (e.g. computing and video recording) are determined not by the user but by commercial interests. The main problem that exists in higher education with

regard to technology is the ambivalent relationship that academics have with machines. It is as if there is a basic threat situation posed by machines. However, tech­nology can extend our capacities (as researchers, teachers, etc.) and in some instances make cost savings. Yet the second and third order consequences of such usage may mean deskilling in basic research skills and a resultant psychological disassociation when things go wrong.

HERDSA '79 posed a number of important questions; the papers raised issues - both explicit and implicit. Malcolm Skilbeck observed in his paper that "The prob­lem of tertiary education in the next decade may be less that of the changing student than the unchanging staff'.

We need to prepare ourselves to adapt to new situa­tions, to avoid perennial problems and to establish a credible realistic knowledge how to extend our capacities.

Ray McAleese University of Aberdeen

The Report on Education, Training and Employment, known as the Williams Report is one of the most important documents affecting higher education for many years. The HERDSA Executive is coordinating a response to the Report which will be sent to the Federal Minister of Education, Senator Carrick. Dr John Powell, President of HERDSA, outlines some of the discussion of the Report from the Annual Conference:

A symposium on the Report of the Williams Commit­tee began with presentations by Bill Hall, Dick Johnson and Roger Swain. This brief summary identifies some of the major points made during that session.

The Report was seen as being evolutionary rather than revolutionary, concerned with evaluating and con­solidating major developments in the educational system during recent years. Its concern with all sectors of the system was seen as a strength and it was felt that the absence of dramatic recommendations for structural changes would make it more likely that many of the relatively minor proposals would be accepted and im­plemented.

A major weakness was its failure to deal adequately with training schemes designed to cope with the prob­lem of unemployment. It was also excessively concerned with contemporary educational problems and failed to respond to its brief to look ahead to the year 2000. Many of the recommendations were couched in vague terms and provided little guidance for policy-makers concerned to bring about changes in the system.

Although re-affirming the original conception of CAEs as being equal but different, in urging the Colleges not

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to become involved in post-graduate work and to con­centrate upon less able students the Report tended to ig­nore much of what is being done in the Colleges.

There was a welcome emphasis on the need to strengthen the teaching skills of academic staff but a failure to take account of the requirements in this area of the majority of more experienced staff. The recom­mendations on course and institutional evaluation, and the stress on the need for a major increase in data gathering, were also seen as being highly significant.

There was considerable support for the diversion of more resources into the T AFE sector and for the estab­lishment of a major research and development unit within TAFE. Proposals to facilitate transfer of credits between courses and institutions were viewed as a major step forward, as were suggestions for improving access to tertiary education for disadvantaged sections of the community.

The Society's Executive is currently preparing a response to the Williams Report for submission to the Minister for Education.

John Powell President

The evaluation of courses has become a normal part of the Australasian tertiary scene. Today we are facing the next stage of the trend towards accountability: the evaluation of schools and departments and entire academic programmes. The signs can be clearly seen. The Tertiary Education Commission has earmarked a large sum from its budget for 'evaluative studies' and the Williams Committee has commended the approach to the evaluation of departments which has been pioneered in recent years by the Australian National University. The North Americans have been this way before so perhaps we can learn something from their experience. Professor Peter Fensham has spent some time working with a project at the University of Illinois designed to evaluate the current and prospective worth of academic departments in that university. He reports on the procedure that is being used and draws some lessons for our own practice:

The Evaluation of Academic Programmes in a University

Some lessons from the experience of the University of Illinois 1972-1978

In 1972 some of the most senior members of the University of Illinois foresaw the need for some mechanism that would provide the departments within the University and the University itself with an evalua­tion of their current academic life and its prospects.

The promise of a period of 1" Iverall growth and relatively shrinking resources were primary motivating factors, but from an early stage some of the key figures were aware that these conditions were likely to be associated with a public pressure for accountability of public expenditure that would lead to increased political concern or "involvement" in the details of higher educa­tion. Central advisory bodies, in their turn, were likely to begin to ask "questions of an evaluative" type and to require such reports from the various institutions in the state individually or collectively. These persons who had this foresight at the University of Illionois believed that it was important for the University to have its own ra­tionale about the role of academic evaluations clearly thought out (and established in practice), before these external demands and evaluations became a reality. In 1977 the Illinois Board of Higher Education, indeed, did establish a Review and Planning programme which began to do what had been predicted.

Australian higher education has reached the same con­ditions of no overall growth and reduced resources some years later than in the U.S.A. Nevertheless, the same patterns of public concern and political response are already visible, and the Tertiary Education Commission has already announced that it has launched an Evalua­tion Programme to which funds will be allocated in in­creasing amounts over the next few years. Accordingly it seems pertinent to note some of the presuppositions and procedures that have evolved at the University of Illinois.

Responsibility for Evaluation On the advice of the very high level planning group,

the Vice-Chancellor appointed a Council on Programme Evaluation (COPE) consisting of 9 members of academic staff (at least 5 of whom must hold full time faculty ap­pointments with no administrative responsibilities), 2 graduate students and 2 undergraduate. The members serve staggered terms to provide a degree of continuity. The Council has a full time chairman wi th the rank of associate vice-chancellor and a small support staff.

Two basic modes have developed for evaluations the ad hoc task force and self-evaluation. This leads to a report on a department's programmes which is available to the department as a whole. COPE then considers the report and any further data it decides to gather, and from these an evaluation is prepared. This takes two forms - one for public reporting and one including ad­visory recommendations that goes to the vice-chancellor.

Further details of the organisation of COPE and the mechanisms of its evaluation can be provided by the author.

(A) Evaluation and Redistribution of Resources In a period of little or no growth, innovation and

change will be accomplished primarily through the re­arrangement and re-allocation of resources. If evalua­tions of the merits of departments and their academic programmes are occurring, information is likely to emerge that may bear on these decisions of redistribu­tion. At the University of Illinois, however, with their target for one cycle of evaluations to be completed in 5 years (100 or so departments altogether), it quickly became clear that the COPE evaluations were 'more valuable in relation to long term redistributions than to short term decisions of this kind. The timing of the COPE reviews was hardly likely to coincide very often

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with the budgetary cycle. However, since the evalua­tions may contribute to some of a department's pro­grammes being curtailed or terminated, it was establish­ed, as a principle, that a substantial proportion of any resources thus freed to the University, would be made available to that department to strengthen its other con­tinuing programmes.

(B) Evaluation - not a Crisis At the University of Illinois a quite basic principle of

evaluation and of COPE is that all departments are evaluated in turn. The evaluation of a department is not to be seen as a "crisis" or "problem" but as part of the on-going life of departments and the University. Evalua­tion does imply judgements of worth and there seems to be an inevitable tendency for any evaluation to point to pluses and minuses. If 25 departments at the University of Illinois are evaluated every year, there is much less tendency to get the minuses (and the pluses) out of pro­portion.

(C) Evaluation and Criteria of Worth Four presuppositions concerning criteria of worth

were established early in the life of COPE. 1. The initial criteria should be provided by the depart­ment or group being evaluated. The participation of a department in its own review was seen as quite fun­damental - at base only economists can "judge" good economics. 2. The development of academic work will involve the boundaries (and beyond) of the disciplines. Such criteria are less likely to come from within a department and academics in other related departments should provide these. 3. The worth of a department or one of its program­mes to the University of Illinois transcends departmen­tal or cross-disciplinary practitioners. A group of academics from widely differing departments, perhaps often aided by their experience in conducting reviews, were to be the source of these "university" criteria. 4. The reviews should concentrate on educational and intellectual considerations and not on a mixture of these and budgetary ones. Only in this way could COPE best serve the administration or the academic departments as well as retain the trust of both. Accordingly, the presence of academics without other administrative responsiLili-ties was seen to be a most important feature of the composition of COPE.

"Only two thirds of the recurrent budget is distributed on a WSU basis. The remaining third was related to academic quality and value to the University as a whole."

Examples of Criteria of Worth As COPE matured in its experience, the evaluations

have become more sophisticated and more flexible characteristics that are sometimes not recognised as compatible.

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Members of the evaluative teams and of COPE itself are encouraged to comment on their general impressions of a department in such categories as its "accessibility", intellectual climate and morale and its cohesiveness, as well as to report on more standard and obviously avail­able aspects such as departmental organisation, re­search and scholarship, teaching loads, quality of students, service activities and contributions to continu­ing education. Some of the specific criteria and in­dicators that have been considered and used are in the Attachment.

"Very distinguished departments have, on occa­sions, been found wanting because of their tendency to rest content in their present high quality acaemic pursuits."

Budgetary Support for Academic Worth The work of COPE and its evaluative reviews were

greatly assisted at the University of Illinois because of the University's budgetary commitment to quality. Only about two thirds of the recurrent budget is distributed on a WSU (Weighted Student Unit) basis. Th') remain­ing third was related to academic quality and value to the University as a whole. With this administrative re­jection of formula funding based on student numbers as the units, and with most of the academic staff commit­ted in principle against such formulas, a favourable climate for COPE existed. Thus, the "quality" part of the budget could be left entirely in the hands of a hopefully benevolent autocrat, or he could be strongly advised and informed by a small, but respected group of academics who were charged with assessing departmen­tal worth and its relation to the good health of the University. There was a risk of loss but also a chance of gain through the influence of COPE. At Illinois, the pressure of large numbers of applicants for places in a particular department could be used to argue that "departmental quality" existed, but there was a limit to which expansion could be pressed. If, in some redistribu­tion, a department was allowed to take a significant number of extra students, it was commonly believed that its quality would go down - there is after all a limited number of quality students and quality staff. If a department argued and won too large an increase in its WSU budget then its quality budget would go down and tend to cancel out the gains.

Evaluation and the Purposes of the University There has been a growing emphasis through the

operation of COPE on the relationship between the pur­poses of a department and the purposes of the Universi­ty as a whole. Indeed, the internal evaluations of COPE are sharply distinguished on this very point from other U.S. procedures such as - external procedures of ac­crditation and disciplinary "league tables". COPE's frame of reference is the general ethos of the University and its set of expectations as a whole. This ethos and set of expectations was not, I believe, clearly written down as a set of 7 or 70 statements before COPE began, but the COPE reviews have assisted it to become clearer and there seems little doubt that over its years of opera­tion "there has been a reaffirmation of traditional

scholarly values on the campus." One interesting aspect of this to me was the stress that COPE has put on the criterion of a "direction of academic development". Very distinguished departments have, on occasions, been found wanting because of their tendency to rest content in their present high quality academic pursuits.

Evaluation - Shortfall or Discernment of Merit There are a number of ways in which people perceive

the notion of evaluation. Among these are (i) the assess­ment of the shortfall between what should be and what is and (ii) the spelling out of merit or value. Both these views are present in the COPE programme of the University of Illinois. However, there seemed to be con-

siderable wisdom in COPE's overt recognition that the former view is rather naive in conception and often il­lusory in practice. Accordingly, COPE thus gave ePl­phasis to "directions of a department's existing prac­tices" as well as to any attempt it made to give "mean­ing to the department's present position". The second view of evaluation is also difficult to translate into evaluative practice, but the COPE approach with its balance between "insiders" and "outsiders" did help to focus attention on what "academic quality" is and wherein it may lie.

Peter J. Fensham Monash University

CRITERIA RECOMMENDED FOR INSTITUTIONAL SELF EVALUATION

1. The quality of instruction in individual courses and of the instructional program as a whole. 2. The quality of research, creative activity, scholarly work, service, and, if appropriate, of professional perform

ance (as in the arts). 3. Centrality, i.e., the contribution or importance of the program to other programs on Campus. 4. The value of the program to society or its uniqueness in the State's program of higher education. 5. Potential and future expectations.

Possible Indicators of Quality of Instruction 1. Assessment by students of courses, teachers, and overall program. 2. Quality of program as viewed by recent graduates. 3. Standards for admission to and retention in programs. 4. Availability of adequate space and facilities. 5. Commitment to and concern for institutional programs as manifested in such elements as effectiveness of stu­

dent advising, distribution of instructional load, responsiveness to changing program needs, etc.

Possible Indicators of Creative Activity or Professional Performance 1. ACE (American College of Education) or similar ratings. 2. Ratings by professional societies and the results of the accreditation visits. 3. Outside grant and contract support compared to that for other programs in the field. 4. External recognition of staff members as reflected by Who's Who listings and similar honors, offices in pro­

fessional societies, consulting, and publications.

Possible Indicators of "Centrality" 1. The relationship of the program to the institutional mission. 2. Instruction of students from other programs on Campus. 3. Contribution of programs to other activities on Campus.

Conferences and Workshops ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR RESEARCH INTO HIGHER EDUCATION: INDICATORS OF PERFORMANCE Dates 19th, 20th December 1979 Location Brighton Polytechnic Aim To provide an opportunity to consider the effects of higher education on individual and institutional per­

formance; the assessment of students' performance both during their academic studies and subsequent careers; the performance of those institutions in relation to government, commerce and industry.

Format Contributions from keynote speakers and opportunities for contributed papers and for discussion. Information The Administrator, SRHE, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 5XH, Surrey, England.

ENGINEERING EDUCATION - FRONTIERS IN EDUCATION: 1979 CONFERENCE Dates 15-17 October 1979 Location Sheraton Brock Hotel, Niagara Falls, Canada Topics New. directions and developments in engineering education. Including: Technological Aids in Education,

Makmg Laboratory Education More Meaningful, Design of Learning Experience, Evaluation of Educa­tional Programs, Engineering Design Programs, Graduate Education and Research, Interactive Computers in Education, Changes in Mathematics for Engineers, Continuing Education Programs, Engineering for Non-Engineers, Multi-Disciplinary Education.

Information Professor Gordon R. SIemon, Program Chairman, FIE '79, Department of Electrical Engineering, Univer­sity of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario MSS 1A4, Canada.

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The State of the Theory of Higher Education in the Highest of Places

The Twelfth Commonwealth Universities Congress

So general is the concern at present about the state of higher education that university, academic staff are aware as never before of the need for expert guidance -if only to elude some of the more threatening pressures for what is called "accountability". Faced with this dif­ficulty, it was with the anticipation of some illumina­tion on these topics that I attended the Twelfth Com­monwealth Universities Congress held in August 1978 in Vancouver. Here were gathered most of the leaders of Universities throughout the Commonwealth to discuss a number of topics including "Universities and other In­stitutes of Tertiary Education", and "Reconciling Equali­ty and Excellence". On these two topics, in particular, I expected to learn something about the theory of higher education.

I was disappointed. There seemed to be much the same range of ability among the speakers as one might find at any other Education conference. I did not find any greater ability to get to the heart of the matters under discussion. There was the same bedevilment with semantics, the same tendency to obfuscation, the same aversion to discussing value assumptions. Whatever may be the intellectual skills of many who delivered papers and spoke in discussion, and obviously they were con­siderable, these skills were not apparent in dealing with these basic problems of universities which lie across single disciplines.

The quality of the debate was not improved by the way in which the discussions were organised and con­ducted. They were all held in tiered lecture rooms with at least fifty, sometimes two hundred in the group. Many chairmen did not allow the speakers to respond, even to direct questions, until the end when time was given for the speaker to try and resurrect comments in order to reply. Because of the size and physical organisation of the group only the most bold, or the most agitated, were willing to offer opinions, and even then their comments consisted of "this is what we do at our university" or "our problems are different". There was nothing which resembled a "clash of minds", no forging of new ideas together - only people showing how they knew it all or, alternatively, how they had missed the point.

Consequently, I have the feeling that much of the in­tellectual potential was wasted because discussiori periods were only tokenism. The usual retort to this kind of criticism is that "of course the real discussion goes on over meals, in the bar, at coffee, etc., and the sessions should be used to pick out which people you want to talk to". However, if informal breaks, bars and lounges are to become part of the congress machinery to promote discussion, then they have to be organised, located and furnished with that in mind.

I shall give three examples to illustrate the super­ficiality of much of the discussion:

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1. The university and the needs of society It was stressed by many speakers that the university

must pay grea.ter attention to the needs of society. Sir John Crawford referred to this in his summary of topic one ("The World Food Problem and the Universities"), as did Dr Lacoste in summarising topic four ("The Public View of Universities"). However, it did not seem that any discussion went much further than this, except for a couple of warnings from group four to the effect that "there was no agreement as to who should assess needs" and "there are dangers in assuming that universities know what is best for society". Surely it might be ex­pected that a gathering such as this might get beyond such cliches as we find in the media (ivory tower self­indulgence vs meeting society's needs), to a discussion of which needs (long term or short term), in cooperation with whom, etc.? Who does know what is best for socie­ty? Perhaps universities best meet society's long-term needs by being ivory tower! The discussion (in a gather­ing such as this!) ended where it should have begun.

2. Relevance and Competence In an attempt to make clear his particular bias, Sir

Alan Cottrell introduced the alternatives "Relevance or Competence" into his discussion of "The Relevance of University Education and Research". This provided an excellent example of the dangers which accompany an attempt to develop a catchy slogan to encapsulate a complicated idea. More unfortunate though than the presentation of a false dichotomy, was the fact that half the discussion was spent with various people trying to unravel the conceptual mess that the slogan created. Then, even though it eventually became apparent that the slogan was more obfuscatory than heuristic, and if true, trivially so, and that it should never be mentioned again, it reappeared in the Chairman's summary on the final day! There was no doubt that its virtue of being memorable far outweighed its invalidity as he searched hurriedly to find something to say. The group's inabili­ty to deal with a piece of patently sloppy thinking was astounding, only slightly less so than that no one was persuaded actually to defend incompetence and ir­relevance!

3. The Role of the Universities and other Tertiary Institutions

My third example illustrates what I thought was an unfortunate unwillingness to try and be clear about the role of the university. In general it was assumed, it seemed, that "we all know and share what it's all about; we have faith". It's fascinating to wonder what in fact we do all share. Sometimes the discussion suggested that it was not much.

Profesor Karmel drew the attention of this interna­tional audience to one of our famous reports on post-

secondary education - quoting with deference the opi­nion of "the then Universities Commission" about the "typical characteristics" of universities and colleges. We of course would all have immediately recognised it as Professor Karmel's very own report of 1974 on a fourth university for Victoria. Through it all he went, describ­ing in detail how tertiary institutions differ - their courses, size, student body, modes of study, entry re­quirements, staff characteristics, academic freedom etc., etc. What he did not make clear was how he knew when to stop. He did not, for example, continue his list with "types of buildings", "parking arrangements", "toilet facilities" etc., etc. And why not? He just stop­ped; and put in the following "conclusion":

There are no theoretical bases for distinguishing groups of institutions in a way which would enable one to say that universities have these functions and polytechnics have those.

" ... it is important to know what these 'per­sonal' value judgments of people in high places are, so that they can be debated, substantiated and revised, rather than remaining private and untested."

In discussion I asked Professor Karmel how he regard­ed the lack of theoretical bases: did he regard it as in­evitable, as desirable, as merely the current state of the art, as unfortunate or what? I stated that it was impor­tant to distinguish between what the institutions are like and how they in fact differ (which is what he had done) and what they ought to be like. It is one thing to describe them, but it is another thing to direct them, and directing them requires an understanding not mere­ly of what they are but of what they should be.

Professor Karmel replied saying that in his job he had to deal with institutions as they are and that while it might be nice to wipe them all out and start again this was not possible. He then said that he could not be too concerned with what they ought to be like, and that

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How can new courses be evaluated usefully and reliably, within existing infititutional resources, and with due attention to personal sensitivities and institu­tional politics? Evaluation Newsletter has tackled these questions through a combination of theoretical discussions and accounts of practice since 1976 in the context of new teacher education courses. It has now ex­panded its scope to cover a broader range of evaluation­related issues in the whole of higher education. Since February 1979 the Society for Research into Higher Education has taken over publication. The editors are Robin Alexander, University of Leeds and Roland Hoste, University of Stirling. Subscription is £1.50 to cover two issues from the Administrator, Society for Research into Higher Education, University of Surrey, Guildford, Sur­rey GU2 5XH.

would be only a personal opmlOn anyway. All we can do, he concluded, is make small changes and try to en­sure that these are in the right direction.

Even allowing for the difficulty of responding im­mediately to an unseen question, such an answer must surely provoke concern when it comes from a university leader and indeed now as chairman of the T.E.C., a leader of universities. Nor is this contradicted by his written paper, which is in precisely the same vein. Note firstly the debating trick of redescribing "what they ought to be" as involving "wiping them all out and start­ing again", so that it is easy to dismiss the position as untenable in its idealism. Note also of course that the "trick" is completely invalid. Note secondly the false assumption that a value judgment must be just a per­sonal statement, as though all value judgments were just a matter of taste, and not open to criticism or justification. Surely it is important to know what these "personal" value judgments of people in high places are, so that they can be debated, substantiated and revised, rather than remaining private and untested. Note final­ly, the inconsistency of denying the importance of what ought to be the case and then speaking of the need to make changes in the right direction. How then is "right" to be judged?

No doubt the development of a social theory which would describe the function of tertiary institutions so that the relationships between them were clear, and against which the status quo could be assessed, would be rather difficult. But if such matters are not discussed in places like this congress where are they to be discuss­ed? It was interesting that Sir Frederick Dainton gave the beginnings of a theory when he said, in passing, in the same session, "Any society that calls itself civilised must allow its best minds to follow their curiosity". If we began to examine such a statement then we might also be able to begin the formulation of those theoretical bases which Professor Karmel says are quite lacking. If the universities do not direct the unviersities, who does? But of course the "value-free" answer to that is quite ob­vious to men like Professor Karmel. The government. So the problem is not merely academic.

Robert J. Pad dick Flinders University

EDUCATION IN MEDICINE AND THE HEALTH PROFESSIONS

This is a proposed new annual journal dealing with all aspects of teaching in medicine and health. It is intend­ed to provide a focus for current research and develop­ment activities in Australia, New Zealand, the South Pacific and South East Asian region. The editorial board for the journal seeks contributions and will consider ma­jor papers dealing with new teaching approaches, stu­dent assessment, course design and evaluation, or with any aspect of medical or health science education. The final date for submission of papers to be considered in the first volume will be 31 August 1979. For further details write to the editor: Dr R.D. Linke, School of Medicine, The Flinders University of South Australia, Bedford Park, South Australia 5042.

9

REVIEWS

The Growth of Policies for Staff Develop­ment, Harriet Greenaway and Alan G. Harding, Society for Research into Higher Education, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, (1978). £4.50 + £0.20 p&p, 103pp.

This monograph is a further contribution to the discussion of the role of the staff member in universities and polytechnics in the United Kingdom, and of the policies adopted by the various institutions for improve­ment of the general competence of staff'. It starts from two other surveys undertaken independently by the authors, which were reported in 1971 and 1974, and dealt with the types of training provided for academic staff in universities and polytechnics respectively. The present report is based on a survey conducted in 1976, using a ten-item questionnaire, which was sent to 61 university institutions (including' 18 colleges of the Universities of London and Wales) and 31 polytechnics. Responses of some kind were received from 46 univer­sities and colleges and 20 polytechnics.

The questionnaire set out as the four aims of staff develop men t: "(a) to help staff perform as effectively as possible in

their existing roles including support during proba­tion;

(b) to provide opportunities for staff to prepare them­selves for changing duties and responsibilities;

(c) to provide opportunities for members of staff to equip themselves for increased responsibilities and career advancement; and

(d) to enhance job satisfaction." The policies and practices to which attention was

directed were concerned with teaching methods, re­search, sabbatical leave and study leave, in-service train­ing, allocation of staff establishment, and promotion. Although the questionnaire was generally interpreted as referring to academic staff', some 20 per cent of respondents provided information about non-teaching staff and provided some basis for a discussion of the special problems of such staff.

The growth of the concept of staff development has been proceeding in the U.K. since the early 1970's; it grew out of the work of the Hale Committee on Univer­sity Teaching Methods (1904), submissions to U.G.C. by the Association of University Teachers advocating the establishment of a staff college (1966), and a report to the Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals (1972) by one of its working parties calling for more formal provision for the training of university teachers.

The Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals established a co-ordinating committee (1972) to imple­ment the recommendations of its working party, and this committee has been active in promoting a broad concept of staff development through training program­mes. The polytechnics have instituted their own Stand­ing Conference on Educational Development Services (1974) and this has served to promote interest in staff training programmes. However, it was possible for Greenaway and Harding to report that in 1978, the con­cept of staff development was still not widely recognis­ed or understood.

The concept is as yet not strongly developed in Aus­tralian universities, but this is not to say that activities discussed in the monograph are absent from the scene in this country. With the publication of the Murray Report (1957) there was a surge of interest in the per-

10

formance of academic staff, and in several universities (notably New South Wales, Melbourne, Sydney, Queens­land, and Western Australia) special provision was m:i\de in an attempt to improve the quality of university teaching.

These activities were not seen then as "staff develop­ment" but as directed towards higher quality of institu­tional performance. Similarly, the promotion of research in the universities was approached from the point of view of the institution and its functions, both in teaching and the discovery of new knowledge, rather than as staff development. Since then most of our universities have established some form of service unit to advise staff and conduct training programmes.

Greenaway and Harding assume "that all aspects of a person's working life and conditions may have staff development implications". The assumption was rein­forced by the fact that there were few comments on the grouping of the wide range of activities as staff develop­ment, and on this slim evidence they conclude (albeit tentatively) that policies for appointment, probation, promotion and sabbatical ("staff development") leave may now be regarded as integral parts of staff develop­ment policy.

Just as the popular definition of education as total ex­perience tends to destroy the meaning and significance of discussions about education, so too can the very broad definition of staff development become a fertile source of confusion. The value of this report for Aus­tralian readers may well depend on the extent to which it contributes to a sharpened perception of the nature of and need for policies and suitable practices designed to ensure the continuing critical examination of the perfor­mance of our institutions and their staff and the im­provement of such performance. It is relevant particu­larly to discussions of study leave, probationary appoint­ments, and the selection and promotion of staff.

L.N. Short University of Newcastle

Medical Education in Australia: Present trends and future prospects in Australian Medical Schools, Sheldrake, P.F., Linke, RD., Mensh, LM, Newble, D.I. and Rosinski, E.F., E.RD.C. Report No. 16, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 1978.

Medical Education in Australia is a report of a research study financed by E.R.D.C. and, therefore, is something of an "establishment" document. The report was not intended as an Illich-political rhetoric type document and the ground-rules for review are set within a framework of the existing medical schools in Australia and an analysis which is evolutionary rather than .revolutionary. Given these premises the report is in­teresting and useful. It is not exciting, nor particularly challenging. Rather it describes and analyses the gener­alities which exist within the present medical education system in Australia.

The report by Sheldrake and his colleagues sets out systematically the information gathered from on-site in­terviews, feedback information, and seminar findings in­volving the ten medical schools in Australia. The analysis focuses in separate chapters on (1) the Organisation and Context of the Medical School (2) Selection of Students for Medical Schools (3) The Medical School Curriculum (4) Postgraduate Medical Education (5) Conclusions

Whether the analysis is encouraging or discouraging depends on whether one has some absolute standard of "social good" or a relative value of "development". The report suggests that the power of Deans remains impor­tant; that the normal bureaucratic structures of univer­sities are represented "par excellence" within medical faculties; that change and adaptation to pressure is slow and reluctant; and that cooperation between different bodies (e.g. Universities, Hospitals and specialty training organisations) is weak. On the other hand it would seem that medical educators have done some research into the criteria for selection into the profession, have developed curriculum review committees in advance of other pro­fessions; and have a realisation of the need for continu­ing education and peer review which most professions have been slow to consider.

Whatever one's opinion of the medical profession it would appear that this report characterises, on the part of the educators, a willingness to address significant issues, expose its training to outside scrutiny, and sur­face problems. The answers are not clear cut and change is not going to be easy; but educators of the medical profession have attracted a research analysis which pin­points important areas for consideration.

Medical revolutionaries will find the report disap­pointing. Conventional medical educators will benefit from an analytic perspective 'offered by a comparative study of medical education delineated within important practical areas.

Most important, Sheldrake and his colleagues have brought together a general picture of Medical Education in Australia which is certainly a creditable achievement.

As such it also provides a useful adjunct to the Williams Committee Report and the implications of some of that report's recommendations can be more clearly understood with this document as a background.

Mick Bennett WHO Regional Teacher Training Centre

University of New South Wales

European Journal of Science Education, Volume One, Number One, January-March 1979. Managing Editor: Prof. Richard Kempa, Universi­ty of Keele. Taylor & Francis Ltd: London.

A common reaction to the title of the journal could well be "Why another journal in this area?". Already we have Science Education, Journal of Chemical Education, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Physics Educa­tion, etc. etc. And in the context of Australia and New Zealand, what does a journal with a definite European emphasis have to offer?

According to the editors the journal orginated three years ago out of a meeting of science educators who

" ... were concerned to improve the communications between academic researchers, science educators and science teachers; and to disseminate research results across national boundaries".

The policy statement further indicates that the jour­nal is concerned with science education at all levels, and will emphasise the application of research to teaching practice.

Essentially then the journal aims to act as a forum where educational researchers and practising teachers can communicate, across science disciplines and over secondary/tertiary boundaries. (There is also the objec­tive of communication across national boundaries, and to this end summaries are provided in English, German

and French). It is an ambitious aim - but one which is certainly worth pursuing. By adopting a broad enough attitude it should be possible for science-educators to rid themselves of much of the traditional emphasis on a particular discipline; for physicists to write something of interest to zoologists, for educational researchers to have impact on chemistry teachers, and for secondary and tertiary teachers to find common professional in­terest. Any journal which approached this reality would be a welcome addition to the literature. However, this first edition is lacking in a number of respects and much of it will disappoint tertiary (and secondary) teachers.

The journal is divided into six sections as follows:­(i) General articles

(ii) Innovations and developments (iii) Research Reports (iv) News and information (v) Reports from Research Centres

(vi) Book Reviews. The final three sections are (not surprisingly) very

"European" and not likely to have widespread usefulness for Australasian educators. The first three sections are patchy; useful and worthwhile contributions intermingle with articles which are of very limited value. For exam­ple, it is difficult to see at whom the two articles re­lating to Keller Plan are aimed: the contributions have a well-worn look, and anyone 'with enough motivation to open the journal would almost certainly have come across the basic ideas before. An article on Piaget's cognitive psychology is jargon-ridden, and has little to offer the practising teacher - or educational research­ers.

Two research reports comprise what is possibly the most useful section of the journal. The first of these characterises effective science teaching: it is easy to read, could be useful to practitioners - and is the con­tribution which comes closest to what appears to be stated editorial policy. The second article deals with con­cept formation in biology, and while it is an interesting piece is probably too detailed for most non-specialists to plough through.

In the editorial policy statement there is the comment that:

"In the ultimate analysis, the success and profes­sional value of the new journal will depend upon the quality of its readers' contributions, and on the stimulus which these contributions will provide to science educationalists".

True up to a point, but it is no excuse for lack of editorial direction, and in the formative stages some firm editorial guidance is necessary. It would not be too difficult to commission (and edit) articles for the first tew editions, so that broad policy becomes translated in­to concrete and coherent reality for readers and poten­tial contributors~-It will be interesting to observe the directions of development, and the extent to which future editions are of use to tertiary science teachers.

John Jones University of Auckland

Course Design and Student Learning, David Billing (Ed), Society for Research into Higher Education, 1978, £4.00 + £0.20 p&p, 167pp.

This set of papers is an outcome of the annual Con­ference of the Society for Research into Higher Educa­tion held at the University of Surrey in December 1977.

(Continued on page 16)

11

A R c

HERSDA Abstracts are based on a regular survey of relevant literature. They are intended for use by tertiary teachers, research workers, students, administrators and librarians. The abstracts are classified into the same groups used by the Society for Research into Higher Education in their quarterly publication Research into higher education abstracts.

The Abstracts attempt a complete coverage of current publications in Australasia-Australia, New Zeajand and Papua New Guinea. Publications describing research, teaching, administration, staff and students in higher education are abstracted.

Educational or other non-profit organisations may reproduce a limited number of these abstracts in their own publications provided that HERDS A receives suitable acknowledgment.

Authors or editors who would like abstracts of ar­ticles, books or monographs to be included are invited to send a copy of their work to the Abstracts editor.

HERDSA is most grateful to its abstractors and the co-operation of the editors of a number of journals abstracted in this issue. The Abstracts are edited by Robert Cannon, Advisory Centre for University Educa­tion, the University of Adelaide.

A GENERAL

Collingwood, V. Planning of innovation in higher education. Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, 16, 1, 1979: 8-15.

The mounting costs of higher education mean that successful innova tion cannot be left to chance. Over the last two decades the increase of innovation in higher education has highlighted a need for understanding of the processes of innovation and the ways in which successful innovation may be achieved. Planning of innovation is a management process aiming to facilitate the widespread and enduring adoption of the innova­tion. This paper considers the planning of innovation in higher education from four aspects: the nature of innovation, the planning process, educational planning and higher education. There are both technical and human constraints in planning of innovation. In the absence of sudden external pressures to change attitudes and beliefs, planning of innovation must seek to create a favourable environment. This may be achieved through altered organisational structures and the provision of support for innovation.

(Journal abstract)

Linke, R.D. (Editor) Research and development in higher education, Volume I. Sydney, Higher Educa­tion Research and Development Society of Australasia, 1979. iv, 202p. tables, diagrs.

This collection of papers presented at the Fifth Annual Con­ference of HERDSA is arranged into the following five sec­tions:

Accountability in higher education Organisation and administration of higher education Curriculum development and evaluation Staff development Student characteristics and performance.

12

(RAC)

B ECONOMICS AND MANPOWER

C ADMINISTRATION

Improving university teaching: a survey of pro­grammes in Commonwealth countries. London, Com­monwealth Secretariat, 1978, 113.

This survey includes a brief background to the development of teaching and learning units in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom and developing countries. Each unit is then described briefly with major areas of interest and activity listed. Staffing is indicated in most cases but may be out-dated as the information is based on reports written in 1976.

(NSP)

D HIGHER EDUCATION IN SPECIFIC SUBJECTS INCLUDING CURRICULUM

Blunt, M.J. The use of educational groups in a basic medical science. Programmed Learning and Educa­tional Technology, 16, 1, 1979: 57-69.

The development of a leaching/learning programme in anatomy was based on the use of learning objectives, packages, incorporating strategies and media and educational group pro­cess. The objectives designated core material; modular learning packages were used to indicate structures for tutorial sessions. Techniques designed to provide for interactive group discus­sion as the principal means of learning were heavily dependent on workshops geared to the needs of group process in a subject area where facts, rather than impressions, beliefs and opinions, were principally to be dealt with. Difficulties encountered in the use of educational groups were analysed by nominal group process. Evaluation of the programme emphasised the in­terdependence of its component parts. Short-term and long­term performance outcomes and student attitudes were all im­proved.

(Journal abstract)

Engel, C.E. and Clarke, R.M. Medical Education with a difference. Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, 16, 1, 1979: 70-87.

This paper discusses the new five-year undergraduate medical course at the University of Newcastle in Australia. Ex­tensive examples are included to illustrate the analytical ap­proach which has led from the specification of programme ob­jectives to the design of a course with complete integration of the basic and clinical sciences from the beginning to the end of the course. Lectures are replaced by individual and small group learning centred around a carefully designed sequence of medical problems. Projects in the community are designed to lead to the attainment of specified competences in relation to problems of groups in the population. In addition, educational experiences in interviewing, physical examination, special in­vestigation and therapeutic intervention techniques, as well as competence in design-measurement-analysis-reporting in medical practice and research are integrated with problem­based learning. Students see patients in hospitals and in the community from the beginning of the course. While clinical competence in problem-solving and management is a major aim, students are expected to demonstrate a thorough grasp of the underlying basic sciences, including behavioural science, by providing scientific reasons for their decisions and actions. As the Newcastle graduate is expected to demonstrate a humanis­tic attitude to his patients, an ability to deal with problems, a willingness to continue his own education and to collaborate in team work, the Faculty places emphasis not only on the medical content of the course, but also on the educational pro-cess.

(Journal abstract)

Moore, A.R. Doctor, why are you so detached? The Medical Journal of Australia, 1, 3, 1979: 88-89.

The author explores the causes of human indifference of which some medical practitioners are accused, explaining some of the realities of medical training and practice which may hinder doctor-patient relationships.

(NSP)

Sheldrake, P.F., Linke, R.D., Mensh, LN., Newble, D.I. and Rosinski, E.F. Medical education in Australia, present trends and future prospects in Australian medical schools. (Education Research and Development Committee Report No. 16) Canberra, Australian Govern­ment Publishing Service, 1978, vi, 140p. tables.

This document reports on what is happening in Australian medical schools, comments on the problems which medical schools face and speculates on the directions of change. These matters are dealt with in six chapters which include among them specific reference to the organisation and content of medical schools, student selection for medical education, the curriculum and postgraduate medical education. The report notes that the likely future development in medical education will come about by a move to a two-tier system of medical care in which primary care is taken on by a 'nurse-practitioner' and doctors provide a specialised second stage service.

(RAC)

E TEACHING METHODS AND EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Boud, D.J., Dunn, J.G., Kennedy, T. and Walker, M.G. Laboratory teaching in tertiary science: review of some recent developments. Sydney, Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia, 1978. 108p. tables, diagr.

The monograph reviews international developments in undergraduate laboratory teaching in physics, chemistry and biology for the period 1970 to 1977. Eight main trends in the organisation and conduct of laboratory courses are identified: The Keller Plan or Personalised System of Instruction, the Audio-Tutorial Method, Computer Assisted Learning, Learning Aids Laboratories, Modular Laboratories, Integrated Laboratories, Project Work and Participation in Research. These trends are discussed and their characteristics, advan­tages and disadvantages outlined. Summaries of papers report­ing developments under each of these headings are included. These are presented in a form which the authors expect will enable tertiary science teachers, interested in assessing new ap­proaches to laboratory teaching, to make initial judgements of the appropriateness of each approach to their own interests and situations. 127 references are given.

(DJB)

Boud, D. and Pascoe, J. (Editors) Experiential learn­ing; developments in Australian postsecondary education. Sydney, The Australian Consortium on Ex­periential Education, C/- Sydney Teachers' College, 1978. 68p. diagrs.

Experiential education is defined as approaches and practices which use the first hand experience of the learner as a major source of learning. This collection of papers is intended to foster debate between educators and professional groups and includes, for example, the following titles: Experiential educa­tion in a traditional medical course (McNeill); Experiential edu­cation and practical legal training (Duncan); Clinical supervi­sion at Cumberland College (Warren); Training in community psychology (Engelberg); Learning from experience in a post­graduate human relations seminar (Owens).

(RAC)

Boud, D. and Pearson, M. The trigger film: a stimulus for affective learning. Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, 16, 1, 1979: 52-56.

Trigger films consist of short, high-impact vignettes which aim to stimulate learning. This paper examines ways in which learning activities can be designed around trigger films to en­hance their use in situations dealing with affective learning. An example of the use of these films in a first-year under­graduate course in introductory clinical studies illustrates this and focuses on classroom activities exploring intra personal and interpersonal issues. Some difficulties which tutors experience in using trigger films are discussed and related to general pro­blems of experiential activities. Finally, guidelines for the pro­duction of trigger material are presented.

(Journal abstract)

Cannon, R. The design, conduct and evaluation of a course in lecturing. Programmed Learning and Educa­tional Technology, 16, 1, 1979: 16-22.

One important way in which the Advisory Centre for University Education works towards achieving its aims is to conduct courses on university teaching methods for academic staff. As a deliberate strategy, lecturing was chosen as the focus for one major series of these courses.

The lecture techniques course design is characterised by the following features: (i) a small group organisation; (ii) course processes as models; (iii) direct personal learning about teaching in a supportive microteaching environment; (iv) con­tinuous evaluation and feedback.

One important characteristic of the course is evaluation, both during and after it. The evidence of three years' experi­ence suggests that the course meets the needs of the university teacher as well as having desirable academic, social and per­sonal benefits. Recent developments have been to focus on the small group structure and processes of the course (to illustrate small group teaching methods) and to more actively assist course participants in the transfer of acquired skills to work situations.

(Journal abstract)

Hatton, N. Asking questions. The Medical Journal of Australia, 1, 4, 1979: 120-121.

A number of aspects in the process of questioning are dis­cussed. Types of questions and their functions are given along with some of the skills in using questions which may assist teachers use questions more profitably and appropriately.

(NSP)

McDonald, R. and Knights, S. Learning from tapes: the experience of home-based students. Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, 16, 1, 1979: 46-51.

Over the last decade audio tapes have become increasingly used in teaching external students in university courses. This paper examines the use that external students make of audio tapes. Students who have a natural preference for obtaining in­formation by listening feel that tapes are effective as sources of information as well as being effective in stimulating their work and maintaining their morale. Students who prefer to use written sources of information rather than tapes never­theless feel that tapes fulfil a valuable role.

(Journal abstract)

Meyer, G.R. The development of minicourses (with a basis in educational technology) for the in-service education of teachers and trainers. Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, 16, 1, 1979: 23-37.

Since 1972, the Centre for Advancement of Teaching (CAT), Macquarie University, Sydney, has experimented with and refined the minicourse approach to in-service education and staff development. A minicourse is distinct from a module in that it is a fully independent miniature course and is not a unit of an extended programme. It is based on an educational technology model and involves a variety of media and

13

strategies appropriate for adult learners. A mmlcourse has clearly defined objectives achieva.,ble in a short span of time, usually a few days or less. It is not packaged for independent learning as it depends extensively on the dynamics of small group interaction.

The educational technology basis of a minicourse is evident in three aspects of its design and implementation. First, the design is based on a modified systems approach to curriculum development. Second, the concept involves application of be­havioural theory, each programme being based on precisely defined stimulus-response chains with reinforcement provided at each response phase. Third, the stimulus-response chains are organised as linear sequences of input-process-output (IPO) cycles linked by I-I feedback loops. Groups of IPO cycles are aggregated into 'super-cycles' which in turn, for anyone mini­course, summate to an overall I-a cycle.

Each minicourse is carefully designed to optimise some 24 conditions shown in the literature as being most likely to lead to effective learning. These conditions include active participa­tion, immediacy of application, clarity of objectives, provision for reinforcement and feedback, democratic leadership, effec­tive group work, logical step-by-step structuring, variety of methods and media, modelling and contiguity of elements. At present, more than 60 minicourses are offered by CAT and they appear to have made a significant impact on teacher development.

(Journal abstract)

Slane, J. An individual, audiovisual in-service course for teachers: the early reading in-service course. Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, 16, 1, 1979: 38-45.

This paper describes the principles, design, use and preliminary evaluation of an attempt to use an audiovisual mode as the basis for an ll-week in-service course for practis­ing teachers. The course content was particularly concerned with the philosophy and practices of teaching reading to five to seven year old children. The audiovisual mode, plus support­ing materials and services, was chosen to help make the course vivid, practical and readily accessible to every New Zealand teacher of junior pupils. Preliminary observation after three years' use with teachers indicates that there is continuing very heavy demand by teachers for access to the course, and that the course is capable of changing teacher behaviour in ways consistent with the course aims.

(Journal abstract) -_ .. _-_._-_._----

Stanton, H.E. Helping students learn: the improve­ment of higher education. Washington, University Press of America, 1978. 117p. tables, diagrs.

To help students learn more effectively, the author presents a range of practical teaching techniques set within a human­istic framework.

Beginning chapters focus upon a consideration of the com­ponents of good teaching, and distinguish attributes of the ef­fective teacher. Later chapters analyse the teaching process in detail, including specific techniques to increase both produc­tivity and c'1ioyment in student learning.

Topics include lecturing, small group discussion, educational technology, and assessment procedures.

The final chapter considers methods of improving teaching practices in higher education through the agency of staff de­velopment centres. Both conventional and contemporary ap­proaches to instructional skill training are delineated, with particular attention to personal development of staff.

Wieneke, C. The first lecture: impact on and implica­tions for students who are new to the University. Research and Development Paper No. 54, Tertiary Edu­cation Research Centre, University of New South Wales, 1978,30p.

This report presents an analysis and discussion of observa­tions carried out on 27 different 'first lecture situations' at the University of New South Wales at the beginning of 1978. The aim of the study was to provide university teachers with a range of data about what occurred during the first lecture in Schools other than their own, and also to highlight the poten-

14

tial impact of this occasion on students who are in the first year of their courses.

The data presented suggests that staff devote a large propor­tion of the first lecture talking to students about the formal requirements of particular courses and about the nature of their disciplines, but at the same time were either intentionally or unintentionally providing cues or covert messages about what students really ought or need to do in order to pass their courses and to effectively fulfil their role as students. 1t seems that both the overt and covert messages can then be used by students to help them work out a realistic and viable approach to university demands in the academic and other related spheres.

(Author abstract)

F STAFF

Rotem, A How well am I teaching? The Medical Jour­nal of Australia, 1, 6, 1979: 224-225.

In this article the author briefly outlines the reasons for seeking information on both the process and the outcomes of teaching and describes methods for gathering such informa­tion.

(NSP)

Rotem, A. The effects of feedback from students to university instructors: an experimental study. Research in Higher Education, 9, 1978: 303-318.

This article reports the results of an experimental study of the effects of students' evaluative feedback to university in­structors. Data obtained indicated that feedback from students did not have any significant effects on the instructors' teaching performance and their perception of teaching. Some limitations of the study are discussed with suggestions for fur­ther exploration of the problem.

(Author abstract) ---_._--- ---------------

Rotem, A and Glasman, N.S. Evaluation of university instructors in the United States: the context. Higher Education, 6, 1977: 75-92.

This paper provides an overview of the context within which the teaching function in U.S. universities is carried out. It in­cludes a conceptual scheme for the evaluation of instruction and suggests ways of analysing evaluation in terms of (a) those components of the scheme which pertain to the instructor and his institutional context, and of (b) those which pertain to the institution and its societal context. The paper ends with advice for university administrators wishing to devise and implement evaluation for instructional improvement.

(Author abstract)

Saha, L.J. and Klovdahl, AS. International networks and flows of academic talent: overseas recruitment in Australian universities. Higher Education, 8, 1, 1979: 55-68.

Flows of academic talent among nations are an important factor in the transmission of values and knowledge throughout the world. As a point of entry for a study of international net­works through which these flows occur, appointments to all universities in a single society, Australia, are examined for the years 1961-1974.

During this period approximately 40 percent of appointees to academic positions in Australian universities came from overseas. Although there were fluctuations around this mean value, no major overall trends were discerned. The proportion of overseas appointments, however, was inversely related to university size, but unrelated to institutional age or total ap­pointments.

There has been a decrease in the proportion of appointees coming from British universities, and an increase from American universities. However over half of the appointees from the latter in 1970 were returning Australians.

Some implications of these academic flow patterns are sug­gested, as are directions for future research.

(Journal abstract)

G STUDENTS

H STUDENTS - SELECTION AND PERFORMANCE

Isaacs, G. (Editor) Mature age entry to the Faculty of Arts, 1977. Brisbane, Tertiary Education Institute, University of Queensland, 1979. 122p. tables, diagrs.

This report is the first to be published from a project entitl­ed 'Study of change in the Faculty of Arts' which is a study of the consequences of a new admissions policy which led to the admission of a large proportion of otherwise unmatriculated students aged at least 21 years. The report consists of two parts: the first presents information about students' back­grounds, reasons for enrolling and their early experience of university life; the second deals with students' experiences later in their first year of studies. At this stage of their studies, most students (especially mature age students) are generally satisfied with their university experiences.

I STUDENTS - CHOICE OF SUBJECTS AND CAREERS

J FURTHER AND ADULT EDUCATION

(RAC)

Badger, C.R. Meredith Atkinson: Australia's first director of tutorial classes. Australian Journal of Adult Education, 18, 2, July 1978: 16-22.

A biographical note on Meredith Atkinson (1883 - 1929) who was appointed in 1913 as organiser of tutorial classes at the University of Sydney. As such he convened the first meeting of the Joint Committee of the University and the Workers Educational Association in April, 1914. Atkinson became the first president of the WEA and helped pioneer its establishment in New Zealand. He later transferred to the University of Melbourne again as Director of Tutorial Studies from 1915 until 1922 when he resigned and became editor of 'Stead's Review'. He returned to England in 1925.

(GPM)

THE WORKSHOP WAY? CCTUT Occasional Publication No. 1

A report on the Third National Conference convened by the Co-ordinating Committee for the Training of University Teachers (UK), University of Stirling 9-12 June 1978, by David Mack. The conference was con­ducted almost exclusively through small workshop groups rather than the traditional format. It "offered a way of examining the functioning and effectiveness of staff training and development workshops by providing opportunities for delegates to participate in a range of workshop activities and to explore and evaluate the worhshop way as a means of academic staff training." The report of the conference can be obtained for £1.00 by writing to Dr C.C. Matheson, Co-ordinating Officer, CCTUT, Registry, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, England.

Bagnall, R.G. Principles of adult education in the design and management of instruction. Australian Journal of Adult Education, 18, 1, April 1978: 19-21.

From the literature of adult education it is possible to iden­tify a number of core principles which are generally applicable to the design and management of instruction. The principles pertain to the individualisation of learning, to group activities in learning, to content material and to the centering of educa­tion on the learner. These principles can serve as a basic set of guidelines for educational design and as a set of larger variables on which to evaluate an adult education programme.

(GPM)

Goodsir, W.W. Knowles' term "andragogy" and its implications for adult education. Australian Journal of Adult Education, 18, 1, April 1978: 10-18.

The education of adults is rapidly becoming a central concern and need of society and yet, until now, adult education has been relatively ineffective in accomplishing its mission. Ac­cording to Knowles the main reason for this failure is that most teachers of adults have only known how to teach adults as if they were children. "Andragogy" is the art and science of teaching adults as such. The article examines the assumptions of andragogy and develops an andragogical model of human re­source development.

(GPM)

Werrin, D. and Kleist, J. The special problems of migrant literacy. Australian Journal of Adult Educa­tion, 18,2, July 1978: 1-7.

Secondlanaguage literacy has its own set of unique problems (e.g. auditory peception and discriminating problems, problems with sound-symbol relationships and a limited vocabulary store) which have little relationships to first language literacy. The teaching of literacy skills Ildust 1)e attacked in relationship to these problems which implies that methods and materials must be developed to meet the special needs of these students. The article describes the experiences of the New South Wales Adult Migrant Education Service in assessing and attacking adult literacy problems.

LIST OF ABSTRACTORS D.J. Boud, University of New South Wales R.A. Cannon, University of Adelaide G.P. Mullins, University of Adelaide N.S. Paget, Monash University

(GPM)

The Abstracts Editor would be pleased to hear from any person who would like to co-operate in the prepara­tion of abstracts for the Newsletter.

REQUEST FOR PAPERS - BRITISH JOURNAL OF EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY

Dr G.D. Moss, University College, Cardiff has recently taken over the editorship of the British Journal of Educational Technology following the sad death of the former editor, John Duncan. Dr Moss will be visiting Australia for six months from July this year and is seeking papers for consideration in the January 1980 issue of BJET. His address during this time will be c/o Bob Ross, Centre for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland 4111.

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The Structured Experiences for Use in the Classroom Project

"These games are all very well, but we haven't the time for them in our tutorials. There's too much work to get through."

This is a common statement from teachers in tertiary education when the suggestion of a workshop on struc­tured experiences is suggested. While teachers at primary and secondary schools often recognise the need to help in the personal and group development of their students, tertiary teachers frequently overlook this.

The Structured Experiences for Use in the Classroom Project is funded by the Curriculum Development Cen­tre. The object of the project is to collect, develop, assess and disseminate structured experiences through­out Australia. It is running over 1978-79 and is based at the School of Teacher Education at the Canberra College of Advanced Education.

A structured experience is an organised game-like 'ac­tivity designed to produce group processes that can easi­ly be understood by participants as a result of learning by doing. Lessons from structured experiences are de­signed to make salient only one type of group process. As well, experiencing the situations created and then analysing that experience itself and its implications in the wider context (i.e. the 'real world') helps to bring theory and practice into effective union.

They can be useful also as a means for developing skills: skills for group situations, observing, self-insight, understanding the behaviours and motives of others, and the skill of adapting behaviour to the requirements of a task or the needs of groups and persons.

For tutorial groups who may meet only a few times each week they have special relevance. If the group is to develop to a stage where all members feel free to con­tribute it is necessary for the tutor to help in developing group processes. Fundamental to the use of structured experiences is the belief that they will help groups to develop from a polite, cautious stage, through a conflict stage, to a cohesive and later self-renewing stage. It is

Reviews (from page 11) The focus of the conference was on developments in course design in higher education that illustrate how current economic and social trends are affecting what, how and why students learn.

The papers are grouped into sections relevant to par­ticular aspects of the conference theme. In the section dealing with the needs of special groups of students, some experience of those working with adult learners, the physically handicapped and in designing courses for unemployed youth are presented. The next section looks at different approaches to involving students in learning activities and raises the implications of this for course design. This leads on to the section dealing with study skills and learning methods, while that following is con­cerned specifically with course design. The final section links a number of papers concerned with student em­ployment, adaptation and socialisation.

As a collection these proceedings will be welcomed by all those teaching in higher education who recognise the need for flexibility in course design and who are genu­inely trying to support students in their efforts to learn. They illustrate a variety of approaches to the design of

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at this stage that members can make their greatest con­tribution. *

The dissemination process is mainly being conducted by workshops run by the Project Officer, Hugh Watson, in all states. The workshops are normally of one or two days' duration, although shorter ones have been run such as a three-hour session at T.E.R.C. (University of N.S.W.) in February. The diversity of groups requesting workshops has exemplified the de­mand for such knowledge and the universality of use of structured experiences themselves. They include primary, secondary and tertiary teachers, educational administrators, health educators, counsellors and nurse educators.

One outcome of the project will be the publication of a revised and up-dated edition of Structured Experiences for Use in the Classroom by the Curriculum Develop­ment Centre in early 1980.

The project team to whom enquiries can be directed comprises: Director: Project Officer: Secretary:

Dr Bill Mulford Mr Hugh Watson Ms Janet Vallee School of Teacher Education Canberra C.A.E. P.O. Box 1 Belconnen, AC.T. 2616 Phone: 52-2626, 52-2386

Hugh Watson Canberra CAE

* For more on the stages of group development see: .. Mulford, W.R. Structured Experiences for Use in the Classroom. Canberra, Centre for Continuing Education, AN.U., 1977. .. Schmuck, R.A., and Schmuck, P.A Group Processes in the Classroom. Iowa, Wm. C. Brown Co., 1975.

student-centred learning experiences in the general direction of giving responsibility for choice to the stu­dent. The papers are practitioner-oriented, are short and readable. Adequate references enable the reader to follow up the literature in fields relevant to the areas examined.

Nevertheless the comments raised by David Billing and others in the conclusion deserve some mention. They point out that papers are either on course design or student learning, but not on both together, and sug­gest that evidence of real and substantial interaction between student learning and course design (as express­ed in the conference) was depressingly lacking. This is an important comment which may reflect on the nature of curriculum development in higher education in general.

Perhaps as Billing implies we need to do more than merely tinker on the edges of the problem, by facing up to the fundamental changes which are necessary to de­sign courses that meet the personal and career needs of students and in which students learn because and not in spite of the course itself.

Jean Gledhill Kuring-gai CAE