InternatIonalHIgHereducatIonT H E B O S T O N C O L L E G E C E N T E R F O R I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N

International Higher Education is the quarterly publication of the Center for International Higher Education.

The journal is a reflection of the Center’s mission to en-courage an international per-spective that will contribute to enlightened policy and prac-tice. Through International Higher Education, a network of distinguished international scholars offers commentary and current information on key issues that shape higher education worldwide. IHE is published in English, Chinese, Russian, Portuguese, and Spanish. Links to all editions can be found at www.bc.edu/cihe.

Number 75: SpriNg 2014

International Issues

2 DiplomacyandEducation:AChangingGlobalLandscape Patti McGill Peterson

3 HowCorruptionPutsHigherEducationatRisk Stephen P. Heyneman

5 MOOCsasNeocolonialism:WhoControlsKnowledge? Philip G. Altbach

7 TopUniversitiesorTopHigherEducationSystems? Benoît Millot

8 OutcomesAssessmentinInternationalEducation Darla K. Deardorff

10 APEC’sBoldHigherEducationAgenda:WillAnyoneNotice? Christopher Ziguras

China: English and the Brain Race

12 China’sRemovalofEnglishfromtheGaokao Yang Rui

13 “EnglishFever”inChina:AWatershed Wang Xiaoyang and Li Yangyang

15 WillChinaExcelintheGlobalBrainRace? Qiang Zha

International Student Flows

16 PointSystemsandInternationalStudentFlows Jing Li

18 GermanStudentsAbroad Jan Kercher and Nicole Rohde

19 Canada’sImmigrationPoliciestoAttractInternationalStudents Anita Gopal

Africa: Quality Assurance and Regulation

21 TrendsinRegulationinsub-SaharanAfrica A. B. K. Kasozi

22 PrivateHigherEducation’sQualityAssuranceinGhana Linda Tsevi

Focus on Ukraine

24 Ukraine’sTestingInnovation Eduard Klein

25 InternationalizationinPost-SovietUkraine Valentyna Kushnarenko and Sonja Knutson

Departments

28 NewPublications31 NewsoftheCenter

I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N2 I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N 3International IssuesInternational Issues

Whenagreementsforacademiccooperationaresignedbyuniversitypresidents,thesettingandformalitieshaveallthetrappingsofaninternationalagreement.Thesigning,aswithalltreaties,representssignificantgroundworklaidbyinstitutionalrepresentatives.Thecelebratorymomentisnotalwaysfollowedbysustainablerelationships,andexpec-tationsaresometimesmetwithdeepdisappointment.Theresult canhaveanegative impacton institutional aswellasnational relations,although the lattermaybeanunin-tendedconsequence.

Whilecollegesanduniversitiesmustadheretonationallawsandarewise tobewell-awareof local customs, theyoperatemainlyon theirown reconnaissancewhenagree-mentsaresigned.Inthisdimension,theyaremovingbe-yondsovereigntybuttheymaystillberegardedasnationalrepresentatives.Forthisveinofpublicdiplomacy,it isex-tremely important, just as in official diplomatic negotia-tions,sothatinstitutionsdevelopprotocolsthatrecognizeallthedetails,promises,andexpectationsthatarecriticaltobothpartiesbeforesigning.Andwhenunexpecteddevelop-mentscausetensions,itwillbeequallyimportanttohavewaystoadjudicatetheseissues.

Sound Diplomacy for Strong RelationshipsIt would be safe to say that in most educational diplo-macy there are mixed motives for seeking engagement.Thesearchforfee-payingstudentsisaleadingreasonforgreatercross-borderactivity.Institutionsandgovernmentsincountrieswithwell-developedhighereducationarecre-atinginitiativestoreceivestudentsfrommanydevelopingcountries.Someuniversitiesinspiteoflesswell-developedhighereducationseekrelationshipswithotherinstitutionstheyviewasmoreprestigioustoincreasetheirchancesofahigherdegreeinglobalrankings.

Counteringthesemorenarrowmotivationsforengage-ment, many institutions are developing broader interna-tionalizationstrategies,toseekcooperativeagreementsthatdefinethemselvesasglobalinstitutions.Theymaywanttopursueavarietyofgoals throughengagement—toenrichtheiracademicprograms,enlargetheknowledgeandexpe-riencebasefortheirstudents,hostamoreinternationallydiversestudentbodyandfaculty,providemoreopportuni-tiesfortheirfacultytojoininternationalresearchnetworks,

andultimatelytodevelopawidespectrumofjointactivitythatwillbenefitbothpartners.Aswithallsustainablerela-tionships,thecharacterofthepartiesandtheethicalframe-workinwhichtheyoperateareallimportant.Countriesandinstitutionsengagingineducationaldiplomacyhaveanob-ligationtoconsiderthebenefits—notmerelytothemselvesbutalsototheirpartners.Thiswillbeinthebestspiritofin-ternationalrelationsandinternationalizationofhigheredu-cation.Ifdonewell,itwillbearisingtidethatliftsallships.

HowCorruptionPutsHigherEducationatRiskStephen P. Heyneman

Stephen P. Heyneman is professor of international education policy at Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee. E-mail: s.heyneman@vanderbilt.edu.

Competitionforresourcesandfameplacepressuresonhighereducationinstitutions.Weaker institutionsare

more prone to corruption. In some instances, corruptionhas invaded university systems and threatens the reputa-tion of research products and diplomas. Where this hasoccurred,corruptionhasreducedtheindividualandsocialeconomicrateofreturnonhighereducationinvestments.Some countries have acquired a reputation for academ-ic dishonesty, raising questions about all graduates anddoubtsaboutallinstitutions.

Corruptioncanariseat theearlystageofrecruitmentandadmission.Studentsmayfeeltheyhavetopayashad-owprice,tobeadmittedtoaparticularuniversityprogram.Somestudentspaybribesasaninsurancepolicy,becausetheydonotwanttobeleftbehindfornotpayingabribe.

Financialfraudremainsamajorchallenge.Reductionsinpublicfinancehaveaffectedsystemsofinternalcontroltoprevent fraud.Becauseeach facultymayhave separatecostcenters,financialmonitoringmaybedifficult.Nor isiteasytomonitorstudentassociationsthathandlemoneyseparatelyfromtheuniversityadministration.

Directlyrelatedtotheglobalinternet,accessisanava-lanche of so-called “degree mills”—thousands of them,locatedinallregions.ThereisaWikipediapagethat listshousepetsthathaveearneddegrees.Howmightonerec-ognizeadegreemill?Theyoftenpromiseadegreewithinashortamountoftimeandwithlowcosts;theygivecreditfornonacademicexperience;theirWebsitesoftenlisttheiraddressesasbeingapostbox.Equally,problematicarefake

DiplomacyandEducation:AChangingGlobalLandscapePatti McGill Peterson

Patti McGill Peterson is presidential advisor for internationalization and global engagement at the American Council on Education, Wash-ington, DC. E-mail: PPeterson@acenet.edu.

Diplomacy—theartofinternationalrelations—wasoncetheprovinceofheadsofstateortheirappointedrepre-

sentatives.Over the last century, itsparametersexpandedto include the concept of “public diplomacy,” a term thatcoverstheactionsofawide-arrayofactorsandactivitiesin-tendedtopromotefavorablerelationsamongnations.

In the practice of diplomacy as well as domination,countries have extended their national interests througheducation.Itplayedacentralroleinthelonghistoryofco-lonialismbythosewishingtoinfluencelocalpopulations.In thepostcolonialera,educationstillplaysan importantroleintheadvancementofnationalinfluence.

Higher Education and Soft PowerInmorerecentyears, theroleofeducationandacademicexchangeinbuildinginternationalrelationshipshasbeencharacterizedbythetermof“softpower.”Ratherthanem-ploying force, softpower isdependenton thestrengthofideasandculture,toinfluencethefriendshipanddisposi-tionofothers.Highereducationisanidealvehicleforsoftpower.

TheFulbrightProgram—sponsoredbytheUSDepart-mentofState—isanexcellentexampleofpublicdiplomacy,being furthered through higher education. Its principalgoalistofostermutualunderstandingbetweenpeopleandnations,andtheprogramhasalwaysbeenamixofgovern-mentandpeople-generatedsoftpower.Itclaimsthelargestmovementofstudentsandscholarsacross theworld thatanynationhaseversponsored.Governmentofficialsoftencite it asoneof thegreatdiplomaticassetsof theUnitedStates. Citizens and leaders of other countries who haveparticipated inFulbright frequentlyproclaima familiaritywith anda fondness for theUnitedStates and itspeopleduetotheirexperiences—aresultthatgeneratesgoodwillfortheUnitedStatesabroad.

WhileFulbrighthasnotbeenreplicatedbyothercoun-tries, there are other well-organized efforts to extend na-tional diplomacy through education. The British Councilisaprimeexample.Withofficesaroundtheworld,some-times operating as an affiliate of British embassies, theBritish Council describes itself as the United Kingdom’sinternational organization for educational opportunities

andculturalrelations.AlongtheFulbrightmodel,itoffersscholarshipsforstudyintheUnitedKingdomandsponsorseducational exchanges between higher education institu-tionsthereandinothercountries.

TheGermanAcademicExchangeServiceplaysasimi-larbutlessextensiverole;andveryimportantly,non-West-ern countries have followed with their diplomatic efforts.China emerged with an idea for its own brand of educa-tionaldiplomacy,in2004.ItsConfuciusInstitutesarede-signedtopromoteChineselanguageandcultureabroad.By2011,therewere353ConfuciusInstitutesin104countriesandregions.

Diplomacy or HegemonySoft power relationships, informed by enlightened self-interest,oftensignalunequalrelationships.ThisissuehasbeenraisedparticularlywithregardtoEast-WestandNorth-Southcooperation.Giventhedemandforhighereducationin developing countries, they are unwilling to discouragethosewhowishtohelpeitherthroughscholarshipsoras-sistancewiththeformationofinstitutions.Inthebestofallpossibleworlds,theseofferscancreatedevelopmentforthereceivingcountryasawaytobuildhumancapacity.How-ever,countriesthatarerecipientsofeducationaldiplomacyneed to understand the motivations of those wishing tobuildrelationships.

Asweenteraperiodofacceleratedglobalengagement,country-to-countryeducationaldiplomacyisbeingovertak-enbyinstitution-to-institutionrelationshipsandabroadar-rayofactors.Thismakestheeducationaldiplomacyscenar-ioevenmorecomplicated for thoseon thereceivingend.Italsomeans thatgovernmentsarenot theprimeactors.Whilegovernmentsmayviewcollegeanduniversitycross-borderactivityasanimportantpartoftheirdiplomaticef-forts,institutionsareincreasinglyoperatingbeyondsover-eignty,basedontheirownstrategiesandmotivations.

Beyond Sovereignty? AreportonglobalhighereducationengagementfromtheAmerican Council on Education depicted institutions asactingsimultaneouslyonthemesofcompetitionandcoop-eration.Whileitdidnotdisputetheroleofhighereducationinpublicdiplomacy,thereportfocusedmoreontheneedforcollegesanduniversitiestodeveloptheirownengage-ment strategies. This can lead to direct relationships andnegotiations,notjustwitheducationalinstitutionsoutsidetheUnitedStates,butalsowithgovernmentsthemselves.WhenthepresidentsofAmericanuniversitiestraveltoIn-dia, China, or any number of other countries, they oftenmeetwithgovernmentofficialsaspartoftheirefforts—tobuildeducationalrelationshipswiththosecountries.

In the practice of diplomacy as well as

domination, countries have extended

their national interests through educa-

tion.

I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N4 I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N 5International Issues

batcorruption.Developmentassistanceagenciesalsohaveimportantroles.Amongcriteriaforproject,approvalmightbe thecorruption infrastructurenotedabove.Inaddition,countriesmightbeheld accountable for their anticorrup-tion performance, based on the evidence that corruptionhaddeclined,thattheleveloftransparencyhadincreased,and that the public perception of corruption had shifteddownward.

Inregularsurveys,TransparencyInternationalhasas-sistedtheunderstandingofgeneralcorruptionbygaugingthedegreetowhichanation’sbusinessandgovernmentarebelievedtobecorrupt.Asimilarsetofindicatorscouldbeusedonhighereducation.Itcouldbeamatterofpride,tofindthatthelevelofparticipationandthepublicperceptionof corruption are on the decline. If governments encour-agesuchsurveys,itisahealthysign;ifgovernmentsforbidsuchsurveys,itisasignthattheyhavenotyetunderstoodthelevelofriskinvolvedbybeingpassive.

Perception is all-important. It is common to denywrongdoing.“Whereistheevidence?”onemightask.Thisisthewrongapproach.Whenaninstitutionisperceivedtobecorrupt, thedamage isalreadydone.Perception is theonlyevidenceneededforharmfuleffectstooccur.Thisisone reason why all world-class universities post anticor-ruption efforts on their Web sites. This implies that anyuniversity, in any culture, that has ambitions to becomeworldclassisrequiredtoerectasimilarethicalinfrastruc-ture.Thismayrequireachangeofattitudeonthepartofmanyrectorsanduniversityadministrators.Itmayrequirethemtoshiftfromamodeofself-protectionanddenialtoamodeoftransparencyandactiveengagement,evenwhentheevidencemaybedisturbingand/orpainful.Ifthebestuniversitiesintheworldsubmitthemselvestosuchethicalinspections,thentheotherscantoo.

MOOCsasNeocolonialism:WhoControlsKnowledge?Philip G. Altbach

Philip G. Altbach is research professor and director of the Center for International Higher Education at Boston College. E-mail: altbach@bc.edu.

Massiveopenonlinecourses,orMOOCs,arethelatesteffort to harness information technology for higher

education.The concept takesadvantageof the significant

advancements in technology thatpermitsmuchmore in-teractivepedagogyaswellasmoresophisticateddeliveryofcontent.WhileMOOCsare still in anascent stageofde-velopment, theirsponsorsaswellasmanycommentatorsandpolicymakersareenthusiastic,andseethemasanin-expensiveandinnovativewayofdeliveringcontenttovastaudiences,whileothersseepotentialforprofits.

OneaspectoftheMOOCmovementhasnotbeenfullyanalyzed—whocontrolstheknowledge.ConsideringwherethecontentandthetechnologythatsupportMOOCsorigi-nate,theanswerisclear.MOOCsarelargelyanAmerican-led effort and themajority of the courses available so farcomefromuniversitiesintheUnitedStatesorotherWest-erncountries.Themainprovidersarealso in the techno-logically advanced countries. The technology in use wasdevelopedinSiliconValley,KendallSquareinCambridge,Massachusetts,andotherhubsof informationtechnologyinnovation.Earlyadoptershaveasignificantadvantageinthis arena. While globalization has increased the sway oftheacademiccenters ineconomicallypowerfulcountries,MOOCs promise to enhance this higher education hege-monybyharnessingtechnologytotheexistingknowledgenetwork.

Others, in diverse and less-developed regions of theworld, are joining the MOOC bandwagon, but it is likelythat theywillbeusing technology,pedagogical ideas,andmuchofthecontentdevelopedelsewhere.Inthisway,theonlinecoursesthreatentoexacerbatetheworldwideinflu-enceofWesternacademe,bolstering itshighereducationhegemony.

Two of the original MOOC sponsors, Coursera andEdX,areAmerican initiatives—thefirst foundedbyStan-ford professors and based in Silicon Valley in Californiaand the second established by Harvard University andthe Massachusetts Institution of Technology. Many othertopuniversities,mainly in theUnitedStates,have joinedtheseefforts.Courseraoffers535coursesinmanyfieldsofstudy—24percentofthecoursesoriginatefromoutsidetheUnitedStates,Canada, theUnitedKingdom, andAustra-lia;EdXprovides91courses—19ofwhicharefromoutsideNorth America and the United Kingdom. Some of thesecoursesenrollasmanyas300,000students,withaverageenrollmentsof approximately20,000.The largemajorityofstudentscomefromoutsidetheUnitedStates.Comple-tionratesseemtobelow—mostlessthan13percent.ManyintheMOOCmovementareseekingtoearnprofitsfromMOOCs—agoalsofarunmet.

Who Controls Knowledge and Why Does It Matter?The large majority of MOOCs are created and taught byprofessors in theUnitedStates.Companiesanduniversi-

accreditation agencies, promising quick assessments andpermanentaccreditation.

Cross-bordereducationalprogramsraisequestions inthreeareas: therecognitionofdegrees, theuseofrecruit-mentagents toencourage internationalstudents,and theestablishmentofprogramsabroadbyinstitutionsofdubi-ousreputation.Thoughcross-borderprovisionraisesnewrisksofcorruption,itmayalsobeaconduitforcross-borderintegrity.Cross-borderprovisionofexcellenceinhighered-ucationcanofferarareopportunityforlocalstudentsandinstitutionstoobservehowacorrupt-freeinstitutionoper-ates.

To attract students, institutions may exaggerate thesuccessof theirgraduates.Thismaybeaparticularprob-lemwiththefor-profitinstitutionsandwithparticularlow-qualityprogramsinthevocations.Academicintegritycon-sistsofhonesty, trust,respect,fairness,andresponsibilityand is fundamental to thereputationofacademic institu-tions.Alackofintegrityincludesthepracticeofplagiarism,cheating,unauthorizeduseofothers’work,payingforas-signmentsclaimedasone’sown, the falsificationofdata,

downloadingassignmentsfromtheinternet,themisrepre-sentationofrecords,andfraudulentpublishing.Italsoin-cludespayingforgradeswithgifts,money,orsexualfavors.

Areas Needing Careful DiscussionDefinitional limits.Whenuniversitiesarenotmanaged

well,somesuggestthatitisasignofcorruption.Inefficien-cy,aconcentrationofpower,slownessinmakingdecisions,andareluctancetoshareconfidentialinformationarenotsigns of corruption. When educational institutions seeknontraditionalsourcesof income,somemayconfusethatwithcorruption—althoughwhereverlegal,itisnot.

Differences in corruption levels.Thereareinstancesofcorruptionineverycountry,butthisdoesnotmeanthatcor-ruptionisdistributedidentically.Insomecircumstancesitisendemic,affectingtheentiresystem;inothercasesitisoccasional.Insomecircumstancesitismonetaryinnature;

inothersittendstocenteronprofessionaltransgressions,such as plagiarism. Where international students intendtostudyisrelevant.Ingeneral,studentsacttoleaveplaceswherecorruptionisrampantandprefer tostudywhere itisminor.

Differences between institutional and individual cor-ruption. Causes and solutions need to be differentiated.Institutional corruption—financial fraud, the illegal pro-curement of goods and services, and tax avoidance—areproblemsthatcanbehandledthroughtheenforcementoflegislation. Individual corruption—including faculty mis-behavior, cheating on examinations, plagiarism, the falsi-fication of research results—constitutes transgressions ofcodesofprofessionalconduct.Inthefirst,themaincontrolisthroughlegislationandenforcementincourt.Inthesec-ond,controlisinternaltotheuniversity.Legislationshouldnotattempttoincludeinfractionsofindividualcorruption,onbehalfofindividualstudentsandfaculty.

The Environment and CorruptionThoughcompetitionforrevenuesplacespressuresonfac-ulty,itisinsufficienttousesuchpressuresasanexcusetoengageincorruptpractices.Nor,isitsufficienttosuggestthat,becausecorruptbehavioriscommon,one’sownpar-ticipationcanbeexcused.Eveninenvironmentsinwhichcorruptionisvirtuallyuniversalthereare“resisters”tocor-ruption.

Are Anticorruption Measures International?Some individuals suggest that anticorruption measuresshouldbebasedondomesticvaluesandlaws.Althoughnu-merousinstancesseemcorrect,thereappeartobesomein-stancesinwhichuniversalmeasuresarealreadythenorm.Forinstance,inthecaseofuniversitiesrankedbytheTimes Higher Educationmagazineacross40countries,98percentethicalinfrastructureelements—ontheirWebsites—codesofconductforfaculty,students,andadministratorshonorscouncils.

Future WorkInternational agencies have an important role. Findingwaystocombathighereducationcorruptionisaviablecan-didate for theUnitedNationsEducational,Scientific, andCulturalOrganization’sattentionandextrabudgetarysup-port.UNESCOcouldassistcountriestoestablishstrategiescoveringexaminationprocedures,accountabilityandtrans-parencycodes,andadjudicationstructures,suchasstudentandfacultycourtsofconduct.

TheCouncilofEuropeandtheEuropeanUnionhaveimportant roles. To participate in the Bologna process,universities and the countries seek tobe recognized.Therecognitionprocedurecouldincludemechanismstocom-

International Issues

Cross-border educational programs

raise questions in three areas: the rec-

ognition of degrees, the use of recruit-

ment agents to encourage international

students, and the establishment of pro-

grams abroad by institutions of dubious

reputation.

I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N6 I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N 7

cultures,thelocationofthemaincreatorsanddissemina-torsofMOOCs,andtheorientationofmostofthosecreat-ing and teaching MOOCs ensures the domination of thelargelyEnglish-speakingacademicsystems.Themillionsofstudents choosing toparticipate inMOOCs fromallovertheworlddonotseemtobeconcernedaboutthenatureoftheknowledgeorthephilosophyofpedagogythattheyarestudying.Universitiesinthemiddle-incomeanddevelop-ingworlddonotseemconcernedabouttheoriginsorori-entationsoftheknowledgeprovidedbytheMOOCsortheeducationalphilosophiesbehindMOOCpedagogy.

Idonotmeanto implyanyuntowardmotivesbytheMOOCcommunity. I amnotarguing that thecontentormethodologiesofmostcurrentMOOCsarewrongbecausethey are based on the dominant Western academic ap-proaches.ButIdobelieveitisimportanttopointoutthatapowerfulemergingeducationalmovement, theMassiveOpenOnlineCourses,strengthensthecurrentlydominantacademicculture,perhapsmakingitmoredifficultforal-ternativevoicestobeheard.

TopUniversitiesorTopHigherEducationSystems?Benoît Millot

Benoît Millot is an independent consultant. He is a former education economist at the World Bank. E-mail: benoitmillot2013@gmail.com.

Internationaluniversityrankingshavebecomeafamiliarcharacteronthehighereducationscene.Astheirimpact

has grown, reactions have followed suite, running fromenthusiastic adherence, to passive resistance, and also tooutrightcriticism.Thankstothelatter,methodologiesareimproving—guidelinesandsafeguardsarebeingdeveloped(e.g.,BerlinPrinciples)andfollowedup(e.g.,InternationalRankingExpertGroup).Yet,seriouscriticismsrelatetothefactthat,bydefinition,theserankingsfocusexclusivelyonindividualinstitutions—theworld-classuniversities—tobefoundonlyinasmallclusterofcountries.Thus,universityrankingsignorethevastmajorityofinstitutionsworldwidethatcannotcompeteonthesameplayingfieldasworld-classuniversities.Inturn,policymakerstendtoprioritizeasmallnumberofinstitutionsinordertoimprovetheircountry’sposition in the rankings, often at the expense of the restofthecountry’shighereducationsystem.Tocountertheseunexpectedandperverseeffects,attemptsarebeingmade

tomeasure,rank,andcomparenationalhighereducationsystems, rather than individual institutions.Tofigureoutwhethertheseattemptsaresuccessful,thisnotecomparestheirresultswiththoseobtainedbyuniversityrankings.

The Two Types of RankingsAsafirststepinthecomparison,universityrankingsandsystem rankings need to be selected. Regarding the Aca-demic Ranking of World Universities, usually referred toas the Shanghai rankings, Times Higher Education, andthe QS rankings are selected for being the most popularand well-established league tables. Because of its innova-tiveaspect,theWebometricsrankingisaddedtothese“bigthree.”Asfarassystemrankingsareconcerned,thechoiceislimited,andUniversitas21(U21,ledbytheUniversityofMelbourne,Australia)standsoutasanobviouspick,withcurrently no real competitor, even though earlier workshaveexploredwaystoassessentiresystems.U21uses22measures(“desirableattributes”)groupedintofourcatego-riesormodules:resources,environment,connectivity,andoutputsweighted,respectively(25%,20%,15%,and40%).

Most measures draw from conventional and verifiablesources (OrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDe-velopment,UniversityInformationSystems,andSCImagodata, etc.), and theyprovide a comprehensive viewof themostimportantfacetsofhighereducationsystems.Particu-larlyinterestingistheinclusionoftheunemploymentratesof university graduates to reflect external efficiency (evenifthemeasureneedssomefine-tuning).Anotherwelcomefeatureistheefforttoreflecttheregulatoryenvironmentofhighereducationsystems.However,themodalitiestocomeupwithanindicatorforthisdimensionareelusiveandrelyonacombinationofsources—asurveyamongU21institu-tions,datafromrenownedinstitutions,andfromWebsites.Finally, theuseof an “overall” indicatorbuilt on the fourmodulesindicatorsishighlydependentontheweightsofits components and, therefore, remains controversial be-causeofthearbitrarinessofsuchweights—apitfallsharedbyuniversityrankings.

tieswith thefunds todevelopgoodMOOCcourses—andwith high development costs—are American. Udacity, anAmericanMOOCprovider,estimatesthatcreatingasinglecoursecosts$200,000,andisincreasingto$400,000.TheUniversity of California, Berkeley, estimates developmentcostsatbetween$50,000and$100,000,withaccesstoso-phisticatedtechnologyrequired.

For the most part, MOOC content is based on theAmericanacademicexperienceandpedagogical ideas.Byand large, the readings required by most MOOC coursesareAmericanorfromotherWesterncountries.ManyofthecoursesareinEnglish,andevenwhenlecturesandmateri-alsare translated intoother languages thecontent largelyreflectstheoriginalcourse.ThevastmajorityofinstructorsareAmerican.Itislikelythatmorediversitywilldevelopbutthebasiccontentwillremain.

Approachestothecurriculum,pedagogy,andtheover-allphilosophyofeducationdifferaccordingtonationaltra-ditionsandpractices, andmaynot reflect theapproachesprovided by most MOOC instructors or the companiesand universities providing MOOC content and pedagogy.No doubt, those developing MOOCs will claim that theirmethodsarebestandreflectthemostadvancedpedagogicalthinking.Perhaps,therearearangeofapproachestolearn-ingandmanytraditions.

Why is this important? Neither knowledge nor peda-gogy are neutral. They reflect the academic traditions,methodologicalorientations,andteachingphilosophiesofparticularacademicsystems.Suchacademicnationalismisespecially evident in many social science and humanitiesfields,butitisnotabsentinthesciences.WhileacademicswhodevelopMOOCcoursesarenodoubtmotivatedbyadesiretodothebestjobpossibleandtocatertoawideau-dience,theyaretoasignificantextentboundbytheirownacademicorientations.

Since the vast majority of material used comes fromWestern academic systems, examples used in sciencecoursesarelikelytocomefromAmericaorEuropebecausethesecountriesdominate the literatureandarticles in in-fluentialjournals,andaretaughtbywell-knownprofessorsfromhigh-profileuniversities.ModesofinquiryreflecttheWesternmainstream.Whilethisknowledgebaseandpeda-gogicalorientationnodoubt reflect current ideasofgoodpractice,theymaynotbetheonlyapproachtogoodscien-tificinquiryorcontent.

These issuescomeintoevensharperfocus in theso-cial sciences and humanities. In fields such as literatureand philosophy, most courses reflect Western traditionsof knowledge, theWestern literature canon, andWesternphilosophical assumptions. The social sciences reflectWestern methodologies and basic assumptions about the

essentialsofscientificinquiry.Mainstreamideasandmeth-ods infields fromanthropology to sociology reflectWest-erntrends,especiallytheAmericanacademiccommunity.Themajoracademicjournals,editors,andeditorialboards,bigacademicpublishersarelocatedintheglobalcentersofknowledge, likeBoston,NewYork,andLondon.It is,un-der these circumstances, natural that the dominant ideasfromthesecenterswilldominateacademicdiscourse,andwillbereflectedinthethinkingandorientationsofmostofthoseplanningandteachingMOOCs.MOOCgatekeepers,suchasCoursera,Udacity, andothers,will seek tomain-tainstandardsastheyinterpretthem,andthiswillnodoubtstrengthen the hegemony of Western methodologies andorientations.

English not only dominates academic scholarship inthe21stcentury,butalso theMOOCs.English is the lan-guage of internationally circulated academic journals; re-searchers in non-English-speaking environments are in-creasingly using English for their academic writings andcommunication. Major academic Web sites tend to be inEnglishaswell.BecauseEnglishisthelanguageofschol-arly communication, the methodological and intellectualorientationsoftheEnglish-speakingacademiccultureholdswayglobally.

Theimplicationsfordevelopingcountriesareserious.MOOCs produced in the current centers of research areeasytoaccessandinexpensivefortheuser,butmayinhibittheemergenceofalocalacademicculture,localacademiccontent,andcoursestailoredspeciallyfornationalaudienc-es.MOOCshavethepotentialtoreachnoneliteaudiences,thusextendingtheinfluenceofthemainacademiccenters.

The Neocolonialism of the WillingThose responsible for creating, designing, and deliveringMOOCcoursesinallfieldsareingeneralpartoftheaca-demiccultureofmajoruniversitiesintheEnglish-speakingcountries.Theydonotseektoimposetheirvaluesormeth-odologies on others, influence happens organically andwithoutconspiracies.Acombinationofpowerfulacademic

International Issues International Issues

The large majority of MOOCs are creat-

ed and taught by professors in the Unit-

ed States. Companies and universities

with the funds to develop good MOOC

courses—and with high development

costs—are American. In turn, policymakers tend to prioritize

a small number of institutions in order

to improve their country’s position in

the rankings, often at the expense of the

rest of the country’s higher education

system.

I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N8 I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N 9

culturallearning.However,acloserlookisrequiredatthoseassessmentefforts,whichalthoughgrowinginpopularityarenotalwaysdesignedwell,executedeffectively,orlever-agedtomaximumeffect.

Oftentimes,institutionsengagedinoutcomesassess-mentwithininternationaleducationwilldothefollowing:Have one person or one office “do the assessment”; useonlyoneassessmenttool(usuallyapre/posttool);andusethatparticulartoolbecauseanotheruniversityoralluniver-sitiesinacertaingroupareusingit.Sometimesaninstitu-tionwillevendesigntheirowntool,oftennotvettingitforreliabilityorvalidity.

Fartoooftentheassessmenteffort isanafterthoughtoranadhoceffort,withoutsufficientworkexertedat theplanning stage, without clearly articulated goals and out-comestatements,andwithoutanassessmentplaninplace.Furthermore,theinstitutionorprogrammaysimplyshelvethedataithascollected,claimingtohavedoneassessment,endingtheprocessthere,andrepeatingthisprocessagaininsubsequentyears,aslongasfundingorstaffingisavail-able.Theassessmentdataarerarelyprovidedback to thestudentsfortheirowncontinuedlearninganddevelopmentthatarecrucialininterculturallearning.Weoutlineseveralprinciplestoensurequalityassuranceinthestudentlearn-ingoutcomesassessmentpractice in internationaleduca-tion.

A Road MapHighereducationinstitutionsembarkingonassessmentef-fortswilloftenstartbyasking,“Whichtoolshouldweuse?”While thismayseemlikea logicalplace tostart, it is im-portant tofirstask“What is it thatwewanttomeasure?”This question will lead to a closer examination of statedmission and goals that determine the appropriate assess-menttools.Whenconsideringanassessmentagendaforaninternationaleducationprogramor initiative, it ishelpfulto stepbackand reflecton the following threequestions,tohelpcreateanassessmentroadmap: (1)Wherearewegoing?(mission/goals);(2)Howwillwegetthere?(objec-tives/outcomes);and(3)Howwillweknowwhenwehavearrived? (evidence).Possibly, the evidence of student suc-cess goes beyond counting numbers (which are the out-puts)toperceptionsofstudents’learning(indirectevidencesuchasthroughsurveysorinventories)andactuallearning(directevidenceofstudentlearningsuchasassignmentsine-portfolios).Thiscrucialalignmentofmission,goals,andoutcomeswillnaturallypoint towhich tools/methodsareneededtocollectevidencethat theseoutcomeshavebeenachieved.

No Perfect ToolAssessment tools must be aligned with stated objectives

andselectedbasedon“fitnessforpurpose,”ratherthanforreasonsofconvenienceorfamiliarity.Toooften,institutionsorprogramsseektheone“perfecttool,”whichsimplydoesnotexist,especiallyforinterculturallearning.Infact,whenassessingsomethingas complexasglobal learningor in-terculturalcompetencedevelopment,rigorousassessmentinvolves the use of a multimethod, multiperspective ap-proachthatgoesbeyondtheuseofonetool.Furthermore,itiscriticalthatinstitutionsthoroughlyexploreexistingtoolsintermsofexactlywhatthosemeasure(notjustwhattoolssay theymeasure), the reliabilityandvalidityof the tools,thevalidityof the tool in thatparticular institutional/pro-grammaticcontext,thetheoreticalbasisofthetools,andin-cludinghowwellthetoolsalignwiththespecificoutcomesto be assessed. The prioritized outcomes will vary by theinstitution,sothereisnoone-size-fits-allapproachwhenitcomestoassessmenttools.

Astodecisionsaboutassessmentatpreliminary(“pre”)versusconcluding(“post”)stagesofaprogramorcourse,goodassessmentmeanseffortsarealso ideally integratedintoprogrammingonanongoingbasis,avoidingthereli-anceonsnapshotsonlyat thebeginningand/orendofalearning experience. Furthermore, the most meaningfuland useful assessment of intercultural learning arguablycontainsalongitudinalcomponentandprovidesfeedbacktostudents.

Working From The PlanAnother key principle of good assessment is that effortsneedtobeholisticallydevelopedanddocumentedthroughanassessmentplan.Anassessmentplanoutlinesnotonlywhatwillbemeasuredandhowthedatawillbecollected,but also details about who will be involved (which needstobemorethanonepersonoroffice),thetimeline,imple-mentationdetails,andhowthedatawillbeusedandcom-municated.Thislastpointiscrucial:theremustbeauseforthedata(i.e.,forstudentfeedback,programimprovement,andadvocacy)orthereisnoneedtocollectthedata.Inpar-ticular,officesshouldnotbecollectingdataandthentrying

Then,theresultsofthefourselecteduniversityrank-ingsneedtobenormalizedatthecountrylevelsothatthesizeeffectisneutralized.Morespecifically,thenumberoftopuniversitiesineachcountryisweightedbythehighereducation–aged population of the country. This indica-tor can be seen as reflecting the “density” of world-classuniversities in each country. First, there is no significantcorrelation between the number of top universities in acountryand theirdensity.Second, thenormalized resultsof the four-selected university rankings are very similar;their methodologies differ substantially on some pointsbutalsosharecommonfeatures.Third,countriesthatcanboastatleastoneofthetop400universitiesineachofthefourrankingsconstitutearatherhomogenouscluboflessthan40members,mostlyhigh-incomeeconomies.Acrossthefourrankings,densityoftopuniversitiesisthehighestinsmallandrichcountries—Denmark,Switzerland,Swe-den,andFinland,followedbyIreland,theNetherlands,andHongKong.

Similarity of ResultsThefournormalizeduniversityrankings,producedbyU21(2012edition),leadstoaclearconclusion:astrongandpos-itivecorrelationbetweenthetwosetsofresults.Todoublecheck thisfinding, correlationsarealsoexamined for the2013editionsofbothShanghaiandU21rankings,andtheresultsshowanevenstrongerassociation.Afurthertestisadministered,correlatingtheresultsofeachofthefourU21categorieswiththoseofthemajoruniversityleagues.Thecorrelationsaresignificant,andtherelationshipis largelypositive, regardless of the university league considered(Shanghai first) and the U21 category selected (resourcesand output strongest). The only noticeable exception totheconvergenceofthetwotypesofrankingsistheUnitedStates, which comes first under U21, but does not showamongthewinnersoftheuniversityleagueswhenanalyzedintermsofdensity.

The Convergence of ResultsThesecomparisonsmayleadtotheideathatahighdensityofworld-classuniversitiesguaranteesacountryasaworld-classhighereducationsystem.Theymayalsogivetheim-pressionthatthesimilarityofresultsbetweenU21anduni-versityrankingsmeansthattheformereffectsarenotmoreinformativethanthelatter.Threetypesofobservationssug-gest that such conclusions arenotwarranted.Afirst oneisthatU21selects50countriesamongtheG20membersandcountrieswhichperformbestintheNationalScienceFoundationinternationalrankingofresearchinstitutions:thus,althoughthepoolofU21countries isslightly largerthanthatof“thebigthree”universityrankings,themodeofselectionofthesecountriesconstitutesatwofoldbiasto-

wardwealthy countries and thoseheavily investing in re-search.Second,U21incorporatessomeoftheindicatorsoftheuniversityrankings(ShanghaiandWebometrics)initsownmeasuresandevencountsthenumberofworld-classuniversitiesamongitsmeasuresofoutput,whichcertainlyexplainstheUSexception.Finally,areclassificationofall22measuresconfirmstheheavybiastowardresearch.There-fore,theconvergenceofthetwotypesofrankingsisalmostinevitableandisalogicalconsequenceofthemethodologyusedbyU21.Finally,acriticalelementtokeepinmindisthat a world-class higher education system is an elusiveconceptincludingmanydimensions,runningfromequityin access, to internal efficiency, to teaching and learning,torelevancewithin thesocioeconomic fabricof thecoun-try,andtoexternalefficiency.Indeed,thesedimensionsaredifficulttocapture,anddespiteU21’slaudableattemptstoreflectseveralofthem,theyfallshortoffullyaccountforallthe complexity and diversity of national higher educationsystems.

Room to ImproveComparingnationalhighereducationsystemsacrosscoun-tries remains a priority. U21 has taken bold steps in thatdirection but needs to go further, to demonstrate its use-fulness.Two routesare critical:first,digging further intothestructureofthesystems,sothattherankingsarebettercontextualized; second, expanding thenumber anddiver-sityofthecountriestoberanked—datapermittingsothattheexercise ismore inclusive.Taking these routeswouldcertainly lead to results more clearly differentiated fromthoseyieldedbyuniversityrankingsandwouldcontributetomeetingthehighexpectationscreatedbytheU21initia-tive.TheU21rankingsillustratethevastpotentialofsystemrankings,asimportantcomplementstouniversityrankingsandascontributorstobetterinformeddecisionsbyhighereducationpolicymakers.

OutcomesAssessmentinInternationalEducationDarla K. Deardorff

Darla K. Deardorff is executive director of the Association of Interna-tional Education Administrators and a research scholar at Duke Uni-versity, Durham, North Carolina, US. E-mail: d.deardorff@duke.edu.

Duetothegrowingtrendinhighereducationaccount-ability,manypostsecondaryinstitutionsarenowmea-

suringstudentlearningoutcomes,relatedtoglobalorinter-

International Issues International Issues

Far too often the assessment effort is an

afterthought or an ad hoc effort, without

sufficient work exerted at the planning

stage, without clearly articulated goals

and outcome statements, and without

an assessment plan in place.

I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N10 I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N 11

Higher Education under Globalization: Joint Schools among APEC (2004). More recently, China held an APEC semi-nar in Shanghai followed by the report Capacity Building for Policies and Monitoring of Cross-Border Education in the APEC Region(2011).

Whilecomingatthechallengeofgoverningcross-bor-derhighereducationfromoppositepoles,boththeAustra-lianandChinese-ledprojectsemphasizedthe importanceof national regulation and quality assurance. In an effortto develop such capacity across the region, Australia andthe United States led APEC projects on the developmentof national quality-assurance regimes in 2006 and 2011,respectively.

Thesevarious forumsandreportsprovidedsomeop-portunities for information sharing between midrankingofficials fromacross the region,whichmayhave contrib-utedinsomesmallparttopolicyconvergence,especiallybyexposingofficialsinemergingeconomiestothepracticesofmoredevelopedsystems.However,suchconcernsdidnotfigurelargeontheagendaofAPEC’seducationministers.TherewasrarelyevenamentionofhighereducationinthestatementsofAPECEducationMinisterialMeetingsbefore2012.

What Is Going on in Vladivostok?In 2012, education ministers agreed to ramp up APEC’srole in educational cooperation, dubbed the “GyeongjuInitiative,”andimmediatelytheRussianFederationvolun-teeredtoleadahighereducationinitiativeduringtheyearin which Russia assumed the rotating leadership of theorganization. APEC trade ministers then called for bothexpanding “cross-border trade in education services anddeepeningeducationalcooperationintheAsia-Pacific”(myemphasis).Theyaskedofficialstoexaminewaysto“betterfacilitatemobilityofstudents,researchersandprovidersintheregion.”Amonth later, theRussian-sponsoredhighereducation conference in Vladivostok “Shaping EducationwithinAPEC”adoptedthetradeministers’ listandaddedtwomorepoints:“increasingtheinteractionbetweenhigh-ereducationinstitutionsandincreasingdatacollectionontradeineducationservices.”

Incommittingto“educationalcooperationandpromot-ingcross-borderexchangeineducationservices,”APEChaswiselyframedaspirationsintermsthatarebroadenoughtobemeaningfulwithinboththeeducationandtradesectors.TheseaspirationsweredulyendorsedbyAPECEconomicLeaders’ Meeting in Vladivostok in late 2012. Russia hadsince sponsored a second APEC Conference on Coopera-tion in Higher Education in Asia-Pacific Region early in2013,againinVladivostok.

So Russia seems to have very successfully put cross-border higher education on the top of the APEC agenda.

Russia does host a large number of international degreestudents,129,690in2010accordingtoUNESCOfigures;but a small proportion of these are from APEC membereconomies,withthevastmajoritycomingfromformerSo-viet states.Also,Russiahasnotpreviouslybeenactive inthisspacewithinAPEC.

The location may provide some clues. The Leaders’SummittookplaceonthenewlybuiltislandcampusoftheFar Eastern Federal University, which was constructed intimetohostthesummitandwillthenprovidefacilitiesforthe university. The university’s Web site states that “ThemaintargetoftheFEFUStrategicProgramfor2010–2019,supportedbyextensive federal funding, is tomakeFEFUaworld-classuniversity, integrated into theeducation, re-search and innovation environment of the Asia-Pacificregion.” So, the city of Vladivostok and this internationaluniversity,inparticular,appearcentraltoRussia’seffortstoexpanditseducationalengagementwiththeregion.

Ongoing TensionsInAugust lastyear,I facilitatedanAPECforuminKualaLumpur, Malaysia, sponsored by the Australian Depart-ment of Foreign Affairs and Trade that brought togethertradeandeducationofficials,scholars,andrepresentativesofeducationalinstitutionsfrom14countries.Muchofthediscussionfocusedonwaystoenhanceinstitutionalcapac-ity,tosupportawidespreaddesireforgreaterinternationalengagement—forrecruitinginternationaldegreestudents,engaginginexchangerelationships,collaboratingwithfor-eign institutions to deliver international programs, inter-nationalizing research, or teaching. However, in order tofurtheropeningeducationsystemstoallowmoremobilityforstudents,scholars,andproviders,therearestillclearlysignificantdifferencesofopinionbetweenandwithincoun-tries.Severalparticipantsarguedthatbecauseofthediffer-entstagesofdevelopmentofnationalsystemsthereisnotalevelplayingfield;andthatintroducinggreaterinternation-al competition for domestic providers would underminetheirnationaldevelopmentstrategies.

It isnotuncommonfor incumbents inanyprotectedindustrysectortoopposemeasuresthatwouldallowcom-petitorstoentertheirmarkets.Insomeways,universitiesbehavenodifferentlythantheeventsofotherservicepro-

todetermine“whattodowithit.”Spending10percentofthe time in thebeginning todevelopanassessmentplanandthinkingthroughtheseissuesistimewellinvestedinthelater90percentoftheeffortthatgoesintoassessment.

A Team EffortOften, assessment can seem quite overwhelming anddaunting,especially ifonlyonepersonoroffice is taskedwithdoingit.Effectiveassessmentactuallyinvolvesanin-trainstitutional team of stakeholders, which is comprisednotonlyofinternationaleducationexpertsbutalsoassess-mentexperts,students,faculty,andotherswhohaveastakein international education outcomes. Senior leadershipand support play a critical role in the success of assess-mentefforts.Onceassembled,thisintrainstitutionalteamprioritizesoutcomes tobe assessed, conducts anaudit ofassessment efforts already underway, and adapts currentassessmentefforts to alignwithgoals andoutcomes—noneedtoreinventassessmenteffortsoraddexpensiveoneswhentheymaynotbenecessary—beforeseekingaddition-alassessment tools/methods thatcollectevidenceneededtoaddressstatedgoalsandoutcomes.

Conclusion There are other principles of effective assessment thatmight include utilizing a control group, best practices intermsofsampling,theuseoflongitudinalstudies,andsoon.Thisarticlehasoutlineda fewprinciplesasacall forfurtherreflectionanddiscussiononwhat trulymakesforrigorousoutcomesassessmentininternationaleducation.Whileitiscommendableforinstitutionstobeengagedinoutcomesassessment,itisimportanttotakeacloserlookatthequalityoftheassessmentsbeingdone.Guidingques-tionscaninclude:Howwellareassessmenttools/methodsaligned with mission and goals? (Exactly what do thosetoolsmeasureandwhyaretheybeingused?)Istheremorethanonetoolbeingused?Is thereanassessmentplaninplace? How are assessment efforts integrated throughoutacourseorprogram,beyondpre/postefforts?Howarethedatabeingused?Ismorethanonepersonorofficeinvolvedinassessmentefforts?Is theassessmentplanitselfbeingreviewedregularlyforimprovement?

If higher education institutions are serious about in-

ternationalization,assessment,andstudentlearning,sucheffortsareeffective,resultinginoutcomesthataremean-ingfulforallinvolved,includingourstudents.

APEC’sBoldHigherEduca-tionAgenda:WillAnyoneNotice?Christopher Ziguras

Christopher Ziguras is deputy dean, at the School of Global, Urban and Social Studies, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. E-mail: chris.ziguras@rmit.edu.au.

SincetheAsiaPacificEconomicCooperationorganization(APEC)wasestablishedin1989tofostereconomicco-

operationacrosstheAsiaPacificithasnotbeenparticularlyinterestedinhighereducation,butthatmightbechanging.DuringRussia’schairmanshipofAPECin2012,theorga-nization’s leaders committing to promoting cross-bordercooperation, collaboration, and networking. But whethertheorganization’snewaspirationforregionalengagementcanbetranslatedintopracticalmeasuresthataffectinstitu-tions,studentsandeducatorsremaintobeseen.

A Trade Liberalization Meets Chinese RegulationSinceat least themid-1990s,APECexpressedaninterestinexpandingforeigninvestmentineducationandtraining.Australia,akeyproviderofcross-borderhighereducationintheregion,wasthedrivingforcebehindearlyAPECin-ternationaleducationprojects,whileplayingasimilarrolewithintheWorldTradeOrganizationandtheOrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment. InanefforttoengageAPECintheMillenniumRoundoftheGeneralAgreementonTradeinServicesnegotiations,itorganizeda “ThematicDialogueonTrade inEducationServices” inHanoiin2002andsponsoredaseriesofresearchprojects:Measures Affecting Trade and Investment in Education Services in the Asia-Pacific Region(withNewZealand,2001),APEC and International Education (2008),andMeasures Affecting Cross-Border Exchange and Investment in Higher Education in the APEC Region(2009).

China was much more interested in projects focus-ingoneffective national regulationof cross-border provi-sion.Afterintroducingnewguidelinesforforeignprovid-ersin2003,ChinasponsoredaprojectthatAustraliaandNew Zealand were keen to partner in, culminating in anawkwardly titledreport,Improving the Institute Capacity of

International Issues International Issues

Higher education institutions embark-

ing on assessment efforts will often

start by asking, “Which tool should we

use?”

Since at least the mid-1990s, APEC ex-

pressed an interest in expanding foreign

investment in education and training.

I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N12 I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N 13China: English and the Brain RaceChina: English and the Brain Race

removingEnglish fromgaokao as an indicatorofChina’sculturalconfidence.

Mostdebatesfocusonwhetherornotthereformcouldrelievetheburdenofgaokao andhowtodistributetimetostudythenativelanguageandaforeignone(English).HuRuiwen,whoisbasedatShanghaiInstituteforHumanRe-sourcesDevelopmentandamemberoftheNationalEduca-tionAdvisoryCommittee, saidsuchachangewouldbeasignal to students that they shouldpaymore attention totheirmothertonguethanaforeignlanguage.Tohim,stu-dentsnowspend toomuch timestudyingEnglish.Thereisaneedforthemtolearntheirnativelanguagewell.HebelievesthechangeswillhelpstudentsbettertolearntheChineselanguage.

Cai Jigang, a professor at Fudan University’s CollegeofForeignLanguagesandLiteratureandchairmanof theShanghaiAdvisoryCommittee forCollegeEnglishTeach-ingatTertiaryLevel,opposesanyplantoreducethestatusofEnglishlanguageinthecollegeentranceexambecauseitfailstotakeintoaccountChina’sdemandforforeign-lan-guageability—asameanstoacceptthechallengeofglobal-izationandtheinternationalizationofhighereducation.HeworriesthatChinesestudentsmaynolongerworkhardonEnglish,whichwillhaveanadverseeffectinthelongrun.

Missing the Point?The central emphasis on the strategic role of English inthe modernization process and the high priority given tothat language on the national agenda of educational de-velopmenthasproventobebeneficial.China’seffortsarealready paying off. The communicative and instrumentalfunction of English as a global language has acceleratedChina’sforeigntradeandhelpedChina’seconomicgrowthinthepastdecades.IthasalsopromotedChina’sexchangeswith theoutsideworld.Chinese scholars andstudents inmajor universities have little difficulty in communicatingwith international scholars.TheirEnglishproficiencyhascontributedtoChina’scurrentfast,successfulengagementwiththeinternationalcommunity.Peer-reviewedpapersininternationaljournalswrittenbyChineseresearchersrose64-foldoverthepast30years.

China’s modernization began with foreign-languages

learning.Inconsequence, itcouldbearguedthatattitudetowardforeignlanguagehasbeentheharbingerofChina’sinternationalization.Insteadofdemonstratingconfidence,the decision reveals a degree of cultural indulgence. Thegaokaoislikelytoremainthemostimportantindicatorforcollege admissions: de-emphasizing English, rather thantakingthechancetomakeitlesstest-based,withagreateremphasisonpracticalproficiency,willreduceschools’andstudents’ efforts to learn English, at a time of rising de-mandforproficientEnglish-speakingChineseemployees.Ifthiswastheresult,woulditlimitthechanceforChinatocontinueitsrecentsuccessstory?

“EnglishFever”inChinaHasReachedaWatershedWang Xiaoyang and Li Yangyang

Wang Xiaoyang is associate professor and director of Higher Educa-tion Research Institute, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China. E-mail: wangxy@tsinghua.edu.cn. Li Yangyang is a graduate student in the same institute.

Recently, several provinces in China have proposed aninitiative for reforming the national college entrance

examination(gaokao)—reducingtheimportanceoftheEng-lish-languagepartoftheexaminationasoneofthetargets.This move has subsequently aroused extensive debate inpublic,withbothsupportandopposeviews.Somesupport-ersarguethatEnglishteachingandlearninginprimaryandsecondaryschoolscosttoomuchofstudents’time,thusde-creasingthetimespentonChineselanguage,andthereforeagree with lowering the English emphasis in the gaokao. OthersarguethatEnglishisstillimportantforstudentstoread Western scientific books and journals, participate ininternationaleconomicactivitiesandexchanges,andthusopposeloweringthescoreofthatlanguageingaokao.TheJiangsuprovincewas thefirst todeclarewithdrawing theEnglishtestfromthegaokao.TheEnglishtestwillbegiventwiceayearanditsscorewillbeintheformoflettergrades.Beijinghasalsonowinvitedpubliccommentsonitsreformplan,whichproposesthatthefullmarkoftheEnglishtestwillbereducedfrom150to100pointsandthatofChinesetestwillbeincreasedfrom150to180points.WhydoestheEnglishscorefallwhiletheChinesescorerises?Has“Eng-lishfever”inChinareachedawatershed?

viders,suchasbanksorairlines.Buttheeducationsectorplaysauniqueroleandisofcriticalimportanceinfoster-ingsocialandeconomicdevelopment.Thus,governmentsare wary of introducing changes that key institutions seeasweakeningtheirpositions,especiallyifthoseinstitutionsareoperatedbytheministryofeducation.

WemaynotbeonthevergeofanotherBolognaDec-laration, but APEC’s interest is one more indication of agrowingpoliticalwilltointensifytheintegrationofhighereducationsystemsacrosstheregion.

China’sRemovalofEnglishfromGaokaoYang Rui

Yang Rui is professor and director, at the Comparative Education Re-search Center, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China. E-mail: yangrui@hku.hk.

EmbracingtheEnglishlanguageexemplifiesChina’svig-orousengagementwiththeoutsideworld,especiallyin

respect to Western societies. The attitude is not only un-precedentedinChinesemodernhistory,butisalsodiffer-entfromotherdevelopingcountries’interactionswiththedevelopedWesternworld.Atbothnational,andindividual,careerdevelopmentlevels,English-languageeducationhasbeenasubjectofparamountimportanceinChinasinceitsreopeningtotheoutsideworld.ProficiencyinEnglishhasbeen widely regarded as a national, as well as a personalasset.English-languageeducationhasbeenviewedbytheChinese,boththeleadershipandthepeople,ashavingavi-talroletoplayinnationalmodernizationanddevelopment.

Seeing thedominant statusofEnglishasahistoricalfact,Chinahasinitiatedvariouspoliciestoadaptto it, in-steadofresistingit,inanefforttopromoteinternationaliza-tion.LearningEnglish isno longer just importantwithinChina. It is the bare minimum for any serious student.ChinaishometomorespeakersofEnglishthananyothercountry.Examinations inChinese schools at all levels in-cludeEnglishproficiencytests.Englishiswidelyrequiredin the professional promotions of academics, includingmanywhoseworkrequires littleuseofEnglish.With theproposed changes in the gaokao (China’s national collegeentrance examination), the extraordinary phenomenon ofahugeoptioninChinaoflearningEnglishislikelytofade.

The Reform PlanAspartofChina’sreformplantochangeitsnotoriousonce-in-a-lifetimeexaminationsystem,theMinistryofEducationforeshadowedinlate2013thattheEnglishtestwillbere-movedfromthegaokaoby2020.Instead,testswillbeheldseveraltimesayearforstudentstochoosewhenandhowoftentheyachievetheexaminationsoastoalleviatestudypressure, and only the highest score they obtain will becounted.Itwillbepilotedinselectedprovincesandcitiesandpromotednationwidefrom2017,withanewexamina-tionandanadmissionsystemprojected tobeestablishedby2020.

Even before the Ministry of Education’s release, theBeijingMunicipalCommissionofEducationhadsaidthatthescoresforsubjectsinBeijing’sgaokaowillchangeasof2016.TheoverallscoreofEnglishlanguagewilldropfrom150to100,whilethetotalpointsforChineselanguagewillrisefrom150to180.Mathematicsremainsunchangedat150points.Artsandsciencesoverallincreasedfrom300to320points.TheEnglish-language test canbe taken twiceayear.Ifastudentgets100pointsinthefirstyearofhighschool,forexample,thensheorhecanbeexemptedfromEnglishcoursesinthesecondandthirdyears.

Otherregions,includingJiangsuandShandongprov-incesandShanghaimunicipality,arealsopreparing theirowngaokaoreforms.ShandongwasreportedtocancelthelisteningpartoftheEnglish-languageexaminationinitsga-okao.InJiangsu,therehavebeendiscussionsofexcludingEnglishingaokaointhefuture.Whiledetailsremaintobefinalized,thegeneraldirectionisclear:lessEnglish,moreChineseforgaokao.

The DebateThereforminitiativehaswonoverwhelmingsupportfromthegeneralpublic.Inasurveyofover220,000respondentsupdatedinDecember9lastyearbyPhoenixOnline,whenaskedabouttheirviewsonBeijing’sgaokaoreform,82.82percentsupporteditwhileonly13.55percentwereopposed.Similarly,whenasked if theywouldsupport lowering thepointvalueforEnglishlanguageandincreasingthepointvalue forChinese language,82.79percentsupportedand13.01percentopposed.

Incontrast,theplanhasdividededucationexperts,whodisagreeonwhetherplacinglessemphasisonEnglish-lan-guageskillsisagoodidea.Thedecisionhasarousedheateddiscussionsamongthosewhodoubtthereformwouldre-ducetheburdenoflearningEnglishorifthesubstitutetestcould reflect a student’s English skills and help studentslearn English better. An important aspect of the reformliesinwhatandhowtotest,assuggestedbyYuLizhong,chancellor of New York University Shanghai. The educa-tionministryaddstothecomplexofthedebatebyviewing

English-language education has been

a subject of paramount importance in

China since its reopening to the outside

world.

I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N14 I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N 15China: English and the Brain RaceChina: English and the Brain Race

WillChinaExcelintheGlobalBrainRace?Qiang Zha

Qiang Zha is an associate professor at the Faculty of Education, York University, Toronto, Canada. E-mail: qzha@edu.yorku.ca.

Inthepastdecade,Chinaappears tohavebeentakingastrong position in the global brain race. Following the

well-known“ThousandTalentProgram”(including“Thou-sandYoungTalentProgram”and“ThousandForeignTalentProgram”),whichaimstolurebackexpatriateandinterna-tional talent, the Chinese government recently launcheda “Ten Thousand Talent Program.” This program, unlikethe former, focuses on home talent and pledges to selectandsupport10,000leadingscholarsinthenext10yearsinfieldsofsciences,engineering,andsocialsciences—amongwhomthetop100willbecompelledtoaimatseizingNobelprizes.So,Chinanowexplicitly raised its ambitionup tothestandardofaninnovationleader,torelymoreandmoreondomestictalent.Indeed,the“ThousandTalentProgram”didnotreallymeettheexpectations.Sofar,thehighcaliberexpatriatetalentdidnotgobacktoChinainalargescale.Amongthereturnees,thosepossessingdoctorate,master’s,andbachelor’sdegreesshowanoddratioof1:8:1.However,amajorityofreturneesarethosewhospentashortwhileoverseas, to study for a master’s degree. Statistics showthatover1.5millionChinesescholarsandstudentsremainabroad.WhatcausedChina’sglobalbrainstrategy(famousfor handsome salaries, generous start-up packages, andotherfinancialincentives)tonothaveproducedtheexpect-edoutcomes?

PerspectivesAn adoption of the views of human, cultural, and socialcapital may offer an insightful interpretation of this puz-zlingscenario.Forexample,animpetusthatinspiresChi-nese scholars or students to go back to China might bethelimitationassociatingwithhumancapitallogic,whichputsemphasisontechnicalandtangibleknowledgegainedfromvariouseducationandtraining.Supposedly,Chineseexpatriatesfeeltheyarelargelytreatedashumancapitalintheirhostcountriesandseefewopportunitiestofulfilltheircultural and social capital in that specific context. Then,dotheinitiativeslikethe“ThousandTalentProgram”pro-vide the equivalent pull factor?—not necessarily, as suchprogramsarealsoprimarilybasedonhumancapitallogic.ManyChineseexpatriatesmayseebetterchancestoenjoytheir cultural capital back in China, which distinguishesfromhumancapitalastheimplicitknowledgegainedfromtheculturaltraditionandenvironment,andoftendefinesa

higherstatusinsociety.However,whenitcomestoaccom-plishingsocialcapital,theywillfindtheyhave“ceilings”inChina,too.

Arguably, modern social capital conceptualization at-tachesmoreimportancetoindividualfreechoice,inordertocreateamorecohesivesociety.IntheChinesesocialcon-text,however,socialcapitalhasbeencloselylinkedwiththeconcept of guanxi (personalized networks of influence),in particular connections with powerful bureaucrats. Inthisregard,mostreturneesdonotenjoyanadvantagebutrathersufferadisadvantage,giventheirspatialseparationsfromChina(foracoupleofdecadesinsomecases).Thisisparticularly true in recentyearswhen theChinesemodelfor development has showcased some successful aspects(Chinaquicklyrisesastheworld’ssecond-largesteconomy)and garnered confidence (China is anticipated to surpasstheUnitedStatesandbecomethewealthiestnationaround2020).Againstthisbackdrop,thosepoliciesandpracticesthatbeartheChinesecharacteristicsarehardlyallowedtobechangedbyideasandpersonnelfromtheoutside.

The Cases of Rao and Shi Reveals a Paradox Two prominent returnee scientists were Rao Yi and ShiYigong.RaoYiwasaprofessorofneurologyatNorthwest-ernUniversityintheUnitedStates.HereturnedtoPekingUniversityin2007totakeupthepositionofdeanoftheCol-legeofLifeScience.ShiYigongwastheWarner-Lambert/Parke-DavisprofessoratPrincetonUniversity.In2008,he

resigned his position at Princeton University and startedpursuinghiscareeratTsinghuaUniversity—asthedeanoflifesciencethere.Theyarebothregardedasthetop-flighttalentluredbackbythe“ThousandTalentProgram.”

Apparently,bothRaoYiandShiYigongdidnotpreparetogobacktoChinaasapureresearcher.Rather,theywishtomakeadifferenceandtobetterChina’sresearchcultureanduniversityeducation,ridingontheirsocialcapital.Thisis evident in their responses to questions as to why theychosetogobacktoChina,aswellasintheirownwritings.Inacoauthoredarticlepublishedin2010inScience,ShiandRaoopenly claimed thatChina’s current research culture“wastesresources,corruptsthespirit,andstymiesinnova-

Why Does the Gaokao Reform Start with English?Concerning the fact that English-language education inChinaistimeconsumingandlowefficiency,reformingtheEnglishexamcaneasilybeunderstoodandsupportedbyboth thepublic individualsandeducators.Englisheduca-tioninChinaisnowbecomingmoretestoriented,whichurgently requires reform.Chinesestudentshave investedthemosttimeandeffortsinlearningEnglish;however,ithasnotyieldedpositiveresults.Manystudentshavebeenlearning English for years, constantly memorizing wordsanddoingexercises,butsofarhaveonlymanagedtolearnso-called“brokenEnglish.”

Now, far too few students can handle cross-culturalcommunicationinafluentandconcisemanner.OneoftheaimsofthegaokaoreforminBeijingistodilutetheselec-tionfunctionoftheEnglishtestandrestorethefunctionofEnglishasatoolofcommunication.Therefore,asrevealedinthereformplan,Beijingdecidedtoincreasethepropor-tionofthelisteningcomprehensionintheEnglishtextin

gaokao;andthecontentofthetestwillbelimitedtobasicknowledge and ability. Another important issue that de-servesourattentionisthegovernment’sattitudetodeliverthepowerof organizingexamination to third-party socialinstitutions.Ifthereformplanisimplementednationally,theEnglishpartofgaokaowillbesponsoredbysocialinsti-tutions like theEducationalTestingService in theUnitedStates, twiceayearin2016.Studentswill thenbeabletoparticipate in up to six times the exam in a high schoolthree-yearperiod,whichgreatlyreducesthepressureoftak-ingtheexamandhopefullyleadsstudentstolearnEnglishforthecommunicativeuseratherthanjustpurelyforget-tingahigherscoreonanexamination.

Will the Importance of English Fall While that of Chinese Rises?

Over the years, Chinese educators have been concernedthatEnglishhas toomuch importanceattached toeduca-tionandthatpeoplearesometimesoverlookingtheimpor-tanceofstudyingChinese.Giventhisworry,alongwithde-

creasingthescoreoftheEnglishexam,theBeijinggaokao reformisdesignedtoincreasethescoreofChineseby30points,toemphasizethefundamentalroleofChineseasamothertongueandbasiccoresubject.ThegreatattentionpaidtoChineselanguageandculturebythepolicymakerisevidentlyexpressedinthereform.ComparedwithEnglish,itismoredemandingforteacherstoguidestudentstoap-preciatethecharmofChineseculture,asstudentsandpar-entshavebeenmoredevotedaboutlearningEnglishthanChinese.Asgaokaoisthebatonofprimaryandsecondaryeducation,policymakerswiselyuseittoguideteachingandlearning. We believe by adjusting the weights of EnglishandChinese,studentsandteacherscanbeguidedtofocusmoreonthelearningofChinesetoalargeextent.

“English Fever” at a Watershed in ChinaThe reform concerning English in gaokao to some extentalso implies that“Englishfever”hasreachedawatershedinChina.Sincethegaokaowasrestoredinthelate1970s,theimportanceofEnglishscoresingaokaohasbeengradu-allyraisedfrom30,100to150points,becomingoneofthethree-core subjects together with mathematics and Chi-nese.Correspondingly,awaveof“Englishfever”sweptthenation,andEnglishtraininghasbecomeahugeindustry.Now,Chinahastheworld’slargestEnglish-speakingpopu-lation.

In recent years, with the further build-up of China’scomprehensivenationalstrength,Chinahasbeenincreas-ingtradeactivitieswithnationsaroundtheworld.Follow-ingthedevelopmentofthenation,therearemorestudentsaroundtheworldwhochoosetolearnChinese,includingPresident Obama’s daughters and Vice President Biden’sgranddaughter.AfterarecentvisittoChina,BritishPrimeMinisterDavidCameronindicatedthatschoolsintheUnit-edKingdomshouldnotteachkidssomuchFrenchandGer-man,butshouldratherfocusonChinese.Toaccommodatethis need, strengthening cultural exchanges with foreigncountries and trying to propagate Chinese language havebecome an increasingly pressing issue. “Chinese fever”abroadalsourgeseducationauthoritiestoreflectandadjustlanguageandcultureeducationpolicies,soastoenhancetheeducationofChineselanguageandculture,andtoacer-tainextentcooltheexcessive“Englishfever”athome.

“[T]o obtain major grants in China, it is

an open secret that doing good research

is not as important as schmoozing with

powerful bureaucrats and their favorite

experts.”

Compared with English, it is more de-

manding for teachers to guide students

to appreciate the charm of Chinese cul-

ture, as students and parents have been

more devoted about learning English

than Chinese.

In addition to our Web site and Facebook page, we are now tweeting. We hope you will consider “following” us on Twitter!

I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N16 I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N 17International Student Flows

InCanada,pointsystemswereinitiatedin1967undertheImmigrationActof1952,asamethodforselectingim-migrants.Theoriginalpurposeofthissystemwastoaddresstheshortageofskilledlabor.PriortoJune11,2002,higherweightwasassignedtospecialvocationalpreparation.Thatmeans,ifanapplicanthasajobofferforapositionthatnoCanadianready,willing,andabletofill,theprobabilityforhim/hertoexceedthethreshold(70points)ishigher.Can-adachangeditspointsystemsinJune2002.Morepointsare assigned to language,workingexperience, andabilityof integration since then.This change canbe interpretedasanadjustmentto thedemandofhighskilledinthe la-bormarket.Undercurrentsystems,therearesixselectionfactors:education,language,experience,age,employment,and adaptability. The maximum number of points that apersoncanaccumulateis100,andthecurrentpassmarkis67.ThenumberofinternationalstudentsinCanadawasunder40,000in2002.Afterthehigh-skill-favoredpolicychangein2002,thatnumbertripledto125,000.Theaver-ageannualforeignstudentenrollmentintertiaryeducationfrom1998to2002is36,340.Thisaveragealsotripledafter2002.Asamatterof fact,Canada’spointsystemdoesat-tractmore internationalstudents toreceivehighereduca-tionsince2002.

Thepoint systems inAustralia andNewZealandaresimilar.Thispaperuses theAustraliansystemtodemon-strate thedesignofOceaniapoint systems.Basedon theCanadian framework, Australia introduced the AustralianGeneralSkilledMigrationprogramin1982.Thatprogram’smaincharacteristicisthatpointsareawardedaccordingtoSkilledOccupationList,whichisalistofoccupationsthatAustralianeedstofilljobshortages.Anapplicantmusthaverecentskilledworkexperience;otherwise,itisrelativediffi-cultforonetobeeligibleforimmigrationasaskilledwork-er.Intermsofinternationalstudents’flowtoAustralia, itis hard to find a cutoff after 1998 since Australia’s pointsystemremainsrelativelystablesincethe1980s.Theinter-nationalflowindicatedacleardroparound1990.ItturnedoutthattheMigrationAmendmentAct(1989)setthetalent

pool,which lowers thepassingmarkatonehandandin-creasesthewaittimeattheotherhand.So,theamendmentindeedintimidatesprospectiveskilledimmigrants.

Evidence of Impact from Sending CountriesAsthepointsystemsareinreceivingcountries,theimpactonsendingcountriesisusuallyambiguousandhardtodis-tinguishfromotherfactors.Inthissection,changeintheoutflowfromsendingcountriestotheUnitedKingdomandCanadaisusedasanindicatorofthepossibleimpact.

Chinaisthelargesthomecountryofinternationalstu-dents.UsingthedatafromChina’sMinistryofEducation,Icalculatedtheaverageannualoutflowofyearsbefore/afterthepolicytoseeifpolicymatters.ResultindicatesthattheaverageannualoutflowfromChinatoCanadadoubledafterCanada’srevisedpointsystem(from5,187to11,509).TheoutflowtotheUnitedKingdomaftertheHighlySkilledMi-grantProgramincreasesby18percent,aswell.

Indiaholdsthesecond-largestpopulation.Theprimarysourceofdataonstudents’outflowistheMinistryofLabor.Thenumberof Indiansoutflow toboth theUnitedKing-dom and Canada increases after the implementation ofpointsystemsinthehostcountry.NumbersdoubledintheUnitedKingdomandtripledinCanada.

Russia is not a traditional sending country but sig-nificantlyhassentstudentsabroadsince1990.Again,thebefore-aftercomparisonindicatesapositivechangeintheaverage number of outflows from Russia to the UnitedKingdomandCanada.Theincreaserateis25percenttotheUnitedKingdomand57percenttoCanada.

ConclusionAspolicyimplications,policymakersusuallyrefertoeither“braindrain”or“braingain,”whentheythinkaboutthemi-grationofinternationalstudentsorhighlyskilledworkers.Morerecently,someresearcherscoin“braincompetition.”

To put point systems into a larger picture, these sys-tems are indeed a method of talent classification and se-lection.Atnationallevel,acountryneedsaNationalTalentSystemtobuildupthenation’scorecompetitivenessintheglobalcompetition for talent.Thecompetitioncould turnout to be “brain share” only if universities, industry, andthegovernmentworktogethertorecruittalentsworldwide.Meanwhile,governmentneeds toworkontalentdevelop-mentofbothforeign-bornandnative-bornindividualssoastobuildupthenation’scompetitiveness.

tion.”Specifically, theycited thebureaucraticapproach todecidingresearchfundingasthesourcethat“stiflesinnova-tionandmakescleartoeveryonethattheconnectionswithbureaucratsandafewpowerfulscientistsareparamount.”Theywentontodisclosethat“[T]oobtainmajorgrantsinChina,itisanopensecretthatdoinggoodresearchisnotasimportantasschmoozingwithpowerfulbureaucratsandtheir favoriteexperts.”Theybecame frustrated toobservethatsuchaproblematicresearchculture“evenpermeatesthe minds of those who are new returnees from abroad;theyquicklyadapttothelocalenvironmentandperpetuatetheunhealthyculture,”andcalledforameaningfulreforminordertobuildahealthyresearchculture.

WhileShiandRaoweredisturbedtoseethatmanycol-leagueschoosetobesilentinfaceofsuchan“unhealthycul-ture”forfearof“alosingbattle,”theyseemtohavebecomevictimsoftheirownproclaimedwaragainstaperceivedun-healthyacademicculture.Aftertwounsuccessfulattemptsinarow,Raoannouncedhisboycottofcompetingforafel-lowshipattheChineseAcademyofSciences,whileShiisstillwaitingfortheresultofhissecondbid.Ifprominentreturnees,likeRaoandShi,sufferedfromvulnerabilityoftheirsocialcapital infaceof thecorruptresearchculture,howcoulddomestictalentselectedbythe“TenThousandTalentProgram”beabletobreakit?

In thecasesofRaoandShi, theircultural capitalap-pearstobeestrangedintopublicityresourceofthegovern-ment.Despitetheirfightagainstthebureaucracy,theyarenowoftencitedaspartofthesuccessofthe“ThousandTal-entProgram.”Inthecasesofmanyothers,theirsocialcapi-talismostlyassimilatedtothecurrentresearchcultureinChina,whichinturnpromptsthemtobecometheso-called“elegantegoists.”Inshort,withoutoverhaulingthecurrentresearchsystemandcultureinChina,itisnotaneasytaskfortheinitiativessuchasthe“ThousandTalentProgram”or “Ten Thousand Talent Program” to accomplish theirgoals. Last but not least, amessage could alsobe sent toWesternsystemsthathavebeenabsorbingabulkofglobaltalent.Ifnosufficientattentionispaidtoculturalandso-cialcapitalofglobaltalent,thentherecouldbealoomingcrisisthatwillshakethemagnetpositionofthosesystemstoglobaltalent.

Note: On December 19, 2013, Shi Yigong was appointed a newmemberoftheChineseAcademyofSciences,followinghiselec-tions into both the US National Academy of Sciences and theAmericanAcademyofArtsandSciencesinApril2013,asafor-eignassociateorforeignhonorarymember.

PointSystemsandInterna-tionalStudentFlowsJing Li

Jing Li is a doctoral student at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. E-mail: jing.li@tc.columbia.edu.

Themobilityofinternationalstudentsiscurrentlyanim-portantpolicyissueovertheworld.Partofthereasonis

thatinternationalstudents,especiallythosewhoinscienceandengineeringfields,providea stable sourceofhumanresourcesinscienceandtechnology.Sincethe1960s,Can-adaandotherOrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment countries started to use a point system—ofevaluatingacademicachievement—toselecthighlyskilledimmigrants.Thesepointsystems,whichassign“points”toassessthequalityofapplicants,favorinternationalstudentswhoreceivedhighereducationinthehostcountry,andfa-cilitatethemforcitizenshipaftergraduation.Therefore,thepointsystemisbelievedtoattractpotentialstudentsfromabroad.

What Is a Point System? Asamethod for selecting immigrants,point systemsareburgeoned in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia,andNewZealand.Basically,thisisasystemforevaluatingmeritsofimmigrantapplicantsbasedonawardingpoints.Three key elements are included in the point-system de-sign:criteria,weight,andthreshold.Criteriavarybycoun-tries,butfivemainsourcesarecommonlyused:education,occupation, work experience, language, and age. Usually,theweight is assignedwitha scale tomeasure that crite-rion.Ifthemaximumscoreofthecriterionis100,weightcanbeevenlydistributedinascale.Finally,basedonpastexperienceand/orforecastingonthenumberofpotentialapplicants,onecansetapassmarkwithacertainpercentile(75%orabove).Applicantsawardedwithpointsabovethepassmarkareselected.

Evidence of Impact from Receiving CountriesTheUnitedKingdomusedtohaveahighlyrestrictiveimmi-grationpolicyandinsomerespectsstilldoes.Before2008,therewere80differentroutesintotheUnitedKingdomtowork, train,orstudy.These80entryschemesaremainlycategorizedintothreechannels:workpermitemployment;permit-free employment; and the Highly Skilled MigrantProgram.Beforetheprogram,thereare462,609nonciti-zenstudentsand341,791nonresidentstudentsenrolledinUnitedKingdom’s tertiaryeducation.Oneyear later,bothenrollmentsincreasedwithan8percentgrowthrate.

International Student Flows

These point systems, which assign

“points” to assess the quality of appli-

cants, favor international students who

received higher education in the host

country, and facilitate them for citizen-

ship after graduation.

I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N18 I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N 19

ing numbers for degree mobility, credit mobility quotashave stabilized at this level during the last decade. ThismeansthatwhiletheEurope-widetarget(20%creditmo-bilegraduates intheEuropeanHigherEducationArea in2020)hasalreadybeen reachedwith regard toGermany,thenationalmobilitygoaloftheJointScienceConferenceandtheGermanAcademicExchangeService(DAAD)(50%creditmobilegraduatesinthemidterm)remainstobeful-filled.

Finally, some important structural developments arelinked to theBolognaprocess.Somestudentsnowspendtimeabroadatanearlierstage,stayforslightlyshorterperi-odsonaverage,andmakeuseoftheso-called“bridgemo-bility.”Thesearemobilityunitsinthephasebetweenbach-elor’sandmaster’sdegreesorbetweenmaster’sandPhD.Abridgemobilityunitcouldbedesigned,forexample,asayear-longdirectexchangeprogramwithapartner institu-tion,whereeachpartnersendsone(orseveral)highlyquali-fiedstudentstotheotherinstitution.

Possible Further Promotion in GermanyWith its numerous programs, the DAAD is constantlyworkingtolowerthehurdlesforinternationalstudentmo-bility—the main ones being funding problems, concernsabout losing studying time, and difficulties reconciling avisit abroad with the requirements of the study programat home. Two particularly promising measures involveenhancing the number of programs with double or jointdegreesandintegratingso-called“mobilitywindows”—i.e.,timeslotsreservedformobility—intobachelor’sandmas-ter’sdegreeprograms.Combinedwithanadequatenum-berofscholarships,thesemeasuresshouldhelpGermanyrevivetheupwarddevelopmentforstudy-relatedvisitsthatwereobservedduringthe1990s.

Note:Togetherwith theGermanCentre forResearchonHigherEducationandScienceStudies(DZHW),theDAADcompilesandpresentsdataonoutgoingandincoming,aswellasinternationalstudentmobility—ontheWebsitewissenschaft-weltoffen.de (inGermanandEnglish)—addingfurther informationto thecorre-spondentpublication.

Canada’sImmigrationPoli-ciestoAttractInternationalStudentsAnita Gopal

Anita Gopal is a researcher at Queen’s University in Kingston, Ontario, Canada. E-mail: anita.gopal@gmail.com.

Universities around the world engage in an intensecompetition to compete in the knowledge economy

duetoglobalization.ThissituationhasservedasacatalystforCanadatoengageinimmigrationstrategiesandinitia-tivesdesignedtoattractandrecruitinternationalstudents.Asalsoanurgentneedforhighlyskilledindividuals,sincethereisaconcernthatoncebabyboomersretire,therewillbeseverelaborshortages,whichwillhavenegativeimpli-cations for Canada’s growth and nation building. Attract-ingandretaining internationalstudents isaway toboostCanada’seconomy,whilepromotingawelcominginterna-tional landscape. According to Citizenship and Immigra-tion Canada, the government’s priority is to seek highlyskilledindividuals(e.g.,India,China)whoarelikelytosuc-ceedinCanadaandtopromoteitseconomicgrowth,long-termprosperity,andglobalcompetitiveness.Internationalstudents,whopursuetheirstudiesinCanada,areanidealpopulationbecausetheywouldhavealreadybeenintegrat-edintoCanadiansociety.

Recognizing that international students are vital toCanada’sgrowth,theCitizenshipandImmigrationCanadahassetout to transformCanada’s immigrationsystemasone that is faster, more flexible, and tailored to students’needs––a major distinguishing factor from other coun-tries. Therefore, new immigration policies and programshave been specifically created to make it easier for inter-national students to study, work, and become permanentresidents inCanada,especially forgraduatestudents.Forinstance, international studentsarepermitted toworkonandoffcampus,withoutaworkpermittoamaximumof20hoursperweek.TheycanalsoapplyforaPost-Gradu-ationWorkPermit,a three-yearopenworkpermit,whichenablesstudentstoworkforanyCanadianemployerinanyindustry. Internationalgraduatestudentscanapply to theProvincial Nomination Program for permanent residenceinCanada—during theirmaster’sordoctoralprogramoruponcompletionoftheirdegree.

Canadianuniversitiesarealsointerestedingainingits“marketshare”ofthebestandbrightestinternationalstu-dentsinscienceandtechnologyandacquiringacompeti-tiveadvantageovercountriessuchastheUnitedStatesandthe United Kingdom, which are major destination coun-

GermanStudentsAbroadJan Kercher and Nicole Rohde

Jan Kercher and Nicole Rohde are experts for international student mobility at the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), Bonn, Germany. E-mail: kercher@daad.de and rohde@daad.de.

InApril2013,thefederalandstategovernmentsadoptedacommonstrategyfortheinternationalizationoftheGer-

manhighereducationinstitutions.Acentralgoaldefinedin thisstrategy—albeitwithouta targetdate—is foreverysecond graduate to gain study-related experience abroadandforatleastoneinthreetocompleteavisitabroad,last-ingatleastthreemonths,and/orelicitingatleast15Euro-peanCreditTransferSystempoints.

Withthisnationalgoal,Germanyconsiderablyexceedsthemobility targets set on theEuropean level:TheEuro-peanUnion and the countries committed to theBolognaprocess set themselves the goal that by 2020; at least 20percentofallgraduatesintheEuropeanHigherEducationArea should have completed a study- or training-relatedvisitabroad.

Is Study Abroad Essential?Study abroad is considered to be very beneficial to driveself-development,toequipstudentswithinterculturalcom-petences.Thestudentsworkwithinaninternationallabormarket,aswellastopreparethemtoidentifyissuessharedacross borders—such as, curing diseases, finding energysolutions,andfightinghunger,andthustoknowhowtoen-gageinanincreasinglyglobalizedworkingworld.Accord-ing toAllanE.Goodmanof theInstituteof InternationalEducation,“globalizationisheretostay,andstudentswhowant to work in our interconnected global world shouldstudyabroad.”

Studyabroadmeansleavingthecomfortzone,whichifdonecorrectlyempowersstudents.Empowermentmeansthatstudentslearnhowtotakeresponsibilityfortheirownlivesaswellasforsociety.Itisimportantforthemtoreal-ize their role insocietyandhow toparticipateandshapeit. Therefore, the German Academic Exchange Service(DAAD) is promoting the idea that international experi-encesshouldbecomeanessentialpartinhighereducationstudies. International mobility is not only an asset to thepersonalcurriculumvitaebutalsoauniqueexperienceandformativemoduleforone’sownpersonality.

International Student MobilityTherearetwotypesofinternationalstudentmobility:short-termstays (often referred toas creditmobility) and long-termstayswith thepurposeofobtainingadegreeabroad

(oftenreferredtoasdegreemobility).Mobilitystudiesshowthat this distinction is not only a terminological one: ForsomeimportantaspectstheavailabledataforGermanstu-dentsshownoticeabledifferencesbetweenthetwotypesofmobility.Forexample,whileAustria,theNetherlands,andSwitzerland are among the four most important destina-tioncountriesfordegree-mobilestudents(togetherwiththeUnitedKingdom),theydonotplayamajorrolewhencon-sidering temporary study-related visits abroad. Countriesthatplayan important role forcredit-mobilestudentsaretheUnitedKingdom,theUnitedStates,France,andSpain.Also, while students of language and cultural studies be-longtothemostmobilegroupreferringtotemporarystudy-relatedvisitsabroad,theyareunderrepresentedamongstu-dentsstudyingabroadtopursueaforeigndegree.

International Student Mobility in GermanyThe number and proportion of degree-mobile Germanstudentshaveincreasedsteadilysincetheearly1990s—inbothabsoluteandrelative terms.Specifically, thenumberofGermanstudentsenrolledabroadincreasedfromabout34,000in1991toabout134,000in2011.Interestingly,theincreaseindegree-mobilestudentsfromGermanyhasac-

celeratedsharplyduringthelastyears.Between2005und2011,thenumberofinternationallymobilestudentsfromGermany rose by 10.6 percent on annual average. Whilefrom1991to2004,themeangrowthperyearwasonlyhalfashigh(5.3%).However,in2011,thegrowthratewasonly4.6 percent, compared to 10.2 percent in 2010. The nextyearswillshowifthisdeclineinthegrowthrateswasonlytemporaryorifthisisthebeginningofalong-termtrendoflowergrowthrates.

DataoncreditmobilityofGermanstudents,collectedin national graduate surveys, show that about 30 percentofallgraduatesatGermanhighereducationinstitutionsin2010spentstudy-relatedaffairsabroad,withaminimumdurationofthreemonths.Incontrasttotheconstantlyris-

International Student FlowsInternational Student Flows

The European Union and the countries

committed to the Bologna process set

themselves the goal that by 2020; at

least 20 percent of all graduates in the

European Higher Education Area should

have completed a study- or training-re-

lated visit abroad.

In addition to our Web site and Facebook page, we are now tweeting. We hope you will consider “following” us on Twitter!

I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N20 21I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N

muchattentiontotheproblemofbraindrainandtheover-arching consequences of luring highly talented studentsfromdevelopingnationstodevelopedWesternnations.Forinstance,theUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrampointsout that brain drain has caused approximately 100,000of thebest andbrightest Indianprofessionals tomove toNorthAmericaeachyear,whichisestimatedtobea$2bil-lion loss for India. As Canada continues to siphon intel-lectualcapitalfromdevelopingregions,ithasneglectedtothinkaboutitsmoralresponsibilitytothesenationsorhowitcouldbeharmingtheireconomicgrowthandwell-being.Meanwhile,itisunclearashowdevelopingnationswillre-coverthelossoftheirhumancapital.

TrendsinHigherEducationRegulationinsub-SaharanAfricaA. B. K. Kasozi

A. B. K. Kasozi is the founding Executive Director of Uganda’s National Council for Higher Education, which he steered for 10 years, from 2002 to 2013. E-mail: abkkasozi@yahoo.com.

Since 1980, many sub-Saharan African countries haveestablished government funded, but also semiautono-

mous,highereducationregulatoryagenciestohelpgovern-mentsintheestablishment,management,andsupervisingof higher education institutions. These agencies ensurethat citizens receive quality higher education and institu-tions of higher learning help to generate new knowledgefor the improvementofhighereducation, innovationsys-tems, and economic development. Experience has shownthat these agencies have minimized direct governmentmicromanagement by acting as midway bodies betweenthe state and the varioushigher education institutionsofhigherlearning.

Maintenance of QualityMostsub-SaharanAfricanEnglish-speakingcountrieshavedelegated theresponsibilityof themaintenanceofqualityhighereducationininstitutionsofhigherlearningtotheseagencies.Currentquality assurancemechanisms inmostAfricancountrieshavetwomajorcomponents:anexternalregulatorycomponentbasedonagovernment-funded,butautonomous regulatory agency, and an institutional com-ponentwithineachuniversity.Thetwocomponentsworktogetherbuttheagencyistheseniorpartner.Theexternal

(regulatoryagency)setsandenforcesuniformbenchmarksfor alluniversity institutions.The internalunit,usually aquality-assuranceofficewithin theuniversity,makes surethat the benchmarks are implemented. Benchmarks de-signed by, and specific to a given institution itself, couldalsobeimplementedwithinthatinstitution.

The External and Internal ComponentThe regulatory frameworks at the external national levelsareenforcedbyregulatoryagencieswhichoverseethefol-lowing areas: institutional accreditation, accreditation ofindividual programs, merit-based admissions into highereducation institutions, credit accumulation and transfer,thequalityofteachingstaff;examinationregulations,stan-dardizationofacademicawards,researchandpublications,infrastructureofinstitutions,educationfacilities,andregu-latingcross-borderhighereducation.

Regulatory agencies realize that the maintenance ofqualityisbestdonebytheinstitutionitself.Thus,institu-tions are asked to have an administrative unit to overseequalityinallthedivisionsofauniversityinstituition.Uni-versitiesareaskedtocarryoutinstitutionalauditsonareg-ularscheduleofabout3–5yearsineastandsouthernAfricatoassessperformance.Theseinternalauditsincludelook-ingatthefollowingareas:thegeneralaudits,institutionalgovernance,thequalityofteachingandlearning,thequal-ityoftheacademicstaff,sufficiencyofeducationfacilities,researchandpublications,thequalityofoutputs,financialmanagement,relationswith thesurroundingcommunity,andotherpertinentitems.

Regulatory agencies, in cooperationwith institutions,aresupposedtocarryoutanexternalinstitutionalauditaf-teraninstitutionhascompletedtheinternalone.Theaimoftheexternalauditistofillanyqualitygapsidentifiedbytheinternalaudit.Unfortunately,manyregulatoryagencieshavenotfulfilledtheirresponsibilitiesofconductingexter-nalinstitutionalaudits.

triesforinternationalstudents.Moreover,internationalstu-dentsgenerateasubstantialamountofrevenuetoCanada.AccordingtoareportconductedbytheDepartmentofFor-eignAffairsandInternationalTrade,in2010,internationalstudentsinCanadaspentinexcessofCan$7.7billionontu-ition,accommodationanddiscretionaryspending(upfromCan$6.5billionin2008).MorethanCan$6.9billionofthisrevenuewasgeneratedby the218,200 long-terminterna-tional students in Canada. The report also indicated thattherevenuefrominternationalstudentspendinginCanadais greater than the Canadian export value of unwroughtaluminum (Can$6 billion), or helicopters, airplanes, andspacecraft(Can$6.9billion).

Immigration Policies in the United StatesAfterthe9/11attacks,theUnitedStates’traditionalopen-door policy for international students was curtailed. Im-migrationpolicieshavebecomemorestringentduetothegovernment’s tightening of the border and strict visa re-quirements. As outlined in the 2013 International Student Mobility Trends report, theUnitedStateshasbeenslowtorevisittheirimmigrationandvisapolicies.However,itstillremainsthetopchoiceforinternationalstudentstostudyduetoitsprestigiousuniversities’degreeprograms.

Unlike Canada’s multiple pathways to work and be-comepermanentresidents,internationalstudentsenrolledin academic programs in the United States holding F-1student visas can only gain work experience by applyingfor Optional Practical Training, a temporary employmentprogramthatisrelatedtoastudent’smajorareaofstudy.Students can apply to this program after completing oneacademic year of their studies and could receive up to atotalof12monthsofpracticaltraining,eitherbeforeand/oraftercompletingtheirprogram.Studentsinfieldssuchas science, technology,engineering,andmathematicsareentitledtoa17monthextension.Ifstudentsareeligibletochangetheirstudentstatus(F-1 visastatus),theymustap-plyforanH-1Bvisa(anonimmigranttemporaryworking

visa),whichallowstheholdertoworkintheUnitedStatesfor up to six years. However, the student must first havea jobofferandanemployerwho iswilling tofilea“peti-tion”or requestwith the ImmigrationandNaturalizationServices.

Changes in the United KingdomRecentgovernmentpolicies in theUnitedKingdomhaveimposedtighterinternationalstudentvisarestrictions—af-fecting entry requirements, services available to studentsduringtheirstudies,andworkoptionsavailabletostudentsafter completing their program. According to The Fund-ing Environment for Universities report, reforms tostudentimmigration to the United Kingdom and to student visaapplications will come into effect in the 2013/2014 aca-demicyear.Thisincludestougher,English-languageskillsrequirementsandanincreaseintheamountofcredibilitycheckinterviewsintermsofstudents’immigrationhistory,educationbackground,andfinancialsupport.Thegovern-menthasalsodiscontinuedthePostStudyWorkscheme.These changesmake itmore challenging for internation-al students from non-European countries to qualify for aworkpermit tostay in theUnitedKingdomaftergradua-tion. Such policies do not promote permanent residence,postgraduateorlaborretention,andhavemainlyimpactedoverseasrecruitmentofstudentsfromIndia,Pakistan,andSaudiArabia.

Future DirectionsWhile Canada is focusing on competing with the UnitedStatesandtheUnitedKingdomforitsshareofinternation-al students through its flexible immigration policies andpathways, higher education institutions have yet to comeupwithastrategytomanagehighlyskilledmigration.Ca-nadian universities are being urged by federal policies todoubleinternationalstudentenrollmentfrom240,000in2011to450,000bytheyear2022.IfCanadawillcompeteforitsshareofinternationalstudents,organizationalmech-anismsmustbe implemented toprepare for this shift inrecruitment.Concurrently,Canadianhighereducation in-stitutionsmustdevelopcompetitiveprogramsanddegreestomeettheneedsofthetargetstudentpopulationandpro-videaccesstorelevantinstitutionalresources(e.g.,faculty,researchfunding,studentservices,libraryresources,etc.).Otherwise,howproductiveareimmigrationpolicies,ifin-adequate resourcesareavailableatCanadianuniversities,to support international students?Asof yet, there arenoofficialnationalstrategiesinplacetoprepareforandman-agethesechanges.

ItisclearthatCanadahasprimarilyfocusedonitsownnationalinterestofattractinginternationalstudentstorem-edyitsskilledlaborshortages.Asaresult, ithasnotpaid

Africa:Quality Assurance and RegulationInternational Student Flows

Since 1980, many sub-Saharan African

countries have established government

funded, but also semiautonomous,

higher education regulatory agencies to

help governments in the establishment,

management, and supervising of higher

education institutions.

Unlike Canada’s multiple pathways to

work and become permanent residents,

international students enrolled in aca-

demic programs in the United States

holding F-1 student visas can only gain

work experience by applying for Option-

al Practical Training.

I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N22 I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N 23

plish thepublic interestgoalof rapidlyexpandingaccess.Currentaccreditedprivateinstitutionsincluded3chartereduniversities,53universitycolleges,5distancelearninginsti-tutions,12tutorialcolleges,and11trainingcolleges.Duringthe2008–2009academicyear,theseinstitutionsenrolledapproximately25,000ofthesystem’s177,000totalenroll-ment,a14percentshare.

The Quality ConcernTypicalof suchsituationsofprivateproliferation,govern-ment, student, and public concerns soon mounted aboutquality.Byqualityassurance,governmentandothersgen-erallyenvisionedreviewsofprogramsandinstitutionsthatinvolve some systematic measuring performance againststandards of academic and infrastructural matters. What-evertheconcernsovergeneralordecliningqualityinpublichighereducation,thewidespreadviewwasthatthepublicsectoralreadyhadinternalquality-assurancemechanismsand norms in place. Then, too, political dynamics some-timesmadeituncomfortableforgovernmenttochallengeentrenchedpublicuniversitypracticesandinterests.

Quality assurance was envisioned on two fronts: in-ternalandexternal.Theinternalpartwouldmakecertainthataprogramoraninstitutionhaspoliciesthatguideitsstandardsandobjectives.Ontheotherhand, theexternalpartwouldbeconductedbyoutsideorganizations.Externalquality-assurance mechanisms would include accredita-tion, quality audit, and quality assessment. Whatever themotivation of government, private institutions often rec-ognizedthequality-assuranceprocessasanopportunitytoestablishtheirlegitimacy.

The National Accreditation Board In1993,thegovernmentofGhanaenactedProvisionalNa-tionalDefenceCouncil law317underpolicyguidelinestoestablishtheNationalAccreditationBoard,asthenation’squality-assurance body for higher education institutions.This legislationwassubstitutedbyothergovernmentactsin2007and2010;theseregulationsconstitutedpartofthe“delayedregulation”ofprivatehighereducation.Generally,the National Accreditation Board’s quality assurance in-volvesbothinstitutionalandprogramaccreditation.Highereducationinstitutionsmustmeetcertainminimalrequire-mentsthatareverifiedthroughself-studydocumentspre-pared,followedbypanelvisitsfromthatboard.

AparticularconfigurationintheGhanaiancaseisthatprivateuniversitiesbeginasuniversitycollegesaffiliatedtopublicuniversities,whichserveasmentors foranumberofyears.Thequality-assurancerationaleistoguardagainstproliferation of freestanding private institutions that lackthe ability, will, or offer adequate quality. The applicationhastheproposednameoftheuniversitycollege,academic

resourcesavailable,andtimetable—indicatinghowwithinthenextthreeyearstheobjectivesoftheinstitutionaretobeachieved.Thepremisesofthenewprivateuniversitycol-legeare inspected,verified,andsubsequently issuedwithaletterofinterimauthority.Aprivateinstitutionqualifiesforinstitutionalaccreditation—onlyifamongotherthings,itmeetsminimumadmissionrequirementsforcertificate,diploma,anddegreelevels;minimumnumberofstudentsenrolled; and minimum qualifications of faculty. Institu-tionalchartersaregrantedbythepresidentofthecountry.Aprivateinstitutionqualifiesforaninstitutionalcharterifithasbeenaffiliatedtoamentoringinstitutionforatleast10yearsandhasfulfilledallnecessaryrequirements.

Aprivateinstitution’sprogramqualifiesforaccredita-tion;if,amongotherthings,itstatesminimumstudentad-missionrequirements,descriptionofcourses,andprovidesrules on student performance. In addition, educationalprogramshavetoalignwithnationaleducationpoliciestoqualifyforaccreditation.

LinkedtotheNationalAccreditationBoard,quality-as-surancemechanismsareeffortstodealwithqualitybasedon financial integrity. In Ghana, private institutions areownedbyindividualsorthroughpartnerships;theyaretaxexempt. However, there have been proposals to have thistaxprivilegewithdrawn,leavingatax-exemptstatusonlyforinstitutions engaged in more academic than commercialpursuits.Theseproposalshavegeneratedangeramongtheprivateinstitutions.Theyoffercoursesthatrequireverylowinfrastructural and equipment investment, and their spe-cificcurriculumsaretailoredtothelabormarket.Forexam-ple,theyseetheirrelianceonafacultycomposedmostlyofadjunctsappropriateforlinkingwiththemarket;whereascriticsseedependenceonpart-timersasevidenceoflimitedacademicquality.

ProblemsoftheNationalAccreditationBoardincludeitsabilitytokeeppacewithaccreditedinstitutionsofferingprogramsthathavenotbeenauthorized.Similarly,ithastoregularlymonitoraccreditedprivateinstitutions,toensuretheydonotadmitstudentslackingtheminimumqualify-

Accreditation of Institutions and ProgramsRegulatoryagencieshavehelpedgovernments in thepro-cess of establishing universities. They have done thisthroughaprocessknownasinstitutionalaccreditation.In-stitutional accreditation—permitting institutions to existanddeliverhighereducation—isatoolofqualityassuranceandthereforerelevanttohighereducationsupport.Itisarigorous but necessary exercise and covers all aspects ofinstitutionsrangingfromland,staffing,educationalfacili-ties,governance,infrastructure,andthefinancialhealthofinstitutions.

All programs taught in universities in most of sub-SaharanAfrica are accredited (or approved)by regulatoryagencies. In a number of countries, agencies inspect theinfrastructureandfacilities,inwhichtheprogramswillbetaught,beforeaccreditingaprogram.Inothers,thewrite-upoftheprogramisconsideredsufficient.Regulatoryagen-ciesensure thatprogramsmeetminimumrequirements,arewritteninacceptableformats,andallowthestudentstogetvalueformoney.

Instructional Autonomy and Academic FreedomMostuniversitiesdecidethattheyshouldhavethefreedomtomanagethegovernanceoftheirinstitutions,withoutin-terferencebyexternalpowers—includingtheownersoftheuniversitytohireanddischargestaff, todesignandteachacademic programs, to admit students and discontinuethemforgoodcause,todesignandmanagetheirbudgetswithout interference by the owners of the university, tosourceforfundsfromanywherepossible,tomakestatutesandregulationsthatgoverntheactivitiesoftheuniversity,andtobeassuredofprotectionbasedonalegalframeworkintheformofstatutesoractsofparliament.

Academicfreedomontheotherhandistheindividualfreedomofuniversityworkers:toteach;doresearch;speakandpublishwithout interference;penalty or intimidationfrominternalorexternalauthorities.Manyleadersofreg-ulatory agencies accept all the above aspirations but seethemselves as guardians of young institutions that neednurturingtomaturity.Further,theyalsorealizethattherearemanyrogueinstitutionsthatshouldnotbeallowedtodeliverinferiorhighereducation.

Intervention by Agencies Will Probably ShrinkIt is hoped that areas of intervention into universities byregulatory agencies will gradually shrink, as African uni-versitiesdevelopcapacitytodeliverqualityeducation.Untilthe many universities in sub-Saharan Africa deliver goodquality higher education, regulatory agencies will remainrelevant to steer the latter through the various storms ofgrowth.Thistaskisparticularyvital,asmanyoftheprivateinstitutionsthathaveexpandedinsub-SaharanAfricalack

capacity to improvehighereducation.Manyof them lackacademic traditions, staff, infrastructure, research capac-ity,andwhatittakestobea“universal”institution.Manyare teaching institutions, their infrastructuremeager,andfinancial bases very poor. They still need the guidance oftheirfoundersandthestaterepresentedbyregulatoryagen-cies to mature. When they become world-class universityinstitutions,theworkofregulatoryagenciesshouldnarrowdependingonthepoliticaldimensionswithineachstate.

PrivateHigherEducation’sQualityAssuranceinGhanaLinda Tsevi

Linda Tsevi is a PhD candidate at the Department of Educational Ad-ministration and Policy Studies, University at Albany, State University of New York. E-mail: ltsevi@albany.edu.

IHE regularlypublishesanarticleonprivatehighereduca-tionfromPROPHE,theProgramforResearchonPrivateHigher Education, headquartered at the University at Al-bany.Seehttp://www.albany.edu/.

Quality assurance in higher education institutions inGhana began in the early 1990s—in response to an

increase in the number of private institutions, providingpostsecondary education and concern over their level ofperformance. As elsewhere in Africa, government felt aneedtoact.

Also as in much of Africa the backdrop involved agrowingpopulation’srisingdemandforhighereducation,government failure to meet it, and therefore governmentacquiescenceinasurgeofprivatehighereducation.How-ever,thegovernmentwouldhavemetrisingdemandinanycase.Itscapacitywasunderminedbytheeconomicdown-turn of the 1980s and pressure from the World Bank, toshift public educational expenditures to schools and thusleavethefinancialburdenforexpandinghighereducationmoretoprivatestakeholders.Ghanaexperienceddecreasedgovernmentfundingforhighereducationinthe1990s,thefull-time equivalent funding per student decreasing fromUS$2,500in1990toUS$900in1997.

Thisprivatehighereducationgrowthdidnotmeanthatgovernmentinitiallyestablishedaformidablepublicdesignforit.Instead,itsbasicposturewastopermitprivatestake-holderstoblazetheway.Thatwouldbearoutetoaccom-

Africa: Quality Assurance and Regulation

Also as in much of Africa the backdrop

involved a growing population’s rising

demand for higher education, govern-

ment failure to meet it, and therefore

government acquiescence in a surge of

private higher education.

Africa:Quality Assurance and Regulation

24 I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N 25Focus on Ukraine

Theseimprovementsareacknowledgedbythemajor-ity of the society, as new survey data from October 2013show:Whileinthe2008introductoryyear,theshareofEITproponentswas42percent(comparedto34%whodidnotsupport the reform), in 2013 already 53 percent favor thenew exam (the number of opponents decreased to 25%).Theacceptanceisevenhigherinthetargetgroup(studentsandtheirparents),where65percentapprovethenewsys-tem(24%opposetheEIT).Questionedabouttheirpersonalexperienceswiththenewtesting,68percentofthetargetgroup say they are satisfied with the enforcement of theexam.Inaddition,58percentbelievethatthenewadmis-sionsystemreducescorruption.Currentstudents,whoen-tereduniversityafterthereformprocess,alreadyconsidertheEIT-basedadmissionsystemascompletelynormal.

However,thenewsystemnotonlyhadpositiveeffectsoncorruption.Itseemsthattosomeextentcorruptionhasdiverted:Moreandmorestudentscomplainthatnowtheydonothavetopaytogetinsidetheuniversity,buttheyareextorted topay fornotbeingexpelled.How thisproblemcanbesolvedstillremainsunclear.

The Future of the EITAfter the presidential elections in 2010 the political forc-es in the country changed. The EIT opponent, Viktor Ya-nukovych,whohadpromisedinhiselectioncampaigntoabolish the exam, became president. The new educationminister,DmytroTabachnyk,wasalsoastrongopponentoftheEIT.Therefore,itwasnosurprisewhenthenewgovern-mentdecreasedtheroleoftheEIT.Newloopholesforcor-ruptionandinformalproceduresintheadmissionprocessweretheconsequence.Studentswhofearthereturnofcor-ruption practices initiated an “admission without bribes”campaign.

However,inordertoobtainmorecontrol,theMinistryofEducationistryingevenfurthertodecreasetheroleoftheEIT.Inthecurrentconflictaboutanewlawonhigheredu-cation,theministryandthegovernmentsupportthemostreactionaryofthreedrafts.TheyplantodisposetheEITforpaiduniversityprogramsandtoallow“NationalUniversi-ties”(currentlytheseare116)toreintroducetheirownad-missionexamsagain.Thisdraftwoulddefinitelyleadtoarevivalofcorruptionpractices.Twomoreprogressivebillsareunderdiscussion,oneproposedbytheopposition,theotherbyanexpertgroupofacademicsandmembersofcivilsociety. In contrast to the governmental bill, these draftsintend to strengthen the EIT. By now, the opposition hasagreedtosupportthebilloftheexpertgroup,expectingthegovernmenttomakeconcessionstoo,andagreetothein-dependentexpert’sbill.

Bynow,thedisputeconsideringthenewlawisongo-ingforfiveyears,butanagreementisstillnotinsight.Newpolitical issues—such as, the rejection of the associationagreement with the European Union and the followingmass protests—overshadow the current political agenda.Thus,thefutureoftheEITremainsunclear.

InternationalizationofHigherEducationinPost-SovietUkraineValentyna Kushnarenko and Sonja Knutson

Valentyna Kushnarenko is research associate at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, Canada. E-mail: val.kushnarenko@utoronto.ca. Sonja Knutson is director at the Interna-tional Centre, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada. E-mail: sknutson@mun.ca.

The Ukrainian Ministry of Education, Science, Youth,andSportshasbeenencouraging international initia-

tivesthatsupportUkraine’saspirationstoberecognizedintheglobalhighereducationarena,primarilyfocusedonEu-rope.Whiletherecentdecisionisnottosignatradeagree-mentwith theEuropeanUnion, the country is facing in-creasingpressuretochooseitsfuturealliances,andthiswillhaveanimpactonthedirectionsofinternationalization.OnNovember 24, 2013, Ukrainian students declared a strikeandmarchedfromtheiruniversitiestothecentralsquaresof themajorUkrainiancities,protesting thedecisionnottosigntheEUAssociationAgreementattheVilniusSum-mit-2013. Such pressures urge post-Soviet universities tobecomespecific indefining their internationalizationpri-oritiesandtoenhancethearticulationofan internationalpurpose,vision,andoperations.

BackgroundUkraineislocatedbetweentheEuropeanUnionstatesandRussiaandwhilenot a centralplayer in international ed-ucation, it maintains a reputation as a country with highstandards of teaching and learning. Higher education isperceivedbyUkrainianstoachieveprofessionaldistinction,economic independence, and freedom. During the firstweek of the 2013 university admission campaign, Ukrai-nian public universities registered more than 600,000applications.AtanApril2014internationaleducationfair,organizedbytheMinistryofEducation,Science,Youthand

I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N

ing requirements, a common occurrence at some privateinstitutions.Theboardalsohasthechallengeofmonitor-ingprivateinstitutionsandtheirsatellitecampusesthatarenotaccreditedbutstartadvertisingtothepublicasiftheyhadaccreditation.

ConclusionGhana’sprivatehighereducationsystemhasbeenimpact-ed by policies as well as other precipitating factors in itscurrentsituation.QualityassuranceinGhanaonboththeinstitutionalandprogramaccreditationfrontsismandatoryfor public and private institutions. Quality assurance hasindeedbroughtatruemeasureofqualitytoaccreditedinsti-tutions.TheNationalAccreditationBoardhasbeenvigilantinmonitoringprivateinstitutions.Nonetheless,itstillhastobecontinuallyalertinordertoprotecttheunsuspectingconsumer.

Ukraine’sExternalIndepen-dentTestingInnovationEduard Klein

Eduard Klein is a PhD candidate at the Research Centre for East Euro-pean Studies, at the University of Bremen, Germany. E-mail: eklein@uni-bremen.de.

As most post-Soviet states, Ukraine introduced a newstudent assessment system in the last decade. Since

2008,allschoolgraduateswhowant toenteruniversitieshaveto taketheExternalIndependentTesting(EIT).ThiswasafundamentalshiftfromtheSovietlegacyofcorruptuniversityadmissionexams,whicharereplacedbyanob-jective testingprocedure.Themainaimsof theEITweretocombatcorruption,increaseequalopportunities,provideequalaccesstohigh-qualitytertiaryeducation,andcreateanationalassessmentsystemtomonitoreducationalquality.

The Introduction of the EIT Intimesoftransitionandeconomiccrisisofthe1990sandearly 2000s, public higher education budgets were radi-callycut;faculty’ssalariesdecreasedbelowthesubsistencelevel; and wage delays were commonplace. Informal pay-mentsanddutiescompensatedtheabsenceofformalfund-ingandbecame institutionalizedatmanyuniversities.Atcertainprestigiousinstitutions,bribesupto$10,000weredemanded foradmission,addingup toanannualadmis-

sioncorruptionvolumeofapproximately$200million.Astheselectionofnewstudentsbecameincreasinglybasedonmoney, insteadofmerit,evenmiddle-class familiescouldnotaffordtosendtheirchildrentohigh-qualityuniversities.

Each university had its own admission procedure.Mostly these were nontransparent oral tests that werepronetocorruption.In2008,theWesternorientatedandreform-mindedViktorYushchenkogovernmentintroducedanindependentassessmentandadmissionsystem,similarto the American Scholastic Aptitude Test. The UkrainianCenterforEducationalQualityAssessmentwasestablishedtodevelopandcontrolthenewtesting.Itintroducedawrit-ten standardized test that puts the students under sameconditions and reduces opportunities for corruption. Incontrast to other postcommunist countries, where analo-gousreformsseemtohavefailed,theEITwassuccessfullyimplemented.Forexample,inRussiaonly16percentofthepopulationbelievethattheUnifiedStateExam(EGE)hasreducedadmissioncorruption.Expertsaswellasthesoci-etyregarditasthemosteffectiveeducationalreform,sinceUkraine’sindependence.Thisisremarkable,sincethepo-liticalcontextafter theOrangeRevolutionwasdominatedbyinstabilityandstandstill;butthereformhasbeencarriedoutcarefullyandwasbackedbyabroadcoalitionof thenPresidentYushchenko,theEducationMinistry,theinterna-tionaldonorcommunity,anddomesticcivilsociety.

Effects on Corruption and Public OpinionTheEITsignificantlydecreasedcorruptionduringadmis-sions.Beforeitsimplementation,uptoeverythirdstudentwasaffectedbyadmissioncorruption;nowadaysonly1per-centofUkrainianstudentsreportaboutcorruptionduringtheadmissiontesting.Thisleadstoanimprovementinso-cialandgeographicalmobilityofthestudents.Becausead-missionbecamebasedonmeritinsteadofmoneyorinfor-mal relations, universities started to register significantlymorestudentsfromlower-incomehouseholdsandremoteareas.AtleadinguniversitiesinKyiv,forexample,theshareofKyiviansbeforethereformwasupto75percent—duetocorruptionandinformalagreements.Aftertheimplemen-tationof theEIT, their sharedecreased to25–30percent,and students from allover the country and social back-groundsgot thechance tostudyat the topuniversitiesofthecapital.

Focus on Ukraine

The EIT significantly decreased corrup-

tion during admissions.

I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N26 I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N 27Focus on UkraineFocus on Ukraine

SportsofUkraine,foreignuniversitiesareadvisedthattheycanaccessover8,000potential studentsovera three-dayperiodinKievalone(edu-abroad.com.ua).Whilelaw,busi-nessmanagement, economics, andmarketinghave tradi-tionally been the most popular fields of study, Ukrainianstudentstodayarelookingtostudyabroadinfinance,infor-mation technologies,hotel/hospitalitymanagement, tour-ism, fashion and interior design, and other fields new totheaverageUkrainianpostsecondaryoffering.IncontrasttotheSovietperiodwhenstudentsprioritizedenteringanyuniversity (preferably a Kyiv one) to earn a diploma, cur-rentUkrainianhigh school graduates choose aparticularuniversitywithacompetitivefieldofstudyandaffordableinternationaloutreachprograms.Universitiesthatcanpro-videpathwaystoaqualityinternationalcredentialencour-ageUkrainianfreshmentopreferschoolswithstronginter-nationalpartnerships.

Foragrowingdemand to intensify students’ interna-tionalopportunities,Ukrainianuniversitiesaremotivatedtoregroupandbalanceavailableresources,tosecuretheirowninternationalniche.Searchingforinternationalizationmarkets,UkrainiansanticipateEuropeanUnionandRus-siandirections.Whilecriticizedforprotractedpartnershipnegotiations, universities respond with their careful ap-proachtointernationalstandardsandqualityassuranceandtheimportanceofprioritizingnationalversusinternationalin reorganization of their institutions into “world class”universities.

When Ukrainians mention “internationalization” ofhigher education, they usually mean “Europeanization.”Facultiesdefine internationalization in the regionalEuro-peantermsandhighlighttheimportancetosustainafutureorientedprocessofbringinguptheirstudentsinthespiritof the “United Europe: the Economy of Knowledge andPan-European Cultural Heritage.” In May 2005, Ukraineaccepted an official European Union invitation to join aBolognadeclarationinordertoparticipatein“theharmo-nizationofaEuropeanhighereducation’sarchitecturevia

compatibility and comparabilityof the regional educationsystems.”Anincreaseintheinterestofonlinecoursesorcoursesconductedatpartner institutions,whichcansup-plementhomeuniversitycurricula—forexample,throughparticipationintheEuropeanUnionTempus-Tacis’sproj-ects and programs, the Erasmus-Mundus Programme onresearch,pedagogy,andprofessionaltraining,theGrundt-vigProgrammeonadulteducation,andtheComeniusSub-ProgrammeontheLifelongLearning.

Current ContextA new version of the Law on Higher Education (Decem-ber 2012) and the National Doctrine for Development ofEducation:Ukraine-XXICentury(April2002)callsforthecreationofmoreinnovativeandeffectiveinternationalaca-demicpartnershipsintheUkraine.Partnershipsthatcreateopportunityfor jointresearchandmobilityofresearchersallow universities to respond to the new context of com-petitiononaglobalscale—inparticular,whenitcomestoemployability of graduates and the attraction of researchpartnersandexternal funding.Ukrainianfacultyandstu-dentsexpresssomeskepticismaboutgovernmentinterven-tionsorproclamationsaroundinternationalization,butanoverwhelmingmajorityofstudentshaveindicatedadesiretogoabroadforstudies,withtheexpectationofincreasedemployability.Currently,morethan25,000studentsfromUkrainestudyabroad(Study.ua).TheymentionMalta,Italy,theUnitedStates,Australia,NewZealand,andCanadaaspreferredfutureacademicdestinations.

Institutionally,Ukrainians concentrate in threedirec-tions:(a)senioradministration-ledstrategicinternational-ization,(b)developmentofinternationalcomponentsofthenational curriculum, and (c) organizational restructuring.Programmatically,theyprioritizejointcurriculumdevelop-mentinitiatives.Yet,Ukrainiansarealsoengagedinfacultyand student exchanges, International Summer Institutes,cocurricular activities (conference presentations, campusevents,andvisitinginternationalfaculty,etc.),foreignlan-

Critical International News at a Glance on Facebook and Twitter

Correction:Inthearticleon“thinkingcapacityinhighereducation”inourWinter,2014issue,itwasstatedthatthejournalHigher Education Policy wasclosedbytheOECD.Thisisnotcor-rect.Higher Education Policyisverymuchalive.Itisspon-

soredbytheInternationalAssociationofUniversitiesandpublished by Palgrave. OECD did close Higher Education Management and Policy.Weapologizeforthiserror.

guagestudies,andinternationalresearch.ThecreationoftheInternational Consortium of Ukrainian Universities, “TheKnowledge Triangle: Education–Research–Innovation,” is amajorstepforwardincross-bordercollaborationtopromoteknowledgeandtechnologiestransfer—inthiscasewithPo-land,primarily.NeweffortsaimedatcollaborationwithGreatBritain,Switzerland,France,Germany,Spain,Sweden,Aus-tria, andotherswill see theongoingdevelopmentof joint/dualdegreescienceandtechnologyprograms.Canadaisalsoon the radarwith its growingexpertise innatural resourceexploration, toextractionandaccompanyingenvironmentalresearch.Thecurrentevolutionofjoint/dualdegreeprojectsdepicts theUkrainianuniversities’most ambitiousaims toharmonizedegreequalificationswiththeWest.

To promote global academic interconnectedness whileavoiding brain drain, most Ukrainian universities need se-rious structural and organizational changes. Several issuesimpedea coordinated, strategic approach to sustainable in-ternationalization and reciprocal mobility. Clumsy or am-biguous ministerial internationalization policy directionsreduce motivation. University administration, with labor-intensiveoperationalregulations,createsagrowingpressureonresources.Thedemandforaccountabilitycompoundedbyweakinternationalprogrammanagementmeansfewwillriskcomprehensivechange.Universitiesarealreadyperformingatmaximuminfrastructural,financial,andhumanresourcepotential—makingitdifficulttoexploreopportunitiestopo-

sitionthemselvesglobally.Collaboratingonmissionsabroadtonetworkinnewcountries,asintherecentdelegationtothe2013 Conference of the Canadian Bureau for InternationalEducationinVancouver,provideshopefuldirectionsbutre-quiresstrongleadershipandforeignfundingassistance.

Internationalization of the Ukrainian academic agendaparallels the journeyofmanyothercountries in their rolesas drivers for general reform of higher education. Withoutamotivatingfactor,nationaleducationalreform(intermsofstreamliningcredittransfer,institutionalinternalrestructur-ingprocesses,etc.) isdifficult to initiateandachieve.Inter-nationalization, encompassingas itdoes thepositioningofan institution within the global context, becomes a driverfor general reform. Without this reform, internationaliza-tion ishinderedby lostmomentum—due toexistingbarri-ersinstrategicplanning,productivedistributionoffinancialand human resources, and identification of operational ac-tivitytargets.Ifdoneconstructively,withthecontinuedsup-port of international partners, such improvements may of-ferUkraineasamodelforinnovationsinhighereducationamongpost-Sovietstates.

For a growing demand to intensify

students’ international opportunities,

Ukrainian universities are motivated to

regroup and balance available resourc-

es, to secure their own international

niche.

Doyouhavetimetoreadmorethan20electronicbulletinsweeklyinordertostayuptodatewithinternationalinitia-tivesandtrends?Wethoughtnot!So,asaservice,theCIHEresearchteamposts itemsfromabroadrangeof interna-tionalmediatoourFacebookandTwitterpage.

Youwillfindnewsitemsfromthe Chronicle of Higher Education, Inside Higher Education, University World News, Times Higher Education, the Guardian Higher Education net-work UK, the Times of India, the Korea Times,justtonameafew.Wealsoincludepertinentitemsfromblogsandotheronlineresources.Wewillalsoannounceinternationalandcomparativereportsandrelevantnewpublications.

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While the recent decision is not to sign

a trade agreement with the European

Union, the country is facing increasing

pressure to choose its future alliances,

and this will have an impact on the di-

rections of internationalization.

I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N28 I N T E R N A T I O N A L H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N 29DepartmentsDepartments

NEW PUBLICATIONS

Farrugia, Christine A., and Rajika Bhan-dari. Open Doors: Report on International

Student Exchange. New York: Institute of International Education, 2013. 112 pp. (pb). ISBN 978-0-87206-367-9. Web site: www.iie.org.

The annual analysis of trends in student mobility to and from the United States, Open Doors, provides compre-hensive data and some analysis concern-ing mobility trends. Detailed information concerning the numbers and origins of students studying in the U.S., as well as the number and destinations of Americans going abroad, is provided.

Freeman, Sydney, Jr., Linda Serra Hage-dorn, Lester F. Goodchild, and Dianne A. Wright, eds. Advancing Higher Education as a Field of Study: In Quest of Doctoral Degree Guidelines. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing, 2014. 340 pp. $45 (hb). ISBN 978-1-62036111-5. Web site: www.Stylus-pub.com.

The focus of this book is on doctoral study in the field of higher education in the United States and issues relating to the de-velopment of the field of higher education research. An analysis of a 2012 survey of doctoral programs in higher education in the United States and Canada is provided. Among the themes discussed are profes-sional practice in the field of student af-fairs, the development of the field of higher education studies, the role of the Council for the Advancement of Standards in High-er Education Programs, and others.

Greeley, Andrew W. The Changing Catholic College. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2013. 226 pp. $29.95 (pb). ISBN 978-1-4128-5286-9. Web site: www.transaction-pub.com.

Originally published in 1967, this classic discussion of Catholic colleges and universities in the United States has been republished with a comprehensive new introduction by Kevin Christiano. The volume discusses the social and historical development of Catholic higher education,

an analysis of several colleges and univer-sities, and considerations of faculty, ad-ministration, and students. The introduc-tion discusses the significant changes that have taken place in the past half century.

Higgins, John. Academic Freedom in a Democratic South Africa: Essays and In-terviews on Higher Education and the Hu-manities. Johannesburg, South Africa: Wits Press, 2013. 272 pp (pb). ISBN 978-1-86814-751-9. Web site: www.witspress.co.za.

A series of essays and interviews, by prominent South African humanities scholar John Higgins, concern themes such as the role of the humanities in higher education, academic freedom, and institutional culture. Interviews with Terry Eagleton, Edward Said, and Jakes Gerwel are included.

Iram, Yaacov, Yehuda Friedlander, and Shimon Ohayon, eds. The Role of a Re-ligious University. Ramat Gan, Israel: Bar-Ilan University Press, 2013. 152 pp (hb). ISBN 978-965-226-439-8.

This bilingual volume, in English and Hebrew, features essays on the role of reli-gious universities. Chapters focus on Bar-Ilan University in Israel as a religious uni-versity, religious universities worldwide, Christian universities in the United States, a Protestant perspective from Germany, and others.

Kehm, Barbara, and Christine Musselin, eds. The Development of Higher Education Research in Europe: 25 Years of CHER. Rot-terdam, Netherlands: Sense, 2013. 134 pp. (pb). ISBN 978-94-6209-399-7. Web site: www.sensepublishers.com.

The Consortium of Higher Education Researchers (CHER), founded 25 years ago, is one of the key groups of higher education researchers in the world, with a special emphasis on Europe. This vol-ume focuses on CHER’s development, and includes discussions of the changing topics at annual conferences, European programs and training courses for higher education management, and others.

Kezar, Adrianna. How Colleges Change: Understanding, Leading, and Enacting Change. New York: Routledge, 2014. 255 pp. (pb). ISBN 978-0-415-53206-8. Web site: www.routledge.com.

Basing her guidelines for change in higher education, Kezar examines the rel-evant literature concerning designing and implementing change in American colleg-es and universities, and adds examples of how change works. Stemming from Robert Birnbaum’s classic How Colleges Work, this book focuses on implementing change in the 21st-century American context. Theo-ries about change are also discussed.

King, Roger, Simon Marginson, and Ra-jani Naidoo, eds. The Globalization of Higher Education. Cheltenham, UK: Ed-ward Elgar, 2013. 762 pp. $415 (hb). ISBN 978-1-78100-169-1. Web site: www.e-elgar.com.

This comprehensive, and quite ex-pensive, compendium of 37 key essays on all aspects of globalization provides a range of perspectives. All of the chapters are reprinted from previously published sources. Among the broad themes are the role of rankings, international student and faculty flows, trends in management and administration, national and global competition, marketization, and others. A range of points of view are reflected in the chapters.

Kline, Kimberly, ed. Reflection in Action: A Guidebook for Student Affairs Professionals and Teaching Faculty. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing, 2014. 185 pp. $29.95 (pb). ISBN 978-1-57922-829-3. Web site: www.Styluspub.com.

Writing from an American perspec-tive, the authors in this volume focus on dealing with controversial issues in the context of student affairs in higher educa-tion. Using action research, the authors discuss such topic as the evolution of a moral and caring professional, relevant lit-erature in student affairs, race and culture issues, teaching professional development in higher education, and others.

Knight, Jane, ed. International Education Hubs: Student, Talent, Knowledge-Inno-vation Models. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2014. 251 pp. $129 (hb). ISBN 978-94-007-7024-9. Web site: www.spring-er.com.

Education hubs, the efforts by some countries to bring together foreign educa-tion resources to build a center to attract students, build higher education and, for other reasons, are analyzed in this volume. Perhaps the first study on this topic, Jane Knight provides a perspective on the defi-nition and role of hubs. Case studies from the Persian Gulf, Hong Kong, Singapore, Botswana, South Korea, and several other countries are presented as well.

Kuder, Matthias, Nina Lemmens, and Daniel Obst, eds. Global Perspectives on

International Joint and Double Degree Pro-

grams. New York: Institute of International Education, 2013. 247 pp. $39.95 (pb). ISBN 978-0-87206-363-1. Web site: www.iie.org.

Joint and double degrees are increas-ingly widespread globally. This volume provides several chapters offering a broad perspective and definitions. Most of the volume focuses on case studies of these programs in numerous countries and uni-versities. Among them are considerations of joint and double degree programs in Latin America, collaboration in degree programs in China, joint degrees in the European Union’s mobility strategy, and discussions of programs in Germany, South Africa, Brazil, and other countries. The volume concludes with a discussion of quality-assurance issues.

Lane, Jason E., and D. Bruce Johnstone, eds. Higher Education Systems 3.0: Har-nessing Systemness, Delivering Perfor-mance. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2013. 323 pp. $24.95 (pb). ISBN 978-1-4384-4978-4. Web site: www.sunypress.edu.

The focus of this volume is on how public higher education systems in the United States can be made more effective. While the data are American, the analy-sis will be useful internationally as many

countries seek to develop effective and dif-ferentiated academic systems. Among the themes discussed in the book are the his-torical development of higher education systems in the United States, autonomy and authority in state higher education systems, the role of systems in higher education finance, board governance and systems, the role of systems in academic governance, and others.

Lombardi, John V. How Universities Work. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013. 220 pp. (pb). ISBN 978-1-4214-1122.4. Web site: www.press.jhu.edu.

Lombardi, one of America’s most successful university presidents, provides a short book focusing on the American re-search university. Based on his experience as president of several top institutions as well as observation and research, Lombar-di focuses on the key themes at the heart of the research university—the faculty, governance, management, finances and budgets, teaching, and others. Although this volume relates to the American experi-ence, it is broadly relevant.

Medina, Leandro Rodriguez. Centers and Peripheries in Knowledge Production. New York: Routledge, 2014. 238 pp. (hb). ISBN 978-0-415-84079-8. Web site: www.rout-ledge.com.

Using the perspective of the French sociologist Bourdieu, this study focuses on the training and subsequent careers of Argentine political scientists from the per-spective of how they develop interaction with the international community of social science. Publication patterns, challenges to international involvement, and the per-spectives of Argentine political scientists are analyzed.

Morris, Michael H., Donald F. Kuratko, and Jeffrey R. Cornwall. Entrepreneurship

Programs and the Modern University. Chel-tenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2013. 289 pp. $125 (hb). ISBN 978-1-78254-462-3. Web site: www.e-elgar.com.

This book provides a practical guide

to the emerging field of entrepreneurship education in the context of American high-er education. Usually located in schools of management, these programs are rapidly expanding. Among the themes discussed are curriculum, outreach and co-curricular programs, and rationales for these pro-grams.

Muborakshoeva, Marodsilton. Islam and Higher Education: Concepts, Challenges, and Opportunities. Abingdon, UK: Rout-ledge, 2013. 179 pp. (hb). ISBN 978-0-415-68750-8. Web site: www.routledge.com.

Focusing largely on the Pakistani context, this volume provides a general discussion of how Islamic ideas have inter-sected with Western higher education and colonialism, as well as Islamic approaches to higher education. Case studies of sev-eral higher education institutions in Paki-stan are profiles in the context of how they relate to Islamic thought.

O’Shea, Joseph. Gap Year: How Delaying

College Changes People in Ways the World

Needs. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer-sity Press, 2014. 183 pp. $29.95 (pb). ISBN 978-1-4214-1036-4. Web site: www.press.jhu.edu.

This book argues that young people will benefit from a “gap year”—taking a year for volunteer service or other activities between secondary school and university study. Using data from British research, the benefits of a gap year are illustrated. Additional support for the idea is dis-cussed through literature on psychology and young adult development.

Rothblatt, Sheldon, ed. Clark Kerr’s World of Higher Education Reaches the 21st Centu-ry: Chapters in a Special History. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2012. 249 pp (hb). ISBN 978-94-007-4258-1. Web site: www.Springer.com.

A set of essays honor the late Clark Kerr, the legendary president of the Uni-versity of California and key thinker behind the California Master Plan. Colleagues who worked with Kerr reflect on his contribu-tions, including analyzing the California

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The Forefront of International Higher Education: A Festschrift in Honor of Philip G. Altbach, edited by Alma Maldonado-MaldonadoandRobertaMaleeBassett,hasbeenpublishedby Springer Publishers—Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer,2014. 333 pp. $129 (hb). Web site: www.springer.com. Thisvolume,whichwaspreparedtocoincidewithaconferencetohonorPhilipG.AltbachonApril5,2013atBostonCollege,features chapters focusing on themes relating to researchundertakenbyPhilipG.Altbach.Theauthorsareeitherstu-dentswhoworkedwithProfessorAltbachorcolleagues in-volved with the Center for International Higher Educationat Boston College. Colleagues include Ulrich Teichler, JaneKnight,MartinJ.Finkelstein,HansdeWit,SimonSchwartz-man,JorgeBalán,D.BruceJohnstone,JudithS.Eaton,Akiyo-shiYonezawa,N.Jayaram,HeatherEggins,FransvanVught,NianCaiLiu, JamilSalmi, andothers.Formerandcurrent

students include Patti McGill Peterson, David A. Stanfield,James J.F. Forest, Robin Matross Helms, Sheila Slaughter,LizReisberg,LauraE.Rumbley,andthetwocoeditorsofthebook:AlmaMaldonado-MaldonadoandRobertaMaleeBas-sett.

Chaptersincludetopicssuchashighereducationinnova-tion in India, center-periphery theory, world-class universi-ties,tuitionandcostsharing,qualityassurance,theacademicprofessionandacademicmobility,andvariousaspectsofin-ternationalization.

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Master Plan, Kerr’s leadership of the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, and other themes. Several European authors reflect on the influence of the California Master Plan on global higher education.

Synott, Marcia Graham. Student Diversity at the Big Three: Changes at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton since the 1920s. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2013. 370 pp. $49.95 (hb). ISBN 978-1-4128-1461-4. Web site: www.transac-tionpub.com.

American universities have in the past half-century tried to build more diverse stu-dent and faculty populations and to serve a broader selection of the population. These pressures are present even at the most pres-tigious universities, such as those analyzed in this volume. Among the themes discussed are how Jewish students and faculty have moved from the margins to the mainstream, the development of coeducation, analyses of gay students, and students with disabilities.

Trachtenberg, Stephen Joel, Gerald B. Kauvar, and E. Grady Bogue. Presidencies Derailed: Why University Leaders Fail and How to Pre-vent it? Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013. 184 pp. $34.95 (hb). ISBN 978-1-4214-1024-1. Web site: www.press.jhu.edu.

The focus on this book is on “what can go wrong” for American college and universi-ty presidents—and how to create an environ-ment where success is likely. Case studies are

provided, and analysis of the nature of fail-ure discussed. While focusing on the United States, this book has relevance to academic leaders everywhere.

Williams, Damon A. Strategic Diversity Lead-ership: Activating Change and Transforma-tion in Higher Education. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishers, 2013. 481 pp. $49.95 (hb). ISBN 978-1-57922-819.4. Web site: www.Styluspub.com.

Diversity, ensuring that American higher education institutions reflect the ethnic, ra-cial, and gender composition of society in general, is a significant concern. Recently, diversity has also come to include different social class and economic backgrounds, as well. This book, written by a chief diversity officer at a prominent American university, discusses the various elements of creating a diverse academic institution and the chal-lenges involved.

Wyner, Joshua S. What Excellent Community Colleges Do: Preparing All Students for Success. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. 2014. 184 pp. (pb). ISBN 978-1-61250-649-4. Web site: www.harvardeducationpress.org.

This book provides a brief guide to suc-cessful community colleges in the United States, drawing from the experiences of many colleges. Among the themes examined are completion and transfer, equity and develop-mental education, learning outcomes, labor

markets, and the role of the community col-lege president.

Zgaga, Pavel, Ulrich Teichler, and John Bren-nan, eds. The Globalization Challenges for European Higher Education: Convergence and Diversity, Centers and Peripheries. Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Peter Lang, 2013. 387 pp. (hb). ISBN 978-3-631-63908-5. Web site: www.peterlang.de.

A wide ranging discussion of globaliza-tion’s impact in Europe, this volume includes discussions of the effects of Europeanization on institutional diversification, international mobility in Europe, European influences on Austrian higher education, access issues in Poland, and a series of analyses of southeast Europe.

Zgaga, Pavel, Manja Klemencic, Janja Kom-ljenovic, Klemen Miklavic, Igor Pepac, and Vedran Jakacic. Higher in the Western Balkans: Reforms, Developments, Trends. Ljubljana, Slovenia: Center for Educational Policy Stud-ies, University of Ljubljana, 2013. 99 pp. (pb). ISBN 978-961-253-107-2.

Essays concerning higher education in the Western Balkans provide analysis of such themes as the implementation of the Bolo-gna agenda, governance and the fragmenta-tion of universities, equity issues, the role of students in governance, private higher educa-tion, internationalization, and others.

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CIHE,inpartnershipwithGlobalOpportunitiesGroup(GOGroup),andwithfundingfromtheBritishCouncilandtheGermanAcademicExchangeService,hascompletedworkona report—“The rationale for sponsoring students to under-takeinternationalstudy:Anassessmentofnationalstudentmobility scholarship programs.” Laura E. Rumbley (associ-ate director), David Engberg (executive director, GO GroupandPhDgraduatefromCIHE),andGreggGlover(directorofprogramdevelopment,GOGroup)werethekeyresearch-ers.ThereportwillbereleasedattheBritishCouncil’sGoingGlobalconferenceinMiami,Florida,inApril.CIHEdirectorPhilipG.AltbachwillmakeapresentationatGoingGlobaloftheprojectresults.

TheCenter’spartnershipwiththeLaboratoryofInstitu-tional Analysis at the National Research University-HigherSchoolofEconomicsinMoscowcontinuestoflourish.Ourcollaborative volume, The Future of the Academic Profession: Young Faculty in International Perspective,hasbeensubmittedtotheStateUniversityofNewYorkPress.Ournewestjointresearchproject,onfacultyinbreeding,isinitsfinalstageofcompletion.TheresearchgroupmetinBostontodiscussthechapters,whicharenowbeingrevisedforpublication.Pro-fessor Maria Yudkevich, vice rector for research at HSE, isourkeypartner.

Thefourth installmentof International Briefs for Higher Education Leaders,CIHE’sjointpublicationwiththeAmeri-can Council on Education’s Center for InternationalizationandGlobalEngagement(CIGE),willbepublishedinApril.Thiseditionistitled“Argentina,Brazil,Chile:Engagingwith

theSouthernCone,”andwillbefreelyavailablefordownloadfromboththeCIHEandCIGEWebsites.TheCenterhasalsocompletedworkonA Worldwide Inventory: Higher Education Research Centers and Academic Programs (3rd edition).Publica-tiondetailswillbeforthcoming.

InlateMarch,theCenterwillbehostingadelegationoffacultyandadministratorsfromSaudiArabia’sPrincessNoraUniversity, the largestwomen’suniversity in theworld, fora professional development seminar. In February, we werepleased to host as a visiting scholar Dr. Cecilia Adrogué, apostdoctoralresearcherattheNationalCouncilofScientificandTechnicalResearch(CONICET),SanAndrésUniversity(Argentina).OurvisitingscholarrostercurrentlyincludesDr.KaraA.GodwinandDr.IvánF.Pacheco.

Laura E. Rumbley has become coeditor of the Journal of Studies in International Education and isalsochairof thepublicationscommitteeoftheEuropeanAssociationforIn-ternational Education. She recently chaired an Associationof International Education Administrators annual confer-encesessiononnationalpoliciesfor internationalizationinEurope and the United States; Philip G. Altbach deliveredakeynoteaddressat thesameconference.HealsorecentlyspokeattheWinterEnrichmentProgramattheKingAbdul-lahUniversityofScienceandTechnologyinSaudiArabia.Hewill participate in a rector’s conference forSaudi academicleaders andwillparticipate in ameetingof theCommitteeontheCompetitivenessofRussianUniversities,appointedbytheministerofeducation,inMoscow.

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The Center For International Higher Education (CIHE)

The Boston College Center for International Higher Education brings an international consciousness to the analysis of higher education. We believe that an international perspective will contribute to enlight-ened policy and practice. To serve this goal, the Center publishes the International Higher Educa-tion quarterly newsletter, a book series, and other publications; sponsors conferences; and welcomes visiting scholars. We have a special concern for academic institutions in the Jesuit tradition world-wide and, more broadly, with Catholic universities.

The Center promotes dialogue and cooperation among academic institutions throughout the world. We believe that the future depends on ef-fective collaboration and the creation of an in-ternational community focused on the improve-ment of higher education in the public interest.

CIHE Web Site

The different sections of the Center Web site support the work of scholars and professionals in interna-tional higher education, with links to key resources in the field. All issues of International Higher Education are available online, with a searchable archive. In ad-dition, the International Higher Education Clearing-house (IHEC) is a source of articles, reports, trends, databases, online newsletters, announcements of

upcoming international conferences, links to profes-sional associations, and resources on developments in the Bologna Process and the GATS. The Higher Education Corruption Monitor provides information from sources around the world, including a selection of news articles, a bibliography, and links to other agencies. The International Network for Higher Edu-cation in Africa (INHEA), is an information clearing-house on research, development, and advocacy ac-tivities related to postsecondary education in Africa.

The Program in Higher Education at the Lynch School of Education, Boston College

The Center is closely related to the graduate program in higher education at Boston College. The program offers master’s and doctoral degrees that feature a social science–based approach to the study of higher education. The Administrative Fellows initiative pro-vides financial assistance as well as work experience in a variety of administrative settings. Specializa-tions are offered in higher education administration, student affairs and development, and international education. For additional information, please con-tact Dr. Karen Arnold (arnoldk@bc.edu) or visit our Web site: http://www.bc.edu/schools/lsoe/.

Opinions expressed here do not necessarily reflect the views of the Center for International Higher Education.